PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

Lecture Notes

There are various approaches in explaining the Self from a Psychological

perspective and we will be looking into three (3) major perspectives namely:
psychodynamic, behavioral, and humanistic.

Each approach has its strengths and weaknesses, and brings something different
to our understanding of ourselves.

A. Psychodynamic Perspective

Who hasn’t heard of Sigmund Freud? So many expressions of our daily life come from
Freud’s theories of psychoanalysis – subconscious, denial, repression and anal
personality to name only a few.

Freud believes that events in our childhood can have a significant impact on our
behavior as adults. He also believed that people have little free will to make choices in
life. Instead, our behavior is determined by the unconscious mind and childhood
experiences.

Freud’s psychoanalysis is both a theory and therapy. It is the original psychodynamic

theory and inspired psychologists such as Jung and Erikson to develop their own
psychodynamic theories. Freud’s work is vast, and he has contributed greatly to
psychology as a discipline.

Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, explained the human mind as like an iceberg,
with only a small amount of it being visible, that is our observable behavior, but it is
the unconscious, submerged mind that has the most, underlying influence on our
behavior. Freud used three main methods of accessing the unconscious mind : free
association, dream analysis and slips of the tongue.

He believed that the unconscious mind consisted of three components: the “ id” the
“ego” and the “superego.” The “id” contains two main instincts: “Eros”, which is the
life instinct, which involves self-preservation and sex which is fuelled by the “libido”
energy force. “Thanatos” is the death instinct, whose energies, because they are less
powerful than those of “Eros” are channeled away from ourselves and into aggression
towards others.
 The “id” and the “superego” are constantly in conflict with each other, and the
“ego” tries to resolve the discord. If this conflict is not resolved, we tend to use defense
mechanisms to reduce our anxiety.

Defense Mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to

protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings. According
to Freudian theory, defense mechanisms involve a distortion of reality in some way so
that we are better able to cope with a situation.

Here are a few common defense mechanisms that we employ. Think about situations
where you might have used one or more of these.

1. Denial is a refusal to accept reality, thus blocking external events from

awareness. If a situation is just too much to handle, the person may respond by
refusing to perceive it or by denying that it exists. Example, a student may refuse
to recognize their obvious lack of preparedness for an exam.

2. Repression is an unconscious defense mechanism employed by the ego to keep

disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming conscious. Example, in the
oedipus complex, aggressive thoughts about the same sex parents are repressed
and pushed down into the unconscious.
3. Projection is a psychological defense mechanism in which an individual
attributes unwanted thoughts, feelings and motives onto another person.
Example, you might hate someone, but your superego tells you that such hatred
is unacceptable. You can ‘solve’ the problem by believing that they hate you.

4. Displacement is the redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a

powerless substitute target. The target can be a person or an object that can
serve as a symbolic substitute. Example, someone who is frustrated by his or her
superiors may go home and kick the dog or beat up a family member.

5. Regression is a defense mechanism whereby the ego reverts to an earlier stage

of development usually in response to stressful situations. Example, when we are
troubled or frightened, our behaviors often become more childish or primitive.
A child may begin to suck their thumb again or wet the bed when they need to
spend some time in the hospital.

6. Sublimation is similar to displacement, but takes place when we manage to

displace our unacceptable emotions into behaviors which are constructive and
socially acceptable, rather than destructive activities. Example, many great
artists and musicians have had unhappy lives and have used the medium of art
of music to express themselves.

7. Rationalization is a defense mechanism involving a cognitive distortion of “the

facts” to make an event or an impulse less threatening. We do it often enough
on a fairly conscious level when we provide ourselves with excuses. Example,
when a person finds a situation difficult to accept, they will make up a logical
reason why it has happened. For example, a person may explain a natural
disaster as “God’s will”. Sourgraping and sweet lemon are also examples of
rationalization.

8. Reaction Formation is a psychological defense mechanism in which a person

goes beyond denial and behaves in the opposite way to which he or she thinks or
feels. Example, men who are prejudiced against homosexuals are making a
defense against their own homosexual feelings by adopting a harsh anti-
homosexual attitude which helps convince them of their heterosexuality.

9. Introjection, sometimes called identification, involves taking into your own

personality characteristics of someone else, because doing so solves some
emotional difficulty. Example, a child who is left alone frequently, may in some
way try to become “mom” in order to lessen his or her fears. You can sometimes
catch them telling their dolls or animals not to be afraid.
 An aspect of psychoanalysis is Freud’s theory of psychosexual development. It shows
how early experiences affect adult personality. Stimulation of different areas of the
body is important as the child progresses through the important developmental stages.
Too much or too little can have bad consequences later.

The most important stage is the phallic stage where the focus of the libido is on the
genitals. During this stage little boys experience the “ Oedipus complex “, and little
girls experience the “ Electra complex.” These complexes result in children identifying
with their same-sex parent, which enables them to learn sex-appropriate behavior and
a moral code of conduct.

B. Behaviorist Perspective

If your layperson’s idea of psychology has always been about people in laboratories
wearing white coats and watching hapless rats try to negotiate mazes in order to get to
their dinner, then you are probably thinking about behavioral psychology.

Behaviorism is different from most other approaches because they view people (and
animals) as controlled by their environment and specifically that we are the result of
what we have learned from our environment. The behaviorist perspective is concerned
with how environmental factors (called stimuli) affect observable behavior (called the
response).

The behaviorist perspective proposes two main processes whereby people learn from
their environment: namely classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical
conditioning involves learning by association, and operant conditioning involves
learning from the consequences of behavior.
1. Classical conditioning (CC) was studied by the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov.
Though looking into natural reflexes and neutral stimuli he managed to condition
dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell through repeated associated with the sound
of the bell and food.

The principles of CC have been applied in many therapies. These

include systematic desensitization for phobias (step-by-step exposed to a feared
stimulus at once) and aversion therapy.

2. Operant Conditioning was proposed by B.F. Skinner. It is also called instrumental

conditioning, a learning process where behaviors are modified through the
association of stimuli with reinforcement or punishment. Skinner felt that some
behavior could be explained by the person’s motive. Therefore, behavior occurs
for a reason, and the three main behavior shaping techniques are positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment.
 Example:

Behaviorism also believes in scientific methodology (e.g., controlled experiments),

and that only observable behavior should be studied because this can be objectively
measured. Behaviorism rejects the idea that people have free will, and believes that
the environment determines all behavior. Behaviorism is the scientific study of
observable behavior working on the basis that behavior can be reduced to learned S-R
(Stimulus-Response) units.

C. Humanistic Perspective

Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of

the whole person (know as holism). Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior,
not only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the
behaving.

Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual’s behavior is connected to his

inner feelings and self-image . The humanistic perspective centers on the view that
each person is unique and individual, and has the free will to change at any time in his
or her life.

The humanistic perspective suggests that we are each responsible for our own
happiness and well-being as humans. We have the innate (i.e., inborn) capacity for self-
actualization, which is our unique desire to achieve our highest potential as people.
 Because of this focus on the person and his or her personal experiences and
subjective perception of the world the humanists regarded scientific methods as
inappropriate for studying behavior.

Two of the most influential and enduring theories in humanistic psychology that
emerged in the 1950s and 1960s are those of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Car Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory

Rogers (1959) believed that for a person to “grow”, they need an environment that
provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen
with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).

Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goals, wishes, and desires in
life. When, or rather if they did so, self-actualization took place. This was one of Carl
Rogers most important contributions to psychology, and for a person to reach their
potential a number of factors must be satisfied.

Central to Rogers” personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept. This is

defined as “the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.”

The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person. The self is our
inner personality, and can be likened to the soul, or Freud’s psyche. The self is
influenced by the experiences a person has in their life, and out interpretations of those
experiences. Two primary sources that influence our self-concept are childhood
experiences and evaluation by others.

According to Rogers, we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are
consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our
ideal-self. The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more
consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth.

A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their

experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image.

The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to
ourselves. The self-concept includes three components:

1. Self-worth (or self-esteem) comprises what we think about ourselves. Rogers

believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed
from the interaction of the child with the mother and father.
2. Self-image, how we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological
health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image on inner personality.
 At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person,
beautiful or ugly. Self-image affects how a person thinks, feels and behaves in the
world.

3. Ideal-self - This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals
and ambitions in life, and is dynamic – i.e., forever changing.

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-

tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
Maslow describes these needs as being arranged in a hierarchy of prepotency.

In other words, the first level of needs are the most important and will monopolize
consciousness until they are addressed. Once one level of needs is taken care of, the
mind moves on to the next level, and so on, until self-actualization is reached.

Levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy

1. At the bottom of the hierarchy are physiological needs, which are considered
universal. Among the physiological needs are air, water, food, sleep, health,
clothes, and shelter. These needs positioned at the bottom of the pyramid
signifies they are fundamental to human wellbeing and will always take priority
over other needs.
2. Next in the hierarchy are safety needs. If a person does not feel safe in their
environment, they are unlikely to guide attention toward trying to meet higher-
order needs. In particular, safety needs include personal and emotional security
(e.g., safety from abuse), financial security, and wellbeing.
3. Third in the hierarchy is the need for love and belonging through family
connections, friendship, and intimacy. Humans are wired for connection,
meaning that we seek acceptance and support from others, either one-on-one or
in groups, such as clubs, professional organizations, or online communities.
4. The fourth level of the hierarchy is esteem needs. According to Maslow, there
are two subtypes of esteem. The first is esteem reflected in others’ perceptions
of us. That is, esteem in the form of prestige, status, recognition, attention,
appreciation, or admiration. The second form of esteem is rooted in a desire for
confidence, strength, independence, and the ability to achieve. Further, Maslow
notes that when our esteem needs are thwarted, feelings of inferiority,
weakness, or helplessness are likely to arise.
5. At the top of Maslow’s hierarchy is self-actualization. According to Maslow,
humans will only seek the satisfaction of this need following the satisfaction of
all the lower-order needs.