The Earth is around 4.6 billion years old.

Physical evidence of geological changes and the

mineralized remains of living organisms (fossils), as well as material remains and artifacts of
human societies, offer archaeologists important insights into the past.
Archaeologists seek to place discoveries within a broader historical framework; in other words,
to get a sense for the time period that an object comes from and how it relates to other finds,
times, and places in the archaeological record. This helps to build a better picture of how humans
lived in the past, as well as how humanity, culture, and societies evolved over time.
There are a variety of scientific methods that archaeologists use to analyze the age and origins of
fossils, remains, or other artifacts. Dating methods can enable bio-archaeologists to determine
factors such as environment, diet, health, or migration patterns of humans, plants, or animals.
Knowing the age of an object of material culture, how it was made, and the surrounds in which it
was found, also help classical, historical, or ethnoarchaeologists to better hypothesize the
purpose or cultural meaning that might have been attributed to it in the past. Ordering
archaeological finds within time periods across traditions is how archaeologists piece together
the past that connects all contemporary cultures today.
Relative vs. Absolute Dating
How do archaeologists determine how old an object is?
Relative dating methods estimate whether an object is younger or older than other things found
at the site. Relative dating does not offer specific dates, it simply allows to determine if one
artifact, fossil, or stratigraphic layer is older than another.
Absolute dating methods provide more specific origin dates and time ranges, such as an age
range in years. How specific these dates can be will depend on what method is used.

Absolute Dating Methods

Radiocarbon Dating
Radiocarbon dating is the most widely used dating technique in archaeology. It relies on
a natural phenomenon that is the foundation of life on earth. Indeed, carbon 14 (14C) is
formed from the reaction caused by cosmic rays that convert nitrogen into carbon 14
and then carbon dioxide by combining with carbon 12 (12C) and carbon 13 (13C ),
which are stable carbon isotopes. Following the death of an organism, any exchange
ceases and the carbon 14, which is radioactive and therefore unstable, slowly begins to
disintegrate at a known rate (half-life of 5730 years, ie, after this period only half of the
total carbon 14 present at the time of death remains). The amount of carbon 14
remaining in the material to date is compared to a reference standard (ratio 14C/total
carbon, 12C and 13C) to calculate the time elapsed since its occurrence. A sample
requires 10 to 20 grams of matter and usually consists of charred organic material,
mainly charcoal, but bones (see zooarchaeology) and shells can also be dated using
this technique. An initial reading dates the specimen which is then calibrated by
considering this date and its correspondence with the measurable level of carbon 14
stored over time in the growth rings of certain tree species, including redwood and pine
bristol. The results of radiocarbon dating are expressed in years and include a time
range (eg, 630± 60 BP). Subsequently, the calibration of that date provides a time
interval where the event or object being dated can be situated (eg, 1275-1425 AD).
Radiocarbon dating, however, can only be used for dating objects that are less than 50
000 years.
 Dendrochronology
Dendrochronology is a method that studies the rings of tree trunks to define
characteristic sequences by analyzing the morphology of growth rings for a given
species. This method is based on the principle that the variation in tree growth from one
year to another is influenced by the degree of precipitation, sunshine, temperature, soil
type and all ambient conditions and that, consequently, reference patterns can be
distinguished. Several sets of rings from different trees are matched to build an average
sequence. Subsequently, overlapping series of average sequences from trees that died
at different times and come from various sources (ie, the wood of historic buildings,
archaeological and fossil woods) are used to build a chronological sequence covering
several hundred years which becomes a reference. Finally, absolute dating is obtained
by synchronizing the average sequences with series of live (and thus datable) trees and
thus anchors the tree-ring chronology in time.
Dendrochronology mainly uses softwood species that are sensitive to changes in
growth conditions, while hardwoods show rather little variation in ring width. This
method provides very accurate dating, sometimes to the nearest year. It is especially
used to develop calibration curves used to correct data obtained from radiocarbon
dating, a technique that remains imprecise due to fluctuations in the concentration of
carbon 14 in the atmosphere over the centuries.

Thermoluminescence
Thermoluminescence uses the phenomenon of ionizing radiations that naturally occur in
the atmosphere. This technique relies on a unique physicochemical property of
certain minerals (especially quartz and feldspar) that have an imperfect structure and
therefore retain radioactive elements in the natural environment. When these minerals
are heated while a pot is being baked during the occupation of an archaeological site,
for instance, the traps formed by their crystal structure are emptied and the clock is
reset to zero. Subsequently, the total flow rate of irradiation (paleodose) since the reset
is calculated by heating the specimen once more, and this result is then compared to
the annual input recorded by a dosimeter installed on the archaeological site where the
object being dated was found. The calculation (age of the specimen = paleodose/annual
dose) provides information about when the pottery pot was baked and, thereby, about
the chronology of the archaeological occupation in which it was found.
Thermoluminescence is a technique that requires complex manipulation. To obtain a
date for a single pottery sample, it is necessary to perform a laboratory fractionation of
the clay mineral used in the manufacture of the pottery and prepare nearly 75 sub-
samples; some of these are heated to release the level of thermoluminescence, while
others receive a radiation dose to measure their sensitivity to radiation.
Thermoluminescence can replace radiocarbon dating to date events that occurred more
than 50 000 years ago; it is used mainly for dating stone fireplaces, ceramics and fire
remains.

Fission-track dating: A technique that determines age of various minerals and glasses based on
the trails of damage done by the spontaneous fission of uranium-238, the most abundant isotope
of uranium.
Potassium-argon (K-Ar) and Argon-argon (Ar-Ar): measure the ratio of argon gas in igneous
volcanic rock to estimate how much time has elapsed since the rock cooled and solidified.
Archaeomagnetic dating: Magnetic particles in most materials of geological origin, such as
rocks and clay, are analyzed to track shifts in the earth’s magnetic fields over time