sensors
Article
A Wireless Multi-Layered EMG/MMG/NIRS Sensor for Muscular
Activity Evaluation
Akira Kimoto * , Hiromu Fujiyama and Masanao Machida
Citation: Kimoto, A.; Fujiyama,
H.; Machida, M. A Wireless
Multi-Layered EMG/MMG/NIRS
Sensor for Muscular Activity
Evaluation. Sensors 2023, 23, 1539.
https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031539
Academic Editor: Christian
Baumgartner
Received: 26 December 2022
Revised: 27 January 2023
Accepted: 28 January 2023
Published: 31 January 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sensors 2023, 23, 1539. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031539
Faculty of Science and Engineering, Saga University, 1 Honjo, Saga 840-8502, Japan
* Correspondence: kimotoa@cc.saga-u.ac.jp; Tel.: +81-952-28-8637
Abstract: A wireless multi-layered sensor that allows electromyography (EMG), mechanomyography
(MMG) and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) measurements to be carried out simultaneously is
presented. The multi-layered sensor comprises a thin silver electrode, transparent piezo-film and
photosensor. EMG and MMG measurements are performed using the electrode and piezo-film,
respectively. NIRS measurements are performed using the photosensor. Muscular activity is then
analyzed in detail using the three types of data obtained. In experiments, the EMG, MMG and NIRS
signals were measured for isometric ramp contraction at the forearm and cycling exercise of the lateral
vastus muscle with stepped increments of the load using the layered sensor. The results showed that
it was possible to perform simultaneous EMG, MMG and NIRS measurements at a local position
using the proposed sensor. It is suggested that the proposed sensor has the potential to evaluate
muscular activity during exercise, although the detection of the anaerobic threshold has not been
clearly addressed.
Keywords: electromyography; mechanomyography; near-infrared spectroscopy; layered sensor; wireless
1. Introduction
There is a need to develop a system for monitoring muscular activity and estimating
muscular fatigue in the fields of sports science and physical rehabilitation. Many researchers
have reported work in this field, and electromyography (EMG) is adopted as the primary
method of evaluating muscular activity involving muscular fatigue [1–4].
EMG measures the electrical voltage induced by muscular contractions using dish
electrodes that are pasted onto the surface of the skin. Additionally, mechanomyography
(MMG) [5–10] and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) [11–15] techniques have been devel-
oped for evaluating muscular activity. MMG measures the mechanical vibrations induced
by muscle contraction using accelerometers, microphones, and similar equipment. NIRS
measures the variations in oxygen consumption induced by muscular contractions using a
light-emitting diode (LED) and photodiode (PD).
Multi-modal evaluation techniques based on two types of sensing methods, including
EMG and MMG [16–19] and EMG and NIRS [20–22], have been developed to provide a
more detailed evaluation of muscular activity as the information acquired using each of
the sensing methods is based on different phenomena induced by muscular activity. In
adopting these multi-mode evaluation approaches, it is necessary to ignore the fact that
the sensors disturb muscular activity as several sensors are generally used. The multi-
modal compact sensor based on three types of sensing methods, such as EMG, MMG and
NIRS [23], has been researched. Moreover, wireless, compact or portable multi-modal
sensors, such as those for EMG/MMG [24,25], EMG/NIRS [26,27], and EMG, MMG and
electrical impedance myography [28], have been developed for the evaluation of muscular
activity analysis.
The purpose of our research is the development of a portable wireless sensor that
allows the evaluation of muscular activity and involves the prediction of muscular fatigue,
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
 Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 11

The purpose of our research is the development of a portable wireless sensor that
Sensors 2023, 23, 1539 2 of 11
allows the evaluation of muscular activity and involves the prediction of muscular fatigue,
i.e., the detection of the anaerobic threshold (AT). A new multi-layered sensor that allows
the measurement of EMG, MMG and NIRS signals simultaneously at the same muscular
i.e., the
motordetection of been
unit has the anaerobic
proposedthreshold
[29]. The(AT).
use ofA the
newproposed
multi-layered sensor
sensors withthat allows
an LED or PD
the measurement of EMG, MMG and NIRS signals simultaneously at the same muscular
reduces the restriction of muscle activity because three types of information are obtained
motor byunit
onlyhas beenofproposed
a pair [29]. The use of
sensors. Additionally, the are
there proposed sensors
the merits that with an LED or PD
the arrangement of the
reduces the restriction of muscle activity because three types of information
sensor distance in EMG and NIRS is relatively free and that convenient multipointare obtained
sensing
by only a pair of sensors. Additionally, there are the merits that the arrangement of the
is allowed by the combination of one proposed sensor with an LED and multiple proposed
sensor distance in EMG and NIRS is relatively free and that convenient multipoint sensing
sensors with a PD. The EMG, MMG and NIRS signals for isometric ramp contraction at
is allowed by the combination of one proposed sensor with an LED and multiple proposed
the forearm have been measured using the proposed sensor, and the usefulness of the
sensors with a PD. The EMG, MMG and NIRS signals for isometric ramp contraction at the
proposed sensor has been evaluated [30]. However, the measurement of muscular activity
forearm have been measured using the proposed sensor, and the usefulness of the proposed
was limited because of the wired sensor. In the present work, a wireless multi-layered
sensor has been evaluated [30]. However, the measurement of muscular activity was
sensor is developed, and an experiment involving isometric ramp contraction at the fore-
limited because of the wired sensor. In the present work, a wireless multi-layered sensor
arm is conducted to evaluate whether the sensor can make simultaneous EMG, MMG and
is developed, and an experiment involving isometric ramp contraction at the forearm is
NIRS measurements. An experiment involving the cycling exercise of the lateral vastus
conducted to evaluate whether the sensor can make simultaneous EMG, MMG and NIRS
muscle is conducted to evaluate whether it is possible to measure the local muscular ac-
measurements. An experiment involving the cycling exercise of the lateral vastus muscle is
tivity using the sensor. Additionally, an extremal value estimated by the sensor is com-
conducted to evaluate whether it is possible to measure the local muscular activity using
pared with
the sensor. the AT obtained
Additionally, by a commercial
an extremal respiration
value estimated gassensor
by the sensoristocompared
investigatewith
the pos-
sibility of predicting muscular fatigue using the sensor.
the AT obtained by a commercial respiration gas sensor to investigate the possibility of
predicting muscular fatigue using the sensor.
2. Methods
2. Methods
2.1. Sensing System
2.1. Sensing System
Figure 1 shows schematic diagrams and photographs of the multi-layered sensor. In
Figure
the 1 shows
sensor, schematic diagrams
a polyvinylidene fluorideand photographs
(PVDF) film with of the multi-layered
transparent electrodes,sensor. In
a transpar-
the sensor, a polyvinylidene
ent polyethylene fluoride
naphthalate (PVDF)
(PEN) filmfilm with
acting astransparent
the insulator,electrodes,
and a thina transparent
silver film hav-
polyethylene
ing a holenaphthalate (PEN)of
with a diameter film
5 mmacting
areas the insulator,
sequentially and aon
pasted thin
thesilver
surfacefilmofhaving
a base aplate
holethat
withalso
a diameter of 5 mm are sequentially pasted on the surface
has a hole with a diameter of 5 mm. Three LEDs (SMT770/805/870-40B of a base plate that59-1,
also Epitex
has a hole with a diameter of 5 mm. Three LEDs (SMT770/805/870-40B
Inc., Japan) or a PD (HP601, Kodenshi Corp., Kyoto, Japan) are mounted on the 59-1, Epitex
Inc., hole
Japan)in or
thea base
PD (HP601, Kodenshi
plate facing Corp.,Surface
the films. Kyoto, mount
Japan) are mounted
package typesonofthe
LEDholeand
in the
PD are
baseselected
plate facing the miniaturization
for the films. Surface mount of thepackage
sensor. A types of LED and PD
current–voltage areconverter
(I–V) selected forcircuit
the miniaturization
used for MMG is ofarranged
the sensor.
onA current–voltage
the bottom side of (I–V) converter
the base circuit2used
plate. Figure shows foraMMG
schematic
is arranged
diagramonofthe thebottom
sensingsideby aofpair
the base plate. with
of sensors Figurean2LED
shows or aPD.
schematic
The EMG diagram of
is conducted
the sensing
using a pair of silver films and a reference electrode. The MMG is conducted using of
by a pair of sensors with an LED or PD. The EMG is conducted using a pair PVDF
silver films and a reference electrode. The MMG is conducted using PVDF film.
film.

(a) (b)
Figure 1. Multi-layered sensor: (a) schematic diagrams of the sensor and (b) photographs of sensors.
Figure 1. Multi-layered sensor: (a) schematic diagrams of the sensor and (b) photographs of sensors.
Sensors 2023,
Sensors 2023, 23, 1539
x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 3of 11
Sensors 2023,23,
23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 11
11

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the measurement system

system for EMG,
EMG, MMG and and NIRS and
and changes in
Figure2.2. Schematic
Figure Schematic diagram
diagramof
ofthe
themeasurement
measurement systemfor for EMG,MMGMMG andNIRSNIRS andchanges
changes
in concentrations of oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) and deoxyhemoglobin (Hb) are obtained through
in concentrations
concentrations of oxyhemoglobin
of oxyhemoglobin (HbO
(HbO 2 ) )
and
2 and deoxyhemoglobin
deoxyhemoglobin (Hb)
(Hb) are
are obtained
obtained through
through NIRS
NIRS using LED and PD, respectively. EMG, MMG and NIRS are thus measured simultaneously
NIRS using LED and PD, respectively. EMG, MMG and NIRS are thus measured simultaneously
using LED and PD, respectively. EMG, MMG and NIRS are thus measured simultaneously by a pair
by a pair of sensors.
bysensors.
of a pair of sensors.

2.2.
2.2.Signal
2.2. SignalProcessing
Signal ProcessingMethod
Processing Method
Method
Figure
Figure 3 shows
Figure33shows a photograph
photographofof
showsaaphotograph the
ofthe wireless
thewireless
wireless multi-layered
multi-layered
multi-layered sensor
sensor
sensor (with
(with dimensions
dimensions
(with dimensions of
of
100100
mmmm
of 100 mm ×
× 100 100mm
× 100 mm
mm ×
× 55 55
× 55mm)mm)
mm) and
and a schematic
a schematic
and a schematic diagram
diagram
diagram of
of thethe signal
signal
of the signal processing
processing
processing circuit.
circuit. A
circuit.
A portable
portable sensor
sensor thatthat allows
allows wireless
wireless EMG, EMG,
MMG MMGand and
NIRSNIRS
to beto
A portable sensor that allows wireless EMG, MMG and NIRS to be performed was devel- be performed
performed was was devel-
developed.
oped.
oped.Figure
Figure 3b shows
Figure 3b
3bshows
that the
shows that
EMG
that the EMG
EMGsignal
thesignal is isispassed
passed
signal through
passed through aadifferential
a differential
through amplification
amplification
differential circuit
amplification
circuit
circuit for noise rejection and amplification and then processed using a bandpass filter
for noisefor noise
rejection rejection
and and
amplificationamplification
and then and then
processed processed
using a using
bandpass a bandpass
filter (15–500 Hz)
filter
(15–500
and a Hz)
notch and a
filter. notch
The filter.
MMG The MMG
signals are signals
processedare processed
by a bandpassby a
(15–500 Hz) and a notch filter. The MMG signals are processed by a bandpass filter (5–100bandpass
filter filter
(5–100 (5–100
Hz) and
Hz)
Hz)and
notch notch
filter.
and Thefilter.
notch NIRSThe
filter. NIRS
signal
The NIRS signal
signalisisprocessed
is processed using
usingaalow-pass
using a low-pass
processed filter filter
filter(25
(25 Hz).
low-pass (25Hz).
Hz).

Signal processing circuit

Signal processing circuit
Bandpass filter
Bandpass Notch filter A/D
MMGA Buffer (5-100 Hz)filter Notch
MMGA Buffer (5-100 Hz) (60 Hz)filter A/D
Converter
and amplification (60 Hz) Converter
and amplification

Bandpass filter
Bandpass Notch filter A/D
MMGB Buffer (5-100 Hz)filter Notch
MMGB Buffer (5-100 Hz) (60 Hz)filter A/D
Converter
and amplification (60 Hz) Converter
and amplification
ZigBee
ZigBee
EMGA Bandpass filter
EMGA Differential Bandpass Notch filter A/D
Differential (15-500 Hz)filter Notch
amplification (15-500 Hz) (60 Hz)filter A/D
Converter
EMGB amplification and amplification (60 Hz) Converter
EMGB and amplification

Low pass filter (25 Hz) A/D

NIRS Buffer Low pass filter (25 Hz) A/D
NIRS Buffer and amplification Converter
and amplification Converter
LED
LED LED emitting circuit
Light
LED PC
Light emitting circuit PC

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 3. Wireless multi-layered
multi-layered sensor: (a) photograph of the device and (b) schematic diagram of
Figure3.3. Wireless
Figure Wireless multi-layeredsensor:
sensor:(a)
(a)photograph
photographof
ofthe
thedevice
deviceand
and(b)
(b)schematic
schematicdiagram
diagramof
of
the signal processing system.
thesignal
the signalprocessing
processingsystem.
system.

A
A micro-computer
A micro-computer (Nucleo
micro-computer (Nucleo Board
(Nucleo Board STM32F401RE;
BoardSTM32F401RE; STMicroelectronics,
STMicroelectronics, Switzerland)
STM32F401RE; STMicroelectronics, Switzerland)
Switzerland)
having
having a 12-bit, five-channel analog-to-digital converter for data acquisition and
having a
a 12-bit,
12-bit, five-channel
five-channel analog-to-digital
analog-to-digital converter
converter for
for data
data acquisition
acquisition and control
and control
control
was
was used.
used.ZigBee
wasused. ZigBeemodules
ZigBee modules(XBee
modules (XBee802.15.4
(XBee 802.15.4S1;
802.15.4 S1; Digi
S1;Digi International
InternationalInc,
Digi International Inc,America)
Inc, America)were
America) were used
wereused
used
for
for wireless communication. In this system, two types of interrupt handlers were usedfor
for wireless
wireless communication.
communication. InInthis
thissystem,
system, two
two types
typesof interrupt
of interrupthandlers were
handlers used
were used
for
voltage
for
voltage measurement
voltage measurement
measurement and transmission.
andand Voltages
transmission.
transmission. in
Voltages
Voltages inEMG, MMG
in EMG,
EMG, MMG (LED
MMG and
andPD)
(LED(LED andand
PD) PD)NIRS
and and
NIRS
were
weresequentially
NIRS were
sequentially measured
sequentially
measured through
measured
through interrupt
through processing
interrupt
interrupt at
atintervals
processing
processing of
of100
at intervals
intervals ofμs.
100 Data
100
μs. µs. were
Data Data
were
thus
thus acquired at intervals of 400 μs (2.5 kS/s). The averages of absolute values in EMGand
were acquired
thus at intervals
acquired at of 400
intervals μs
of (2.5
400 kS/s).
µs (2.5The averages
kS/s). The of absolute
averages of values
absolutein EMG
values in
and
MMG
EMG (LED
and MMGand PD)
(LED derived
and PD) using (1)
derived and
usingthe averages
(1) and the of absolute
averages
MMG (LED and PD) derived using (1) and the averages of absolute values in NIRS de- ofvalues in
absolute NIRS
values de-
in
rived
NIRS using
using(2)
rivedderived were
using
(2) sequentially
were(2) transmitted
were sequentially
sequentially to
toaapersonal
transmitted
transmitted computer
to a personal
personal (PC)
(PC)through
computer
computer inter-
(PC) through
through inter-
rupt processing
interrupt at
processing intervals
at of
intervals 40ofms40and
ms a serial
and a baud
serial
rupt processing at intervals of 40 ms and a serial baud rate of 38,400. rate
baud of
rate38,400.
of 38,400.

111 N  𝑉  (𝑗 = 1 3)
V 𝑉==
𝑉 =N𝑁 ∑ Vn𝑉j ( j(𝑗==1 1− 3)3) (1)
(1)
𝑁n j =1
Sensors 2023, 23, 1539 4 of 11

N
1
V=
50 n ∑ |Vn4 | (2)
4 =351

Here Vn j is the measured voltage and N (400) is the number of measured voltages. In
NIRS, three types of LED were sequentially switched, and (2) was used because of the
measurement error generated by the switching. Data were thus obtained at intervals of
160 ms (6.25 S/s).
The Hb and HbO2 concentrations are derived from (3).

I (λ)  
log = ε oxy ∆Coxy + ε deoxy ∆Cdeoxy + S (3)
I0 (λ)

Here I(λ) and I0 (λ) are, respectively, the quantities of detected and emitted light at a
wavelength of λ. εoxy and εdeoxy are, respectively, the absorption coefficients of HbO2
and Hb [9] and Coxy and Cdeoxy are, respectively, the concentrations of HbO2 and Hb.
Additionally, d and S are, respectively, the average light path length and the dispersion. In
this paper, the unknown value of d is calculated to be 12.5 with reference to the literature [11].
Using the system, the concentrations of Hb and HbO2 were obtained at intervals of 480 ms.
The interval for transmission was optimized in a preliminary experiment. The trans-
mission error was greater when the transmission interval was shorter. The voltage source
was a 7.4-V lithium battery (LI-7100SP; 1100 mAh, 42 g, S.T.L.JAPAN, Japan), and a voltage
of 3.3 V was produced for wireless communication and a voltage of 5.0 V for circuit oper-
ation. The voltage stability of the sensor system was measured after the full charging of
the battery in the preliminary experiment. As a result, for this system, it was found that
the voltage of 5.0 V was stable with fluctuation of ±0.05% and attenuation of 0.2% over
a period of 8 h. The overall mass of the signal processing circuit in Figure 3a, including
the battery, was 240 g. In the following experiments, the measurement was started by
irradiating the sensor to saturate the voltage of the NIRS measurement.

3. Experiments
Three healthy male participants, two in their twenties and one in his forties, partici-
pated in the experiments. The experiments were conducted according to the Declaration
of Helsinki. All experimental procedures were approved by an ethics committee at Saga
University. The procedures and risks were explained to each participant and informed
written consent was obtained from all participants. Two experiments were conducted, one
involving isometric ramp contraction at the forearm and the other cycling exercise of the
lateral vastus muscle.
Figure 4a shows a schematic diagram of the experimental setup and a flow chart of
the isometric ramp contraction at the forearm. The sensor with the LED was pasted on the
participant’s skin at a distance of 70 mm from the inside bend of the elbow, whereas the
sensor with the PD was pasted in the direction of the wrist with a center-to-center distance
of 25 mm between the sensors. The sensors were fixed using a transparent conductive gel.
The reference dish electrode was pasted to the bony surface of the participant’s elbow for
EMG. The maximum weight loaded onto the palm at which the participant could maintain
a straight wrist for 3 s was measured as the maximum voluntary contraction (100% MVC)
force. The participant sat on a chair, and his forearm from the elbow to the wrist was placed
on a table so that the angle between the upper arm and forearm was 90◦ .
In the experiment, the relaxed condition of the forearm was first maintained for 30 s
(Rest). Next, the condition that a vessel with a load of 400 g was placed on the participant’s
palm was maintained for 10 s (Work). The isometric ramp contraction was then performed
until 60% MVC was reached. The load on the palm was changed, flowing water into the
vessel at a constant rate of loading. Finally, the rest condition was maintained for 30 s.
EMG, MMG and NIRS signals were measured using the layered sensor.
 the rest condition was maintained for 5 min (rest). During the experiment, EMG, MMG
and NIRS signals were measured using the proposed sensor. Additionally, respiration
gases such as O2 and CO2 were measured by the aero monitor. In the cycling exercise, a
speed of 60 rpm was maintained through the use of a metronome.
The first experiment was conducted three times for each participant, and the second
Sensors 2023, 23, 1539 5 of 11
experiment once for each participant. The temperature in the room where both experi-
ments were performed was controlled at 25 °C.

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the experimental method: (a) isometric ramp contraction at the fore-
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the experimental method: (a) isometric ramp contraction at the
arm and (b) cycling exercise of the lateral vastus muscle with step increments of the load.
forearm and (b) cycling exercise of the lateral vastus muscle with step increments of the load.

4. Results
Figureand
4b Discussion
is a photograph of the experimental setup and the experimental method for
4.1.
the EMG,
cycling MMG and NIRS
exercise. in Isometric
The pair Ramp
of sensors Contraction
used in the previous experiment was arranged
on the belly5 of
Figure the left
shows thelateral
resultsvastus
of threemuscle. The reference
experimental runs of dish electroderamp
the isometric was pasted
contrac-to
the surface of the participant’s left ankle for EMG. The participant
tion at the forearm of a participant. Figure 5a reveals that the measured EMG voltage then rode on a cycling
in-
ergometer. An aero monitor (AE-301S, Minato Medical Science Co.
creased with the load, whereas it was almost zero in the rest and work phases (light load). Ltd., Japan) was
arranged
Figure 5b,conshow
the mouth of the
that the MMG participant
voltage to measureslightly
increased concentrations
in the workof O2stage
and CO and2 in the
was
respiration gases. The AT was estimated using the V-slope method based
higher in the ramp stage. It is seen that the MMG voltage in the ramp stage had a trend on concentrations
of O2 andfrom
different CO2that
[31]ofand
thecompared
EMG voltage withinthat
the estimated
ramp stageusing the proposed
and had sensorvalues,
local maximum [21].
In the
despite the measurement
experiment, the relaxedbeing
accuracy condition in which
insufficient to both feet were
examine placed
the local on theFigure
maxima. pedals
and kept at the same height with the left leg ahead was first
5d shows that ΔHbO2 and ΔHb decreased and increased during the ramp stage. Thesemaintained for 1 min (rest).
Next, the pedals were pushed at a speed of 60 rpm while a work load
quantities then increased and decreased in the rest period after the ramp stage. It is seen was added from
15 Watts (W) in increments of 15 W every 1 min (cycling). When
that ΔHbO2 and ΔHb changed because the condition of the blood changed, even though the participant could no
longer maintain the cycling speed, the cycling exercise was deemed
there were no corresponding changes in the EMG and MMG signals. The results were in complete, and, finally,
the rest condition was maintained for 5 min (rest). During the experiment, EMG, MMG and
NIRS signals were measured using the proposed sensor. Additionally, respiration gases
such as O2 and CO2 were measured by the aero monitor. In the cycling exercise, a speed of
60 rpm was maintained through the use of a metronome.
The first experiment was conducted three times for each participant, and the second
experiment once for each participant. The temperature in the room where both experiments
were performed was controlled at 25 ◦ C.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. EMG, MMG and NIRS in Isometric Ramp Contraction
Figure 5 shows the results of three experimental runs of the isometric ramp contrac-
tion at the forearm of a participant. Figure 5a reveals that the measured EMG voltage
increased with the load, whereas it was almost zero in the rest and work phases (light load).
Figure 5b,c show that the MMG voltage increased slightly in the work stage and was higher
in the ramp stage. It is seen that the MMG voltage in the ramp stage had a trend different
from that of the EMG voltage in the ramp stage and had local maximum values, despite the
measurement accuracy being insufficient to examine the local maxima. Figure 5d shows
that ∆HbO2 and ∆Hb decreased and increased during the ramp stage. These quantities
then increased and decreased in the rest period after the ramp stage. It is seen that ∆HbO2
and ∆Hb changed because the condition of the blood changed, even though there were no
corresponding changes in the EMG and MMG signals. The results were in agreement with
the results of muscular activity previously reported [6,14,20,24] and results obtained using
 Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11

Sensors 2023, 23, 1539 6 of 11

agreement with the results of muscular activity previously reported [6,14,20,24] and re-
sults obtained using a previously designed sensor with a fixed cable [30]. The simultane-
ous measurement of EMG, MMG and NIRS signals is thus possible using the wireless
a previously designed sensor with a fixed cable [30]. The simultaneous measurement of
multi-sensor.
EMG, MMG and NIRS signals is thus possible using the wireless multi-sensor.

0.8 rest work ramp rest rest work ramp rest

:1st :1st
:2nd 1 :2nd
0.6 :3rd :3rd
V [V]

V [V]
0.4
0.5
0.2

0 0
0 50 100 0 50 100
Time [s] Time [s]
(a) (b)
rest work ramp rest rest work ramp rest

Concentration change ΔC [a.u.]

:1st 0.5 , :1st
1 :2nd , :2nd
:3rd , :3rd
Hb
V [V]

0
0.5

HbO2
-0.5
0
0 50 100 0 50 100
Time [s] Time [s]
(c) (d)
Figure 5. Experimental results for isometric ramp contraction: (a) EMG, (b) MMG (LED), (c) MMG
Figure 5. Experimental results for isometric ramp contraction: (a) EMG, (b) MMG (LED), (c) MMG
(PD) and (d) NIRS.
(PD) and (d) NIRS.
Figure 6 shows the experimental results for the three participants. The data are aver-
Figure 6 shows the experimental results for the three participants. The data are average
age values with standard deviations derived from measurements made over a period of 5
values with standard deviations derived from measurements made over a period of 5 s three
s three times per participant with spacings of 5 s. In the EMG and MMG, data were nor-
times per participant with spacings of 5 s. In the EMG and MMG, data were normalized
malized by the maximum of the average value per participant. In Figure 6a–d, the results
by the maximum of the average value per participant. In Figure 6a–d, the results of the
of the three participants were similar to those in Figure 5. Figure 6b,c shows that the slopes
three participants were similar to those in Figure 5. Figure 6b,c shows that the slopes of the
of the MMG in the ramp stage were different from those of the EMG, with the inflection
MMG in the ramp stage were different from those of the EMG, with the inflection points
points (indicated by black, blue and red dotted lines in Figure 6b,c) appearing between 75
(indicated by black, blue and red dotted lines in Figure 6b,c) appearing between 75 and
and 84 s in Figure 6b and between 80 and 92 s in Figure 6c.
84 s in Figure 6b and between 80 and 92 s in Figure 6c.
Figure 7 shows the ratio of ΔHb to the EMG voltage and the approximated quintic
Figure 7 shows the ratio of ∆Hb to the EMG voltage and the approximated quintic
curve based on data between 60 and 100 s (black, blue and red lines) for detection of the
curve based on data between 60 and 100 s (black, blue and red lines) for detection of the AT
AT following the literature [18]. The ratio was derived using ΔHb and EMG, normalized
following the literature [18]. The ratio was derived using ∆Hb and EMG, normalized by
by the maximum and minimum average values per participant. The ratio of ΔHb to the
the maximum and minimum average values per participant. The ratio of ∆Hb to the EMG
EMG voltage had an extremal value (black, blue and red dotted lines) between 72 and 83
voltage had an extremal value (black, blue and red dotted lines) between 72 and 83 s. It is
s. It is supposed that these are the estimated AT [21], although the AT is not actually ob-
supposed that these are the estimated AT [21], although the AT is not actually obtained by
tained by measuring the lactic acid and the respiration gas. Additionally, the time ranges
measuring the lactic acid and the respiration gas. Additionally, the time ranges of 75 to 86 s
of 75 to 86 s in Figure 6b and 80 to 90 s in Figure 6c at which the inflection points in the
in Figure 6b and 80 to 90 s in Figure 6c at which the inflection points in the MMG signals
MMG signals appeared are similar to those of the extremal values, although the measure-
appeared are similar to those of the extremal values, although the measurement accuracy
ment accuracy is insufficient to determine the inflection points precisely. It is expected
is insufficient to determine the inflection points precisely. It is expected that the inflection
points in the MMG are related to the AT. The proposed sensor thus has the potential to
detect the AT more clearly through the EMG, MMG and NIRS measurements.
 Sensors
Sensors2023,
2023,23,
23,x xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 77 of 11
of 11

that
thatthe
theinflection
inflectionpoints
pointsin
inthe
theMMG
MMGarearerelated
related to
to the
the AT.
AT. The
The proposed
proposed sensor
sensor thus
thus has
has
Sensors 2023, 23, 1539 the potential to detect the AT more clearly through the EMG, MMG and NIRS
the potential to detect the AT more clearly through the EMG, MMG and NIRS measure-measure-7 of 11
ments.
ments.

rest
rest work
work ramp
ramp rest
rest rest
rest work
work ramp
ramp rest
rest
1.5
1.5 1.5
1.5
:S1
:S1 :S1
:S1
:S2
:S2 :S2
:S2
:S3
:S3 :S3
:S3
11 11
V/Vmax

max
max

V/Vmax
V/V

V/V
0.5
0.5 0.5
0.5

00 00
00 50
50 100
100 00 50
50 100
Time
Time[s]
[s] Time
Time [s]
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
rest
rest work
work ramp
ramp rest
rest rest
rest work
work ramp
ramp rest
1.5
1.5

[a.u.]
C [a.u.]
:S1
:S1 ,, :S1
:S1
:S2
:S2 0.5
0.5 ,, :S2
:S2

ΔC
:S3
:S3 ,, :S3
:S3 Hb
Hb

change Δ
11
Concentration change
max
V/Vmax

00
V/V

Concentration

0.5
0.5

-0.5
-0.5 HbO22
HbO
00
00 50
50 100
100 00 50
50 100
Time[s]
Time [s] Time [s]
Time
(c)
(c) (d)
(d)
Figure 6. Experimentalresults
Figure results forisometric
isometricramp
ramp contraction:
contraction: (a)
(a) EMG,
EMG, (b)
(b) MMG (LED), (c) MMG
Figure6.6.Experimental
Experimental resultsfor
for isometric ramp contraction: (a) EMG, (b) MMG (LED), (c) MMG
(PD)and
(PD) and(d)(d)NIRS.
NIRS.
(PD) and (d) NIRS.
ramp
ramp
1.2
1.2 :S1
:S1
:S2
:S2
:S3
EMG [a.u.]

:S3
[a.u.]

11
Hb/VEMG

0.8
0.8
ΔΔHb/V

0.6
0.6

0.4
0.4
50
50 60
60 70
70 80
80 90
90 100
100 110
110
Time [s]
Time [s]
Figure7.7.
Figure
Figure 7.ΔHb/EMG
ΔHb/EMG
∆Hb/EMG inin
in isometric ramp
isometric
isometric ramp
ramp contraction.
contraction.
contraction.

4.2. EMG, MMG and NIRS in Cycling

Figure 8 presents the experimental results for the lateral vastus muscle of one partici-
pant in his twenties in the cycling exercise. The trends for the other two participants were
similar. Figure 8a shows that the EMG voltage increased with step increments of the load.
It is seen that the slope of the voltage increased slightly after approximately 7–9 min of
exercise. It is considered that this increase relates to AT [21]. Figure 8b,c show that the MMG
voltage increased sharply under the first load of 15 W and slightly increased or decreased
with subsequent steps in the load. There was a (slightly) extreme voltage of the sensor with
PD at approximately 8 min (120 W) in contrast with the case of the EMG voltage. Figure 8d
 ipant in his twenties in the cycling exercise. The trends for the other two participants were
similar. Figure 8a shows that the EMG voltage increased with step increments of the load.
It is seen that the slope of the voltage increased slightly after approximately 7–9 min of
exercise. It is considered that this increase relates to AT [21]. Figure 8b,c show that the
MMG voltage increased sharply under the first load of 15 W and slightly increased or
Sensors 2023, 23, 1539 decreased with subsequent steps in the load. There was a (slightly) extreme voltage of the 8 of 11
sensor with PD at approximately 8 min (120 W) in contrast with the case of the EMG volt-
age. Figure 8d shows a slight increase in ΔHbO2 and a reduction in ΔHb under the load
of
shows 15 W. ΔHbO
a slight 2 and ΔHb, respectively, decreased and increased with step increments of
increase in ∆HbO2 and a reduction in ∆Hb under the load of 15 W. ∆HbO2
the load from 2
and ∆Hb, respectively,min (30 W). ΔHbO
decreased and ΔHb with
and2 increased increased and decreased
step increments during
of the the rest
load from 2 min
period after the cycling exercise, whereas the EMG and MMG voltages during
(30 W). ∆HbO2 and ∆Hb increased and decreased during the rest period after the cycling the rest
period were
exercise, boththe
whereas zero.
EMG Both theMMG
and slopesvoltages
of ΔHbOduring
2 and ΔHb slightly decreased at around 9
the rest period were both zero. Both
min. These results relate to the AT and are similar to the change in the slope of the EMG
the slopes of ∆HbO2 and ∆Hb slightly decreased at around 9 min. These results relate to
voltage [21]. It is thus possible to make simultaneous EMG, MMG and NIRS measure-
the AT and are similar to the change in the slope of the EMG voltage [21]. It is thus possible
ments for the cycling exercise using the wireless multi-sensor. The proposed sensor offers
to make simultaneous EMG, MMG and NIRS measurements for the cycling exercise using
the potential to perform muscular analysis in greater detail because the results of the dif-
the wireless multi-sensor. The proposed sensor offers the potential to perform muscular
ferent measurements have different characteristics. There were periodical oscillations at
analysis in greater detail because the results of the different measurements have different
an interval of 1 s in the NIRS results owing to the muscle contraction and extension during
characteristics. There were periodical oscillations at an interval of 1 s in the NIRS results
cycling.
owing to the muscle contraction and extension during cycling.

rest cycling rest rest cycling rest

1.5
0.08
V [V]

0.06

V [V]
1

0.04
0.5
0.02

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time [min] Time [min]
(a) (b)

cycling cycling
rest rest 0.3 rest rest
Concentration change ΔC [a.u.]

1.5
0.2 Hb
0.1
V [V]

1
0

0.5 -0.1
-0.2
HbO2
0 -0.3
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time [min] Time [min]
(c) (d)
Figure 8. Experimental results for isometric ramp contraction: (a) EMG, (b) MMG (LED), (c) MMG
Figure 8. Experimental results for isometric ramp contraction: (a) EMG, (b) MMG (LED), (c) MMG
(PD) and (d) NIRS.
(PD) and (d) NIRS.

Figure 9 shows the ratio of ∆Hb to V EMG and the approximated quintic curve based
on data between 2 and 14 min (red line) to enable the detection of the threshold for the
evaluation of fatigue (AT) based on the literature [21] and the relationship between oxygen
uptake (VO2) and carbon dioxide output (VCO2) in the respiration gases measured by an
aero monitor. In Figure 9b, the AT is obtained as the intersection of the linear regression
using data after the start of the experiment (blue dotted line and dots) and using data
before the end of the experiment (red dotted line and dots) using the V-slope method. The
ratio of ∆Hb to V EMG had an extremal value (red dotted line) at 7 min 43 s. Meanwhile,
the intersection point of the slopes of VO2 and VCO2 was at 7 min 54 s. The timing of the
AT obtained from the ratio of ∆Hb to V EMG was thus similar to that obtained from VO2
and VCO2.

Sensors 2023, 23, 1539
AT obtained from the ratio of ΔHb to VEMG was thus similar to that obtained from VO2
and VCO2.
Table 1 compares the timing of the AT obtained from the ratio of ΔHb to VEMG and
that obtained from VO2 and VCO2 for the three participants. It is seen that the ratio of
ΔHb to VEMG can be used for determining the timing of the AT because the times are similar
to those determined using VO2 and VCO2. The proposed sensor thus offers the potential9 of 11
to estimate the AT.

rest cycling rest

1
2

VCO2 [a.u.]
ΔHb / VEMG

1 0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 0
Time [min] 0 0.5 1
VO2 [a.u.]
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Comparison of the timings of the AT obtained from ΔHb/EMG and relationship between
Figure 9. Comparison of the timings of the AT obtained from ∆Hb/EMG and relationship between
VO2 and VCO2 in cycling exercise: (a) ΔHb/VEMG and (b) relationship between VO2 and VCO2.
VO2 and VCO2 in cycling exercise: (a) ∆Hb/V EMG and (b) relationship between VO2 and VCO2.
Table 1. Comparison of the timings of the AT obtained using the proposed sensor and a commercial
Table 1 compares the timing of the AT obtained from the ratio of ∆Hb to V EMG and
sensor for the three participants.
that obtained from VO2 and VCO2 for the three participants. It is seen that the ratio of ∆Hb
V EMG can be used
to Participant for determining
Estimated AT in the the timing Sensor
Proposed of the AT because the times areSensor
AT in Commercial similar to
those determined
S1 using VO2 and VCO2.
7′43 The proposed sensor thus offers the
7′54 potential to
estimate
S2the AT. 7′17 7′39
S3 6′35 6′27
Table 1. Comparison of the timings of the AT obtained using the proposed sensor and a commercial
sensor for the three participants.
5. Conclusions
A wireless multi-layered
Participant Estimatedsensor
AT in was developed,
the Proposed and simultaneous
Sensor EMG, MMG
AT in Commercial and
Sensor
NIRS measurements
S1 were performed70 43 for an isometric ramp contraction at the partici-
70 54
pant’s forearm
S2 and cycling exercise of 70 17 70 39
the lateral vastus muscle with step increments in
0 35 and cycling exercises showed60that
the load.S3The results of the isometric 6ramp 27 simultane-
ous EMG, MMG and NIRS measurements of local muscular activity were possible using
5.the proposed sensor. Additionally, a comparison of the extremal value (the ratio of ΔHb
Conclusions
to EMG) obtained using the proposed sensor and AT obtained using a commercial respi-
A wireless multi-layered sensor was developed, and simultaneous EMG, MMG and
ration gas sensor showed that the proposed sensor could be used to predict muscular fa-
NIRS measurements were performed for an isometric ramp contraction at the participant’s
tigue.
forearm and cycling exercise of the lateral vastus muscle with step increments in the load.
The results of the isometric ramp and cycling exercises showed that simultaneous EMG,
MMG and NIRS measurements of local muscular activity were possible using the proposed
sensor. Additionally, a comparison of the extremal value (the ratio of ∆Hb to EMG) obtained
using the proposed sensor and AT obtained using a commercial respiration gas sensor
showed that the proposed sensor could be used to predict muscular fatigue.
In future work, the relationship between the extremal value, the inflection point of
the MMG voltage obtained by the proposed sensor, and the AT obtained by a commercial
sensor involved in the prediction of muscular fatigue will be derived for several participants
and different exercises. This work will include measurements for large step increments of
the load and constant loads. In the present study, the mean power frequency could not be
calculated in frequency analysis because the data transmission interval was insufficient
even though the sampling frequency was sufficient. Therefore, an improved system with a
data logger or combined data transmission that allows frequency analysis will be developed
and evaluated as one of the parameters. Additionally, the processing circuit will be smaller
because it is possible to halve its size by using a smaller microcomputer and improving the
circuit configuration and elements.
Sensors 2023, 23, 1539 10 of 11

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.K.; investigation, A.K., H.F. and M.M.; methodology,
A.K., H.F. and M.M.; validation, A.K., H.F. and M.M.; formal analysis, A.K., H.F. and M.M.; writing—
original draft preparation, A.K.; writing—review and editing, A.K., H.F. and M.M. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration
of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of Faculty of Medicine, Saga University.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in
the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: All the authors declare no conflict of interest.

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