Plant Diversity

Plant Diversity
Plants are classified into 4 major groups:
from simplest to most complex

from oldest to most recently evolved
Mosses (~15,000 species)
small, simple, in moist habitats, oldest fossils
eg mosses, liverworts, hornworts
Ferns (11,000 species)
more complex tissues and organs
eg horsetails, whisk ferns, club mosses
Conifers (760 species)
mostly trees and shrubs, reproduction by producing

pollen, and seeds in “cones”
eg pines, spruce, fir, cedar, cypress
Flowering Plants (235,000 species, 90% all plants)
most complex in terms of structure
reproduce by producing pollen, and seeds in fruits
eg. lilies, irises, grasses, wildflowers, crop plants,

oaks, willows, maples, etc
Plants: Mosses & Allies
simplest of plants
~15,000 species
eg. mosses, liverworts, hornworts
(several other phyla of plants have the word “moss” in their common names
but they are NOT really mosses they just resemble them in some way)
Plants: Plant Diversity; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2006 1

eg. ball moss, spanish moss  types of flowering plants
eg. reindeer moss  a kind of lichen
eg. clubmoss  relative of ferns
General Characteristics of Mosses
1. are the most ancient plants
oldest plant fossils; over 400MY old
mosses apparently developed from a green alga as a “dead end” group
not in direct path of evolution
(ie. vascular plants did not have moss ancestors)
but vascular plants probably also evolved from a green algal

ancestor
2. simplest of plants
most are small (<20 cm) and inconspicuous
no true vascular tissues
3. generally poorly adapted to land
tend to live in moist places

live in dense beds on moist soil, rocks or bark
still tied to water for sexual reproduction
most species are tropical, but many also found in temperate areas
still tied to water for reproduction
Moss Anatomy
thin cuticle in most, some lack it
no water distribution system: no vascular tissue

absorb water through epidermis (like sponge)
internal flow by osmosis and cytoplasmic streaming
no true roots, stems or leaves (since no vascular tissue)

each individual plant has tiny root-like rhizoids for attachment (not to
absorb nutrients for the plant)
slender stemlike structure bears leaflike blades
can grow upright or along ground
sensitive indicators of air pollution
Reproduction and Life Cycle:
show basic alternation of generations with gametophyte the dominant form in

the life cycle
flagellated sperm are released from antheridia during rainy weather and
transported by splashing of raindrops
once they get to female plant, sperm cell swims down neck of archegonium
and fuses with egg = zygote
sporophyte
the zygote grows into a sporophyte
that remains attached to the gametophyte for nutrition
capsule = sporangium
– contains up to 50M spores
when spores are mature, capsule bursts open as it dries out
wind or rain carry spores to new areas where they germinate
grow into leafy gametophyte
Ecological Significance of Mosses
Pioneer Plants
colonize rock - pioneers
produce acids that help in soil formation
hold soil in place and help prevent erosion along streams

some birds (eg. waxwings) use moss as nesting material
small aquatic invertebrates (incl water bears & soil mites) live in and eat
some mosses
Acid Bogs
Sphagnum bogs (peat moss) growing in water saturated areas that are
acidic; typically in cooler areas of world
acid inhibits the growth of most other plants
also inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi

 slows decomposition of organic matter
preserves animal and plant remains
peat bogs: major carbon reserves eg. Sphagnum

help to absorb CO2 and stabilize climate
used for fuel in England and some northern countries
Human Impacts of Mosses
1. used for fuel in England and some northern countries

dried and burned
2. until WWII mosses used as wound dressing
 has antiseptic properties
3. mosses are sensitive indicators of air pollution
4. moss collected and sold for crafts and florists
est $8.4 – $33.7 M/yr business collecting and

selling est 4.2 – 17 M lbs/yr based on interviews and dept of
commerce data
is an unregulated industry
many places ban moss collecting but poorly policed
often taken from private or protected land
esp in Appalachia and the Pacific NW

Plants: Ferns &Allies
11,000 species
mostly terrestrial, a few are aquatic
include ferns, horsetails, clubmosses, whisk ferns, etc
most common fern in the world is bracken fern (=Pteridium aquilinum)
General Characteristics of Ferns
1. mostly terrestrial, a few are aquatic
range from tropics to arctic but most are tropical epiphytes
in temperate regions ferns typically inhabit swamps and moist areas
2. have true vascular tissues
all plants other than mosses and allies are referred to as vascular plants
vascular plants have true roots, stems and leaves
vascular system enables plants attain greater size:

 some ferns (tropical) grow to 75’ today
can live in drier habitats
some even live in desert
eg. resurrection ferns
3. still require water for sexual reproduction
Fern Anatomy
Stems
rhizome = underground stem with wiry roots
in temperate areas rhizome produces new leaves each spring
ferns are easily propagated by rhizome cuttings

Roots
the roots are clearly differentiated from stem
Leaves
frond = large, compound leaves used for photosynthesis and reproduction
when each young frond emerges from ground it is tightly coiled

 fiddlehead
as fiddlehead grows it unrolls and expands to form frond
Reproduction and Life Cycle
show clear alternation of generations
most ferns are annuals: fern life cycle 4-18 months
Sporophyte Stage
is dominant
the “fern” we see are sporophytes
fern sporophytes are perennial
sporophyte produces asexual spores
spore production occurs on underside of leaf in clusters of sporangia

called sori
sometimes sori are covered by umbrella-like indusium [size of a pinhead]
as humidity changes sporangia break open throwing spores into air
Gametophyte Stage
gametophyte generation of ferns is completely separate and bears no

resemblance to sporophyte
spores germinate into gametophytes called a prothallium
gametophyte is tiny (~1/4 inch)
often heart shaped

as prothallium matures it produces male and female reproductive organs
=antheridia & archegonia
archegonia located in central region near notch each contains a

single egg
antheridia scattered among rhizoids sperm cells shaped like cork
screws
ferns require water for fertilization
as young sporophyte develops the prothallium withers and dies.
Ecological Importance of Ferns & Allies
help soil formation and prevent erosion
Human Impacts of Ferns & Allies
1. early uses
eg. horsetails have a hollow jointed stems impregnated with silica

 gritty texture (=scouring rushes)
first “brillo pads”
eg. lycopodium spores used as flash powder in early days of

photography
2. are widely cultivated for horticultural value
eg. hanging plants, around homes, etc
most common fern in the world is bracken fern

(=Pteridium aquilinum)
eg. club mosses often used in wreaths
eg. resurrection ferns (club moss) often sold in novelty shops
3. the fiddlehead of some species are harvested in early spring , boilied or

steamed and eaten
esp in New England and Canada
eg. ostrich fern Matteaccia

4. probably most significant contribution to human culture is as coal deposits
carboniferous fern forests (~300MY ago)
Conifers & Allies

760 sp
include cycads, ginkgoes, pine, spruce, fir, cypress, cedar, junipers, etc
conifers are the dominant trees in the northernmost forests of the world
nearly all are woody trees, shrubs and vines
conifers group contains some of the world’s
a. most massive organisms:

“General Sherman”
giant sequoia - California
272’ (81.6m) tall
79’ girth; >25’ diameter
b. world’s tallest tree:

Coastal Redwood
385’ (117m) tall
c. oldest living trees

bristlecone pines
one is over 4900 years old
General Characteristics of Çonifers:
1. have much more efficient vascular tissue than ferns

can grow larger, taller
2. nearly all are perennial trees & shrubs

produce strong permanent woody tissue
3. in most conifers, leaves are needle or scale

shaped to survive dry conditions (eg snow)
leaves are long, narrow, tough and leathery
4. nearly all conifers are evergreen:
can carry out photosynthesis even in winter to

some degree

in spring they can increase photosynthesis immediately
(don’t have to grow new leaves)
a few are deciduous,

eg.: dawn redwood, larch, bald cypress
5. many conifers produce resin

= viscous, clear organic substance
 sticky to touch
may protect plant from fungal and insect attack
resin is produced in resin ducts
= tube-like cavities that extend throughout

roots, stems and leaves
amber is fossilized resin
6. No longer produce spores as major form of asexual reproduction
no asexual reproductive organs
greatly reduced alternation of generations
Sexual reproduction becomes the main means of reproduction

 greater variation
 evolutionary advantage
7. sexual reproductive organs are cones
most conifers are monoecious (hermaphrodites) with separate male and

female cones in different locations of same plant
female cones produces ovule with egg
male cones produce pollen with sperm
8. Pollen
no longer requires water for sexual reproduction
dispersed by wind (not water) to the female
Also offers a wider variety of methods of genetic variation

9. conifers produce seeds
once fertilized, ovule develops into seed
seed = embryonic plant
unlike spore which is a single cell, seed already has an

embryonic root, stem and leaf
plus stored food supply for germination,
surrounded by protective seed coat
seed replaces the spore as the main means of reproduction & dispersal
seed is much more effective, and resistant to drying
the seeds are not produced inside a flower and fruit

they are exposed usually on a cone
eg. some cycad cones weigh up to 100 lbs
Conifer Anatomy:
a. Woody Stems
Conifers and flowering plants are the only major plant groups that have
woody, perennial species
Plants that live more than one year, ie. perennials,

produce secondary growth each year.
The bark replaces the epidermis for protection of the stem in large woody
plants.
b. Leaves
in most conifers, leaves are needle or scale shaped to survive dry conditions
(eg snow)
leaves are long, narrow, tough and leathery

 low surface/volume ratio
 less exposure to extremes of environment,
easier to conserve water
most leaves also have thick waxy cuticle

often the stomata are sunken below the surface
 reduces amount of water evaporation due to wind
nearly all conifers are evergreen:
each leaf lives 2-14 years and falls off individually
can carry out photosynthesis even in winter to some degree
in spring they can increase photosynthesis immediately (don’t have to

grow new leaves)
Life Cycle of Conifers:
most conifers are monoecious (hermaphrodites) with

separate male and female cones in different locations of same plant
reproductive organs are cones
male cone: terminal on short branches

~ half inch long or less
produces pollen
pollen grain consists of 2 cell walls enclosing 3 cells
ovule – produced on female cone
female cone: much larger

takes 2 years to mature
not terminal
In early spring the ovulate or seed cone begins to develop
Pollen grains are carried by wind to female cone cedar fever
blow around until they land on female cone
Pollen tube develops from tube cell of pollen

sperm travel down pollen tube to egg and fertilize it = zygote
the fertilized egg develops into mature seed
Economic Importance of Conifers & Allies:
1. conifers are the predominant trees in 35% of the world’s forests

esp northernmost forests of the world
short growing season
water is frozen for much of the year

 not available to plant
many conifers have adapted to these “dry” conditions
2. they play an essential ecological role:

a. dominant species in some terrestrial ecosystems
eg. spruce fir forests, boreal forests, pine forests,

redwood forests
b. provide food and shelter for other organisms

c. roots hold soil in place and reduce soil erosion
d. watersheds – absorb hold and slowly release water and help control
flooding
e. important part of biogeochemical cycles
3. cycads are a small group of shrubs native to tropical regions
4. Ginkgo’s (maidenhair trees) are example of a ‘living fossil’
one of few deciduous conifers; dioecious, unusual fan

shaped leaves
widespread in Mesozoic (300-100MY ago), has remained

unchanged for last 150 M years
only known as fossils and thought was extinct until

rediscovered in Japanese and Chinese Monastery gardens
no known “natural” stands
since rediscovery, has spread rapidly in the past 200 years

 esp in parks and gardens
(hardy & air pollution tolerant)
female trees produce seeds in fleshy berry-like mass

at maturity the flesh rots
 extremely offensive odor
same chemicals as in rancid butter and

rancid cheese
the seed is considered a prized delicacy in China and Japan
 has a fishy taste
Human Impacts of Conifers
1. as food and the manufacture of foods & drinks
eg. pine nuts
eg. gin produced from cedar “berries” (Juniperus)

crushed berries produces the smell of gin
eg. ginkgo seeds are considered a prized delicacy in

China and Japan
2. in US ~80% of timber crop is from conifers:

 lumber
a. framing lumber house construction
c. plywood – 2 or more veneers glued together

strong, light weight,
less likely to split than solid wood
d. fiberboard from pulp

and particle board from chips
3. for specialized wood products
a. cedar
lots of resin resists rotting
eg. fences, shingles, pencils
b. red spruce
high resonant qualities, softwood, easy to work
light in relation to its strength and stiffness
eg. violins, pianos, ladder rails, canoe paddles, oars
c. redwood
resistant to decay
eg. outdoor furniture and decks

d. white pine
softwood, soft, uniform texture and straight
grain; cuts easily in every direction; polishes well and warps
or swells little
eg. widely used in home construction

eg. virtually everything from masts and matches to
boxes and crates
e. baldcypress
weather resistant without treatment
eg. cross ties in early days of RR,
f. hemlock
relatively soft, light straight grained, resin-free
wood, uniformly long fibers
eg. paper pulp, structural lumber, plywood boxes, barrels

concrete forms
4. wood pulp for paper products

90% comes from conifers
5. sap & resins of some plants is used to make

turpentine, tar, etc
violin rosin
adhesives
chewing gum
printing ink
6. cellulose fibers used to make cellophane, thermal insulation, rayon
Some Major Rayon Fiber Uses
Apparel: Accessories, blouses, dresses, jackets, lingerie, linings,

millinery, slacks,
sportshirts, sportswear, suits, ties, work clothes
Home Furnishings: Bedspreads, blankets, curtains, draperies,

sheets, slipcovers, tablecloths, upholstery
Industrial Uses: Industrial products, medical surgical products,

nonwoven products, tire cord
Other Uses: Feminine hygiene products

7. pharmaceuticals & herbal treatments
one related member of conifer group, Ephedra, a desert shrub,

produces the chemical, ephedrine, used in many
pharmaceuticals for treating asthma, hay fever, colds, etc
derivative also used to make methamphetamines
also sold as herbal remedy for weight loss but can be dangerous
most nutriceuticals have not been scientifically tested for their

claims
eg. Ginkgo biloba  claim it helps memory and

marketed to Alzheimer’s patients and elderly
no significant effects on memory
eg. Ephedra  ephedrine from plant is used

medicinally to treat congestion due to allergies
and colds
the dried plant itself used as a tea is hyped

as a weight loss treatment
scientific studies have found that it can be

dangerous and has caused several deaths
can cause irregular heartbeats, heart

attacks, stroke, seizures and psychoses
(known in herbal world as “herbal ecstasy”
because it has some of the effects of the
street drug “ecstasy”
 only recently taken off the market
8. landscaping
pine spruce and fir trees
cycads, ginkgos
9. Christmas trees
10. recreation - tourism, camping, backpacking, picnicking

Flowering Plants
dominant plants in world today90% of all living plant species
235,000 known species
last of the 4 main groups to appear in the fossil record
1 st appeared 130 MY ago quickly spread and diversified
have dominated the landscape for the last 100 Million years
General Characteristics of Flowering Plants:
1. highly adaptable vegetative organs
eg. form and diversity of roots, stems and leaves
2. complex symbioses with fungi, bacteria and animals enhance survival and
efficiency
eg. fungi  mycorrhizae
eg. bacteria  root nodules
eg. ants in tropics
3. much more efficient transport tissues

structure of both xylem and phloem are more efficient than in
conifers
4. no asexual reproductive organs or spores produced
5. sexual reproductive organ is the flower
great diversity in flower structure

greatly enhances reproductive success
6. seeds protected within a fruit
produce resistant seed as in conifers

but better protection inside fruit
gymnosperm cones produced ‘naked seeds’
angiosperms surround seed with fruit

also offers much greater variety of dispersal
Vegetative Organs of Flowering Plants
Vegetative Organs of flowering plants generally

perform the typical functions as described earlier
but in many cases they are often modified to become

more efficient or
converted into more specialized structure for specific environment
modified for food or water storage
provide source of asexual reproduction
(since flowering plants don’t produce spores)
Modified Roots
in addition some roots are modified in certain ways for additional or alternate
functions:
a. prop roots
adventitious roots that help support plant
eg corn, sorghum, red mangrove, banyon tree
b. aerial roots
not underground
on epiphytes are plants that grow on other plants

eg. ball “moss” or bromeliads, orchids
their roots are for anchoring only, not to absorb water or nutrients
c. adhesive roots
vines often produce special adventitious roots from above

ground stem with adhesive pads that stick to bark
d. parasitic roots
some parasitic plants use roots to penetrate host and absorb

nutrients
eg. mistletoe and dodder

e. pneumatophores
aerial “breathing” roots
act like siphon to get oxygen to root cells
produced by plants growing in swamps or waterlogged soils
have well developed system of internal air spaces

that take oxygen to interior of root system
eg. black mangrove, white mangrove, bald cypress
f. tuberous roots & tuberous tap roots
portions of some roots are enlarged for food storage
eg. sweet potatoes,
g. contractile roots
plants that produce corms or bulbs often have

contractile roots in addition to “normal” roots
seasonal changes tend to cause these structures to

move to surface
these roots grow into soil then pull bulb or corm

back down into soil
Modified Stems:
Some stems are modified for alternate or additional functions in some plants:
a. vines
weak - use other plants or objects for support
can grow rapidly

don’t need to expend lots of energy on strength
may grow away from sunlight rather than toward it

 more likely to encounter a tree to grow on
often produce special roots from stem with adhesive pads that
stick to bark
some have tendrils

some tendrils are modified stems that wrap around
some kind of support
eg. grapes
other vines are twiners

stems grow spirally for support
vines are most numerous in tropical forests
b. spines and prickles
large spines of locust and mesquite trees for protection
some stems produce surface prickles for the same reason

but they are not an initegral part of the stem
 they break off easily
eg roses
c. runners (=stolons)
horizontal above ground stems that grow along surface of ground
have long internodes
offer a means of asexual reproduction
buds develop along stolon giving rise to new plants
eg strawberry, bermuda grass, airplane plants
d. rhizomes
horizontal underground stems
resemble roots but have nodes, buds etc,
also important method of asexual reproduction in plnats
each piece can become a separate new plant
eg irises, bamboo, ginger, many grasses, etc

e. succulent stems
used to store water
some also have succulent leaves, some don’t
eg. cacti, euphorbs
f. tuberous stems
some rhizomes produce greatly thickened ends
= fleshy underground stems enlarged for food storage
eg white potatoes, elephant ears

the “eyes” of a potato are axillary buds
g. corms
very short, erect, underground stems that superficially

resemble bulbs
but not a bunch of overlapping leaves or just part of a rhizome
the entire stem is thickened, and underground
covered by papery scales
eg. crocus, gladiolus, cyclamens
Leaf Modifications:
Leaves can be modified for additional or alternate functions:
a. spines
leaves modified for protection from herbivores,
spines can be formed from whole leaf

eg. cacti
or just portion of leaf;

eg. holly, young live oak
b. tendrils
some tendrils are modified leaves (rather than stems 
sometimes hard to tell the difference) that grasp and hold
onto other structures
may be whole leaf or only part of the leaf
eg. peas
c. bulbs
the stem is almost nonexistent

 very short internodes
surrounded by fleshy nonphotosynthetic, storage leaves
usually partly underground
covered by paper-like scales (=modified leaves)
eg. lilies, onions, tulips, etc
d. head
whorled leaves surrounding very short stem
with very short internodes
some (usually outer) leaves are green and photosynthetic
often biennials in 1st yr before “bolting”
e. succulents
some leaves (rather than stem) are adapted for storing water
thick, fleshy leaves
eg. jade plant, aloe vera
f. aquatic leaves
floating leaves of many aquatic plants:

have stomata on upper surface
long petioles to allow blade to float
petioles and submerged parts of plant have
internal system of air ducts to take O2 to underwater
roots and stems
g. insectivorous leaves
leaves for catching bugs  extra nitrogen
some able to close quickly, some hold water, some produce

sticky secretions
eg. venus fly trap, pitcher plants, sundews
Flower Structure
in flowering plants, sexual reproduction occurs in flowers
are temporary structures
most (not all) flowers have both male and female parts
= most flowering plants are hermaphrodites
a typical flower has 4 main parts:
a. sepals
b. petals
c. stamens (male) = filament + anther
d. pistils (female) = stigma + style + ovary
a. sepals
lowermost whorl
leaflike
covers and protects flower bud
all sepals together = calyx
b. petals
whorl just above (inside) sepals
great variation in size, shape and color
sometimes fused to form tube
all petals together = corolla
c. stamens
just inside petals
consist of filament and anthers
anther = sac like structure that produces pollen grains
c. pistil
female reproductive organs
each pistil consists of:

stigma on which pollen lands
style necklike structure
ovary saclike, contains ovule
many variations in flower structure
some species flowers are unisexual

 separate male and female flowers
eg. in many wind pollinated plants, esp trees and

shrubs
a. on different plants  dioecious
eg. willows, poplars
b. male and female flowers on the same plant
eg. sedges, maize, oaks, hickories
and a few of these can apparently switch their sex

 transsexuals; males produce female flowers and
females producing male flowers
a flower with all four different parts = complete flower

lacking one or more = incomplete
with both stamens and carpels = perfect
stamens or carpels = imperfect
some of these variations are due to the way flowers are pollinated
pollen grains must travel from anther of one flower to stigma of another
self pollination  pollen travels to stigma of same flower
only a few flowers are self pollinating
cross pollination  pollen travels to stigma of different plant
in conifers, pollen is carried by wind to female cone
flowering plants have coevolved with many kinds of animals through most of
their history
this close relationship between plants and pollinators has resulted in
coevolution
 mutual adaptations for mutual benefits

plant: petals, scent, nectaries
animal: special body parts and behaviors
In some instances the relationships have become very specialized such that
only a single species of animal can pollinate a particular species of plant.
1. wind pollinated
often grow in dense populations
many small inconspicuous flowers
petals reduced
pistils and stamens exposed
numerous stamens and conspicuous
large amounts of pollen produced
eg. oak, willow, grasses
2. insect pollinators
petals colorful and large
often with nectarines
much less pollen produced
insects can be attracted by showy flowers, smell &/or nectar
a. bee pollinated
20,000 different species of bees are important
pollinators for many plants
honeybees are attracted to nectar
they also gather pollen
flowers are generally brightly colored
predominately blue or yellow
rarely pure red (pure red appears black to them)
flowers often have lines or distinctive
markings that function as “honey guides”
 lead bees to nectar
some of these markings are only seen in UV light
 invisible to us, not bees
flowers often delicately sweet and fragrant
b. beetle pollinated
flowers tend to have a strong yeasty, spicy or fruity odor
usually white or dull in color
(beetles cant see as well as bees)
secrete no nectar but may supply food as
pollen or in special storage cells in petals
c. carrion flies
tend to be dull red or brown
often have foul odors resembling rotting meat
eg. skunk cabbage
eg. carrion flower = Rafflesia

a parasitic flowering plant of SE Asia
parasitic on vines in genus Tetrastigma (Vitaceae)
produces a huge speckled flower on little stem
with no leaves
largest known flower:
flower up to 106 cm weighs up to 10 kg
smells like rotting meat
fruit is eaten by three shrews and other mammals
d. butterflies
similar to bee-pollinated flowers in that they have sweet fragrances
fused petals force insect to crawl into flower for nectar
nectaries are usually at bases of deep spur that
only butterflies and moths can reach with their mouthparts
some butterflies can detect red flowers
eg. daisy family: butterfly bush= Buddelias, goldenrods, blazing
star
eg. milkweeds monarchs
e. moth pollinated
white or yellow flowers
heavy fragrance
open at dusk
eg. some yuccas, some milkweeds

(see p510 Stern 3rd ed)
f. sunflowers
are a successful exception to above:
they are insect pollinated
but consist of numerous inconspicuous flowers
they combine to resemble a single, large showy flower
 one insect pollinates many flowers at once
g. orchids
some species of orchids resemble certain wasp females
see Stern p 512-14
3. bat pollinated
mainly in tropics
strong odor
dull color
open only at night
4. hummingbirds
do not have a highly developed sense of smell
but do have excellent sense of vision
frequently bright red or yellow flowers
little if any odor
fused petals with nectary
produce copius quantities of nectar
long floral tubes prevent most insects from reaching the nectar
eg. fuschias, petunias, morning glories, salvias, cardinal
flowers, trumpet creepers, columbines, penstemons
Role of Pollinators in Modern World
without pollinators many plants cannot be fertilized to produce seeds
90% of worlds flowering plants are animal pollinated

including 80% of world’s 1330 cultivated crop species
 1/3rd of US agricultural crops are insect pollinated
120,000 – 200,000 animal species are pollinators

 including >1000 sp of birds and mammals
honeybee pollination services are 60-100x’s more

valuable than the honey they produce
in US ~1/2 of honeybee colonies have been lost in last 50 years
threats:
habitat loss & fragmentation
loss of nesting and overwintering sites
intense exposure to pesticides and herbicides
introduction of exotic species
Fertilization:
pollen grain grows a thin pollen tube down through the style into the ovule
sperm cell moves down the pollen tube and enter the ovule
The Seed:
seed = plant embryo with stored nutrients in protective shell
mature seed consists of:
1. embryo:
radicle = embryonic root

hypocotyl = embryonic shoot (stem)
cotyledons = seed leaves
plumule (=epicotyl) = part of shoot above leaves
2. food
food is stored either in the cotyledon or in endosperm
(a nutritive tissue surrounding embryo)
the nutrients are used by the germinating seed until true

leaves can begin photosynthesis
in monocots the endosperm is main source of food in mature

seed
in most dicots – endosperm nourishes embryo which
subsequently stores food in its cotyledons
3. Seed Coat
tough, for protection

 most seeds will survive 5-10 yrs
some with very tough outer coats have

sprouted after 100’s or 1000’s years
eg. 365 yr old seeds from the Atocha ($130 M in gold,

silver and emerealds-Mel Fisher) were brought up
from the ship and germinated
eg. seeds of water lotus have survived more than 1000

years
eg. seeds from the Arctic flower Lupines arcticus

sprouted after 10,000 years in frozen silt
seed size varies from:

eg. dustlike  orchids
eg. 60lbs  double coconut
The Fruit
seeds are not naked as in most gymnosperms
As the ovule develops into a seed the ovary portion of

the pistil increases greatly in size and becomes a fruit
 fruit = a ripened ovary containing seeds
eg. pea pod = fruit; peas = seeds
peach, bean and watermelon all develop from ovaries only 1/8th to 1/4th inch in
diameter
causes great drain on food supply

 vegetative growth often ceases when fruits are developing
pinching off some flower buds results in larger fruits that are left
The tissues of fruit and seed enhance survival and may aid in dispersal
 protects seed from desiccation
 distributes new plants to areas away from parent plant
Seed Dispersal Mechanisms:
the fruits often aid in the dispersal of the seeds:
1. wind
one of most important
a. small, light seeds

eg. orchids  seeds resemble dust
b. hairlike appendages
eg. dandelions, milkweeds
c. winged seeds
eg. maple, bigonia
d. whole plant dispersal

eg. tumbleweed (=Russian thistle)
2. edible fruits
attracts birds or mammals
may eat whole fruit or spit out pits
if swallowed seeds resistant to digestive juices
squirrels and birds bury fruits and seeds
nuts stored underground are forgotten
3. passively carried by animals

hooks or spines to catch in fur or on skin
in mud on feet of birds, etc.
burs, beggars ticks, devils claw, etc.
4. water dispersal
aquatic plants
rainfall
some contain airsacs to float
mangroves, coconuts
5. mechanical dispersal
=explosive dehiscence
seeds are forcibly ejected from fruit
many cast seeds several feet away from
parent plant
eg. violets
Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
like conifers, flowering plants have given up the production of spores as a

major means of asexual reproduction
energy is put into a much more effective form of sexual reproduction
only a few reproduce regularly asexually by budding or fragmentation
eg. jumping cholla
eg. maternity plant
but most flowering plants can reproduce asexually in nature due to some of
the modifications of vegetative structures mentioned previously
 adventitious roots
 tuberous roots
 runners (=stolons)
 rhizomes
 suckers
 bulbs

plants also have great powers of regeneration
 if a branch, bud, limb or root breaks off it
will sometimes take root and germinate into a new plant
artificially, plants are cloned by grafting and rooting
Grafting
freshly cut surfaces of 2 stems are bound together
firmly so that two cambial layers are in contact
most successful grafts are between members of same

species (ie varieties)
eg. navel (seedless) oranges are propagated only by

grafting
Stem Cuttings
of some plants (eg coleus, willow, roses) placed in moist soil
produce adventitious roots
Classification of Flowering Plants
Two major groups of flowering plants:

monocots
~65,000 species
flower parts in three’s
parallel veined leaves
onions, grasses, irises, lilies, coconut palms
dicots
more diverse, (>170,000 species)
flower parts in 4’s or 5’s
net veined leaves
oaks, roses, mustards, cacti, sunflowers
Monocots Dicots
floral parts in 3’s floral parts in 4’s and 5’s
leaves are long tapered leaves broad with netted
blades veins
with veins stems with vascular
stems with scattered bundles in
vascular one large circle
bundles seeds with 2 cotyledons
seeds with 1 cotyledon

Why are flowering plants so successful:
1. highly adaptable vegetative organs including complex symbioses with

fungi and bacteria enhance survival
2. form and diversity of leaves maximize photosynthetic efficiency
3. much more efficient transport tissues structure of both xylem and

phloem are more efficient than in conifers
4. diversity in flower structure greatly enhances success and diversity of

group
5. seed within fruit

better protection
much greater variety of dispersal
Economic Value of Flowering Plants
1. virtually all crop plants are flowering plants
eg. monocots: grains, corn, millet, sugarcane, etc

eg. dicots: carrots, lettuce, beans, tomatoes, potatoes
most crops come from a single family: Gramineae (grasses)
[insert Origin of Agriculture]
2. caffeine beverages: teas, coffee, cocoa
caffeine – a plant alkaloid

common additive in coffee, teas, soft drinks,
stimulate CNS, speeds heartbeat, increases blood pressure,
stimulates breathing constricts blood vessels
used to alleviate fatigue and drowsiness
improves athletic performance
like many drugs caffeine is addictive and can

cause withdrawal symptoms
a. coffee
made from the seeds of Coffea arabica,
native to mountains of Ethiopia

used for 1000’s of years
at first beans were eaten whole
later were crushed and mixed with fat and eaten
roasting the seeds and producing a drink similar to our coffee didn’t
begin until 13th century in Yemen
today coffee trees are cultivated in tropical climates
b. teas
according to the Chinese, tea was discovered
by the Emperor Shen Nung in 2737 BC when a tea leaf fell
into a pot of water being boiled for drinking.
today, tea is the world’s most popular beverage, next to water
tea is made from dried leaves of Camellia sinensis, a small tree or

shrub native to China, Tibet, India and burma
each plant is pruned to ensure shrubby growth
the best tea is made from the terminal bud and top two leaves of
each branch
harvested tea is:

dried
rolled to break up cells
fermented
fired to stop the fermentation process and
further reduce moisture content leaves
turn dark black =black tea
green teas are not fermented and dried as much

 leaves remain green
or oolong tea are partially fermented and dried

to light greenish brown color
the aroma & flavor of tea is created mainly by

the oils and tannins in the leaves
green tea seems to have cancer preventative properties
stimulating effects of some teas due to caffeine

c. chocolate:
used for beverages and foods.
Extracted from the seed of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao) which
is native to tropical Central and South America.
(not same as coca plant the source of cocaine)
the small tree grows as understory plant in tropical forests,

requires wet warm climate
processing:
begins with roasting to develop the rich color and full flavor
the seeds are then cracked open and crushed to produce a

dark brown oily paste
this paste can be solidified into squares of baking chocolate
or the cocoa butter can be removed from the paste with heat
and pressure leaving behind cocoa powder
cocoa butter has many uses:

mainly to produce chocolate
used to produce confectionery chocolate or white
chocolate
also used in suntan lotions, soaps and cosmetics
3. cooking oils
eg. corn, canola, peanut, sesame, olive, etc
4. spices and seasonings
ancient peoples were probably first attracted to spices by their scents
ancient Egyptians used herbs and spices extensively in medicine,

cooking, embalming and as perfumes and incense
during the time of the ancient Greeks, the spice trade was flourishing
between the Mediterranean region and the Far East
eg. cinnamon, cassia, black pepper, ginger
many were lost then rediscovered by Marco Polo in 1200’s

eg. black pepper
one of the earliest spices known
the most widely used spice today
black pepper is obtained from the dried berries of Piper

nigrum, a climbing vine native to India and the East Indies
the berries are picked green just before they ripen
they are allowed to dry for a few days causing them to

blacken and shrivel
begin to lose their flavor after grinding

 fresh ground are preferred
whole=peppercorns, or ground
eg. Cinnamon
one of the oldest and most valuable spices known
use has been documented from ancient times by Egyptians,

Greeks, Romans and Chinese
was one of the main spices sought in the early explorations
comes from the bark of an evergreen tree Cinnamomum

zeylanicum native to India and Sri Lanka, other varieties are
from SE Asia
grows best under wet, tropical conditions
outer layer of bark is scraped away and inner bark curls into
“quills”(=cinnamon sticks)
sticks can be ground into powder
in addition to its use as a food spice it has been used in

medicines, perfumes and other scents
eg. Cloves
cloves are the unopened flower buds of Eugenia

caryophyllata, an evergreen tree
valued in ancient China where used to sweeten the breath of

court officials
buds must be picked with care since once opened they are
useless as a spice
after picking, buds are dried and marketed as whole cloves

or ground and used in desserts, beverages, meats, pickling,
sauces and gravies
in Indonesia, cloves are mixed with tobacco for cigars and

cigarettes
clove oil has also been used in medicines, disinfectants,

mouthwashes, toothpaste, soaps and perfumes
eg Nutmeg
obtained from the nutmeg tree, Myristica fragrans, native to

the Spice Islands
the pit of the fruit of this tree is cured until the seed is freed
from the pit
the nutmeg seed is sold whole or ground
nutmeg has received some notoriety as a potential

hallucinogen
however need very large quantities
such quantities would cause nausea, vomiting,

dizziness and headaches
eg. Saffron
world’s most expensive spice
obtained from the stigmas of the flower of the autumn

crocus, Crocus sativus, in the Iris family
plant is native to eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor
was much desired by many ancient civilizations

today most (70%) Saffron comes from Spain
purple flowers appear in autumn, short blooming period (2 wks)
flowers must be picked in full bloom before wilting

 often the critical time for the harvest is just a few hrs
once picked, flowers are carefully stripped of their stigmas;

must be done before the flower wilts
stigmas are dried and roasted
retail US (1998): $240.00/oz
eg. Chili Peppers
a new world spice, cultivated for >9000 yrs
these peppers are fruit of the pepper plant, Capsicum sp.,

which includes 5 cultivated species and 100’s of varieties
includes mild sweet bell peppers & many varieties of hot

peppers such as cayenne, tabasco, habanero
a member of the tomato family
the biting taste is due to several alkaloids, esp capsaicin
mainly found in seeds and placental area
bell pepper has almost no capsaicin; in others, even

handling can irritate the skin
has also been used in pepper spray
and by physicians in creams that are applied to relieve pain

of arthritis, shingles and cluster headaches
eg. vanilla
also a new world spice
the only spice obtained from an orchid, Vanilla planifolia, a

perennial vine native to tropical rainforests of Central America
and Mexico
today also cultivated in Madagascar and islands of Indian Ocean
produces elongated pods that are processed into the vanilla beans
flowers are hand pollinated
pods are picked while green and are cured for several
months by heating and fermenting, then dried
uncured beans lack the characteristic vanilla flavor which is

due to vanillin, a chemical synthesized during the curing
process
today, vanillin can be synthesized chemically from clove oil,

lignin from wood plp or coal tar to produce imitation vanilla
extract
extracts of tonka beans, Dipteryx odorata, are sometimes

passed off as vanilla extract. A dangerous substitute since
these beans contain coumarin, a blood thinner that could
cause internal hemorrhaging
eg. licorice plant (Glycyrrhiza glabra)
ancient Chines and Greeks used licorice as a cold remedy,

digestive aid, wound healer and asthma treatment
>400 biologically active chemicals have been found in plant
flavor comes from anethole, an essential oil also found in

fennel and anise
also contains glycyrrhizin which may interfere with steroid

hormones and cause imbalances in body chemistry and high
blood pressure and heart problems in susceptible people
eg. sasparilla  roots of greenbriar, Smilax
eg. sassafras  bark of sassafras tree
5. lumber: hardwoods
a. oaks
wood is heavy and strong, about twice as dense as white
pine, resilient, durable, impermeable to liquids
eg. makes good barrels, flooring, cabinets, furniture
b. walnut
harder than oak, shock resistant, beauty of grain, good
machining properties,
eg. choice hardwood for fine furniture and interior
paneling
c. ash
resilient, straight grained, stiffness, strength, good bending
abilities, remains smooth as it wears
eg. used for baseball bats, tennis racquets, oars, skis,
long tool handles
d. maple
smooth, hard, strong
eg. Romans used for spears and lances
eg. bowling pins and bowling alleys, dance floors, toys
eg. spools, bobbins, cue sticks, croquet balls
e. birch
light and soft
eg. clothespins, toothpicks, thread spools
f. elm
eg. wood paneling, hockey sticks, church pews
g. teak
eg. furniture, shipbuilding
h. yew
eg. English longbows were made from this
i. hickory
hardwood; hardness, strength, toughness, resiliency
eg. in horse and buggy days was widely used for wheel
spokes and rims
eg. handles of impact tools like axes and hammers, skis
6. commercial products:
wood alcohol: esp from oaks and hickories
latex/rubber, adhesives
maple syrup
sugar
tanning materials from oak
7. Dyes
vegetable dyes
not used as much today
eg. indigo  stems and leaves of Indian legume

eg. saffron  stigmas of crocus
eg. black dyes  logwood from tropical Americas
eg. madder  roots of herbaceous plant
8. Perfumes
the art of perfumery has been practiced for at least 4000 years
9. pharmaceutical extracts
are secondary plant products, especially alkaloids
100’s of plant extracts (alkaloids) are known to have pharmaceutical

applications
eg. atropine; active ingredient in belladonna from roots and

leaves of nightshade
eg. aspirin
eg. quinine extracted from bark of Cinchona tree
for treatment of malaria
eg. jimsonweed  scopolamine  hallucinogenic
native Americans used for puberty rights and rituals
eg. aloe used to treat burns and rashes
eg. digitalisleaves of foxglove
eg. morphine  alkaloid of opium poppy
eg. strychnine  from seed of asian tree, Nux vomica
eg. ipecac
eg. eucalyptus oil
eg. castor oil  from seeds of castor bean
eg. camphor  distilled from wood of Asiatic tree
many additional plants and herbs are thought to

have medicinal properties but many/most have not yet been
scientifically evaluated
drug companies regularly screen unusual plants

and animals for chemicals that might have clinical applications

The Pseudoscience of Neutriceuticals
nutraceutical industry is multibillion dollar industry

makes sometimes fantastic claims that have never been verified by
scientific evaluation
Americans spend $14 B/yr on health related therapies that have not
been scientifically validated
there is no law that regulates the claims that can be made on

these products
only a few have been tested recently
eg. Houston health food stores & herbal remedies

 all those contacted said they had herbs that
would treat or cure HIV/AIDS
10. Illegal drugs; drug trafficking
cocaine from coca leaves
11. cork from bark of cork tree

eg. Quercus suber = cork tree
grows on >30 M acres in Spain and Portugal
renewable resource
 harvesters carefuly strip away outer bark
without damaging cork cambium
harvested about every 9 - 10 years
cork used for: stoppers gaskets
life preservers fishing floats
flooring insulation
wildlife has flourished in these cork oak forests
use of plastic corks may force cork farmers to turn to

other crops – may destroy balanced ecosystem
12. fiber
for clothing, rope, baskets etc
cotton  #1 fiber
flax  linen, very fine fibers
hemp
jute coarse fibers
abaca
rayon  wood and cellulose compounds
paper pulp
13. paper
most paper is made from conifer wood
but finer papers come from flowering plants:

cotton
linen
papayrus
14. energy
wood burning
alternative energy sources
eg. ethanol fuel from corn & agricultural wastes

eg. creosote bush
15. Paleobotany & Forensic Botany
a. Dendrochronology
counting tree rings
can accurately date back to 50,000 years using

wood found in archaeological sites
b. Plant Remains
archaeologists have made extensive use of plant remains in

reconstructing the lifestyle of ancient peoples
not all parts of a plant are equally well preserved
lignified wood and fibers are most resistant to decay
eg. seeds, wood, pollen phytoliths and fibers

are the most informative
phytoliths are plant crystals that are

formed in the vacuoles of epidermal
cells in the stems and leaves of some
herbaceous plants
they are usually composed of

calcium salts or silica and can
remain intact for 1000’s of years
the same principles of plant identification are used in modern

forensic science
eg. the 1st use of plant forensics was the famous 1935
Lindberg kidnapping case.
Bruno Hauptmann was convicted of kidnapping and

murdering the son of Charles and Anne Lindberg.
a homemade wooden ladder used during the

kidnapping and left at the scene was shown to be made
of wooden planks from Hauptmann’s attic floor
In modern forensics, even herbaceous plant parts can be useful:
eg. fragments of tree leaves and bark in the cuff of an

accused rapist indicated that he had climbed a tree to
get into a window of the victims home rather than being
invited through the front door as he had claimed
since plant materials are not digested well by

our stomachs, stomach analysis can determine foods eaten
and time since meal with great accuracy
eg. in cases of suspected plant poisoning ID can be

made from leaves or fruits of intact plants
eg. analysis of stomach contents:

investigation of a salad eaten by victim allowed
investigators to identify the specific restaurant where
the victim had eaten; his companion at the time of the
meal was identified and eventually charged

Plant Diversity

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Plant Diversity

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Plant Diversity

Plants are classified into 4 major groups:

from simplest to most complex

Mosses (~15,000 species)

small, simple, in moist habitats, oldest fossils

eg mosses, liverworts, hornworts

Ferns (11,000 species)

more complex tissues and organs

eg horsetails, whisk ferns, club mosses

Conifers (760 species)

mostly trees and shrubs, reproduction by producing

eg pines, spruce, fir, cedar, cypress

Flowering Plants (235,000 species, 90% all plants)

most complex in terms of structure

reproduce by producing pollen, and seeds in fruits

eg. lilies, irises, grasses, wildflowers, crop plants,

Plants: Mosses & Allies

eg. mosses, liverworts, hornworts

Plants: Plant Diversity; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2006 1

General Characteristics of Mosses

1. are the most ancient plants

oldest plant fossils; over 400MY old

mosses apparently developed from a green alga as a “dead end” group

not in direct path of evolution

(ie. vascular plants did not have moss ancestors)

but vascular plants probably also evolved from a green algal

most are small (<20 cm) and inconspicuous

no true vascular tissues

3. generally poorly adapted to land

tend to live in moist places

still tied to water for sexual reproduction

still tied to water for reproduction

thin cuticle in most, some lack it

no water distribution system: no vascular tissue

internal flow by osmosis and cytoplasmic streaming

no true roots, stems or leaves (since no vascular tissue)

slender stemlike structure bears leaflike blades

can grow upright or along ground

sensitive indicators of air pollution

Reproduction and Life Cycle:

show basic alternation of generations with gametophyte the dominant form in

the zygote grows into a sporophyte

that remains attached to the gametophyte for nutrition

when spores are mature, capsule bursts open as it dries out

wind or rain carry spores to new areas where they germinate

grow into leafy gametophyte

Ecological Significance of Mosses

produce acids that help in soil formation

hold soil in place and help prevent erosion along streams

Plants: Plant Diversity; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2006 3

acid inhibits the growth of most other plants

also inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi

preserves animal and plant remains

peat bogs: major carbon reserves eg. Sphagnum

used for fuel in England and some northern countries

Human Impacts of Mosses

1. used for fuel in England and some northern countries

2. until WWII mosses used as wound dressing

 has antiseptic properties

3. mosses are sensitive indicators of air pollution

4. moss collected and sold for crafts and florists

est $8.4 – $33.7 M/yr business collecting and