Sana Final PDF

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Experiments
name Roll no.
Atia Ghafoor 191870090
Ayesha Mahmood 191870052
Ayesha Saeed 191870092
Tehreem Saba 191870093
Applied Psychology. GIFT. University
Experimental Psychology, PSY-206
Mam Sana Rehman
9/8/2020
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EXPERIMENT NO: 1
Digit Span Experiment:
Introduction:
A digit-span task is used to measure working memory's number storage capacity.
Participants see or hear a sequence of numerical digits and are tasked to recall the sequence
correctly, with increasingly longer sequences being tested in each trial. The participant's span
is the longest number of sequential digits that can accurately be remembered. The digit span
test is a very short test that evaluates a person's cognitive status. It is frequently used in
hospitals and physicians' offices in order for a clinician to quickly evaluate whether a
patient's cognitive abilities are normal or impaired. The digit span test initially was part of
Wechsler's Intelligence Scale, which was designed to measure a person's intelligence quotient
(IQ). The digit span test consists of telling the person that you are going to give him a short
test. The person is then told to listen carefully because you will say a series of numbers and
ask him to repeat them back to you in the same order you say them. The first series has three
numbers, such as "3, 9 and 2." Each number is said in a monotone voice, one second apart.
The person repeats those numbers back to you.
The next step is to speak a series of four numbers, such as, "4, 7, 3, and 1." Again, the
individual repeats those back to you. Continue in the same manner by increasing the series of
numbers to five and ask the person to repeat the numbers back to you. Some test versions
stop after a series of five numbers, while other versions continue increasing the series of
numbers by one each time until the answers are incorrect. Administering the test forward and
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backward assesses short-term memory. When the backward version of the test is given, it also
measures working memory. (Heerema, 2022)
Verbal working memory is involved in many everyday tasks, such as remembering a
friend's telephone number while entering it into a phone and understanding long and difficult
sentences. Verbal working memory is also thought to be one of the elements underlying
intelligence (often referred to as 'IQ,' meaning "intelligence quotient"); thus, the digit span
task is a common component of many IQ tests, including the widely used Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Performance on the digit span task is also closely linked to
language learning abilities; improving verbal memory capacities may therefore aid mastery of
a new language.First and foremost, digit span, along with reaction time, may be viewed as
one of the two original paradigms used by experimental psychologists to investigate
cognition. (Libon, 2018).
Digit-span tasks can be given forwards or backwards, meaning that once the sequence
is presented, the participant is asked to either recall the sequence in normal or reverse order.
Digit-span tasks are the most commonly used test for memory span, partially because
performance on a digit-span task cannot be affected by factors such as semantics, frequency of
appearance in daily life, complexity, etc. (Panch, 2010) Verbal working memory is involved
in many everyday tasks, such as remembering a friend's telephone number while entering it
into a phone and understanding long and difficult sentences. Verbal working memory is also
thought to be one of the elements underlying intelligence (often referred to as 'IQ,' meaning
"intelligence quotient"); thus, the digit span task is a common component of many IQ tests,
including the widely used Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Performance on the digit
span task is also closely linked to language learning abilities; improving verbal memory
capacities may therefore aid mastery of a new language.

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First and foremost digit span, along with reaction time, may be viewed as one of the
two original paradigms used by experimental psychologists to investigate cognition. The
origins of digit span as a psychological construct date from the work Gottfried Leibniz (1646–
1716).
Literature review:
Separate Digits tests: A brief history, a literature review, and a
reexamination of the factor structure of the test of memory and learning (TOMAL)
In 1995 Michael C. Ramsay & Cecil R. Reynolds conducted a study. The subject of
whether to scale Digits Forward and Backward independently is addressed in a study on a brief
history of Digit Span, a survey of 27 articles, chosen from 76. The studies using Digits Forward
are reviewed first, then those involving Digits Backward, and finally those including both
subtests. In addition, related solutions are supplied for comparison. Finally, the loadings of the
four TOMAL subtests Digits Forward and Backward are examined in the context of two, three,
and four factor solutions. Numerous inferences are drawn from the analysis. Despite their
similarities, Digits Forward and Backward load differently in the three and four factor
solutions. Additionally, Digits Backward exhibits a spatial element and may even have a
transformative element that is not present in Digits Forward. Moreover, the differences
between the two measures have important neurologic and diagnostic implications.
Blankenship, A. B. (1938). Memory span: a review of the literature, the ability of a
person to immediately reproduce, following a single presentation, a succession of discrete
stimuli in their original order is a functional definition of memory span. Since attention,
associability, imagery, and memory are all processes that are involved in memory span, a
structural definition is more challenging. The specificity of memory span or errors in the
methodology used to investigate a general ability may cause variations in memory span with
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material and sense organ. Extrinsic factors (such as the characteristics of the material used,
the rhythm and rate of presentation, the method of scoring the responses, fatigue, time of day,
attitude, distraction, practice, subjective grouping of the units, temporarily pathological
conditions, and drug effects) and intrinsic factors (such as one's own characteristics) can
affect memory span (age, sex, race, permanent pathological condition). Extrinsic factors can
be controlled carefully enough for memory span tests to show high reliability. The relation
between memory span and intelligence has led to its use as a clinical. Reliable Digit Span
(RDS) is a heavily researched symptom validity test with a recent literature review yielding
more than 20 studies ranging in dates from 1994 to 2011.
Unfortunately, limitations within some of the research minimize clinical
generalizability. This systematic review and cross-validation study was conducted to address
these limitations, thus increasing the measure’s clinical utility. Sensitivity and specificity
rates were calculated for the ≤6 and ≤7 cutoffs when data were globally combined and
divided by clinical groups. The cross validation of specific diagnostic groups was consistent
with the data reported in the literature. Overall, caution should be used when utilizing the ≤7
cut-off in all clinical groups and when utilizing the ≤6 cut-off in the following groups:
cerebrovascular accident, severe memory disorders, mental retardation, borderline intellectual
functioning, and English as a second language. Additional limitations and cautions are
provided of the multiple SVTs that clinicians might choose from, one of the oldest and most
heavily researched is Reliable Digit Span (Boone, 2007). Greiffenstein, Baker, and Gola
(1994) originally derived RDS from the Digit Span subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale–Revised. They calculated the measure by “summing the longest string of digits
repeated without error over two trials under both forward and backward conditions
(Christopher, 147-159).
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A recent review of the literature yielded more than 20 studies on RDS, with one study
being a meta-analytic review of the measure. The meta-analysis indicates that there are strong
effect sizes across Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) test versions (e.g., WAIS-R vs.
WAIS-III). Additionally, the met analysis indicates that RDS effectively discriminates between
individuals providing credible effort and individuals providing suspect effort (average
weighted effect size of 1.34). This information is crucial, as it indicates that the measure is
valid and effective despite updated WAIS test versions. The meta-analysis provides useful
information and it has many strengths; however, it is not without limitations. The first limitation
of the meta-analysis is that it does not report sensitivity and specificity rates for multiple cut-
off scores; instead, it shows sensitivity and specificity rates for a cut-off score of 7.1. Second,
the meta-analysis does not report sensitivity and specificity rates for different clinical groups;
rather, it reports global sensitivity and specificity rates based on nine published studies
(Jasinski, 2011)
Problem Statement:
To study the forward and backward memory for digit span.
Methodology;
Hypothesis:
Memory span is larger for forward digits than the memory span for
backward digits.
Independent Variable:
Sequence of retrieval
Dependent Variable:
Memory Span
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Sample/subject:
A single subject performed the experiment, her age is 23 years and
had no previous knowledge about the experiment.
Instruments/Tools:
A document on which digit span table was used, paper, and pencil.
Procedure:
In this digit span process, we take two participants, one of them is control
group and other one is experimental group. In experimental group we filled two times a table
from the participant and from control group we filled one time a table. Then we call the forward
digits and ask them to repeat these digits and there is also a recall option for them but only for
3 times. Then we call the backward digits and then again ask them to repeat these digits. And
then write the results and save them.
Results:
Our hypothesis is that memory span is larger for forward digits than the
memory span for backward digits. And our forward memory span is 9 and backward memory
span is 7. Means that memory span for forward digits is larger than backward digits. So our
hypothesis is proved.
Table 1:
Experimental group:
Forward Memory Span
Stimulus Trail Recall Score
3, 4, 8 1 3,4,8 3
2,3,4,8 1 2,3,4,8 4
3,4,2,9,7,1 1 3,4,2,9,7,1 6
8
9,3,6,4,5,7,1 1 9,3,64,5,7,1 7
9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7 3 9,4,6,3,5,2,18,7 9
Control group
Forward Memory Span
Stimulus Trail Recall
Score
3,4,8 1 3,4,8 3
2,3,4,8 1 2,3,4,8 4
3,4,2,9,7,1 2 3,4,2,9,7,1 6
9,3,6,4,5,7,1 1 7
9,3,6,4,5,7,1
9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7 2 9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7 9
The control group's results show that the subject's answers from the first four
numbers lines were correct. The patient completes the fifth line after two tries.
Experimental group
Forward Memory Span
Stimulus
Trail Recall Score
3,4,8 1 3,4,8 3
2,3,4,8 1 2,3,4,8 4
3,4,2,9,7,1 1 3,4,2,9,7,1 6
9,3,6,4,5,7,1 2 9,3,6,4,5,7,1 7
9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7 2 9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7 9
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The experimental group's findings were obtained after 5 minutes. It indicates that the
subject's responses to all of the numbers lines were correct at first trail.
Table 2
Experimental group
Backward Memory Span
Stimulus
Trail Recall Score
3,4,8 1 8,4,3 3
2,3,4,8 1 8,4,3,2 4
43,4,2,9,7,1 1 1,7,9,2,4,3 6
9,3,6,4,5,7,1 2 1,7,9,2,4,3 7
9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7 1 9,3,6,4,5,7,1 9
The experimental groups of the backward digit span results are from the first two
numbers lines, it indicates that the subject's responses were correct. The individual completes
it in two tries in the last lines.
Control group
Stimulus
Trail Recall Score
3,4,8 1 8,4,3 3
2,3,4,8 8,4,3,2 4
3,4,2,9,7,1 1,7,9,2 4
9,3,6,4,5,7,1 2 1,7,5,4,6 5
10
9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7 3 7,8,1,2,5,3,6 7
In the "control" group from the first three numbers lines, it shows that the subject's
responses were correct. The subject completes the fourth and fifth lines after two trials.
Experimental group
Stimulus
Trail Recall Score
3,4,8 1 8,4,3 3
2,3,4,8 1 8,4,3,2
3,4,2,9,7,1 1 1,7,9,2,4,3 6
9,3,6,4,5,7,1 2 1,7,5,4,6,3,9 7
9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7 2 9
7,8,1,2,5,3,6,4,9
The experimental group's findings were obtained after 5 minutes. From the first two
numbers lines, it indicates that the subject's responses were correct. The individual takes
several attempts to complete the third, fourth, and fifth lines, however there is an error on the
last two lines.
Table 3
Total Memory Recall for Forward and Backward Span
Sequence of Recall Memory Span
Forward memory span 9
Backward memory span 7

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Discussion:
In this digit span process, we take two participants, one of them is control group and
other one is experimental group. In experimental group we filled two times a table from the
participant and from control group we filled one time a table. Then we call the forward digits
and ask them to repeat these digits and there is also a recall option for them but only for 3 times.
Then we call the backward digits and then again ask them to repeat these digits. Participant of
experimental group performs better because he gets more trials, and we conducted this test
from him 2 times. And participant of control group make more mistakes because he get no
trials and we perform this test only one time. This experiment produce same results as Michael
C. Ramsay & Cecil R. Reynolds experiments results. And our hypothesis also proved the
statement that memory for forward digit span is larger than backward digit span.
References:
Banken, J. A. (1985). Clinical utility of considering Digits Forward and Digits
Backward as separate components of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised. Journal
of Clinical Psychology 41: 686–691.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02214760
Griffin, P. T., and Heffernan, A. (1983). Digit Span Forward and Backward: Separate
and unequal components of the WAIS Digit Span.Perceptual and Motor Skills 56: 335–338.
Panch, G. (2010). Association: Concept, Types and Laws | Psychology. PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISCUSSION.
Battista, M. (2022, august). cambridge brain science . Retrieved from
http://help.cambridgebrainsciences.com/en/articles/624895-what-is-the-digit-span-test
Boone. (2007). A Leader's Framework for Decision Making. Harvard Business Review, 68-
76.
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Christopher, e. a. ( 147-159). Expansion and re-examination of Digit Span effort indices on
the WAIS-IV. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 2012.
Heerema, E. (2022, February 24). Verry well mind. Retrieved from
https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-is-the-digit-span-test-
98627#:~:text=The%20digit%20span%20test%20is,abilities%20are%20normal%20or
%20impaired.
Jasinski. (2011). Use of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Digit Span subtest for
malingering detection: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Clinical and Experimental
Neuropsychology, 300-314.
Libon, J. (2018). Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology. SpringerLink, 844–849.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 2
Retroactive Inhibition:
Introduction:
Retroactive inhibition is the negative effect of an activity following memorization on
the retention of the material memorized. If memorization is followed by some other activity,
recall of the material may not be as complete as when the memorization is followed by rest
(Smirnov, 1973). This deterioration of recall is due to the "inhibitory" effect of the activity
following the memorization. Therefore, the inhibition involved has been designated
retroactive inhibition. Obviously, this "retroactive effect" cannot be interpreted literally as an
influence on the actual process of memorization (Smirnov, 1973). By the time the next
activity begins, this process has already been completed, and therefore we are dealing not
with an influence on the process itself, but only on the "traces" resulting from the
memorization (Smirnov, 1973). The first systematic study of retroactive inhibition dates back
to Muller & Pilzecker (1900) who coined the term (rUckwirkende Hemming).
Retroactive inhibition became the object of extensive study (printed in a considerable
number of publications) in which the effects of the most diverse conditions on this
phenomenon of great scientific interest were examined (Smirnov, 1973). Retroactive
inhibition is of substantial theoretical interest, since it pertains directly to the problem of the
causes of forgetting. Some investigators even believe that retroactive inhibition is, if not the
only, then at least the main cause of forgetting (Smirnov, 1973). In this regard, the French
psychologist Foucault (Britt, 1935) states that "what causes forgetting is not time itself, but
how this time is occupied." Storing (1931) holds the same views, asserting that "not time in
itself, but the impressions received in the course of time lead quite naturally to the forgetting
of old impressions (Smirnov, 1973).

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Literature Review:
A retroactive interference experiment was conducted by Postman (1960, as cited in
McLeod, 2018) to investigate how retroactive interference affects learning. In other words,
to investigate whether information you have recently received interferes with the ability to
recall something you learned earlier. A lab experiment was used. Participants were split into
two groups. Both groups had to remember a list of paired words – e.g. cat - tree, jelly - moss,
book - tractor. The experimental group also had to learn another list of words where the
second paired word if different – e.g. cat – glass, jelly- time, book – revolver. The control
group were not given the second list. All participants were asked to recall the words on the
first list. The recall of the control group was more accurate than that of the experimental
group (Postman, 1960, as cited in McLeod, 2018).
Another experiment by McKinney (1935) tested a series of 4 full-page advertisements
which were presented to 40 undergraduates. Some subjects were tested for recall before and
after a 10-minute "work" interval occupied in studying two advertisements. Other subjects
were tested for recall similarly, but with an interpolated "rest" period involving number
cancellation. Retroactive inhibition was observed among participants for a whole
advertisement with percentage 5.39. The average effect of retroactive inhibition in
descending order from 23.5% to 0% on various parts of the advertisement is as follows:
slogan, picture, title, reading content, and name of product.
Problem Statement
To determine the effect of learning on prior learning by function of two non-sense
syllables.
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Methodology
Hypothesis
Subjects’ performance in control group on recall list A will be better than the recall
of subjects in experimental group.
Independent Variable
The list of non-syllables, Meaningful word
Dependent Variable
Subject recall
Sample/subject
There are two subjects, one is experimental and other is control group which has
same attribute no past experience and knowledge with same 8th semester.
Instruments/Tools
List of non-syllables, memory drum paper pencil, and stop watch.
Procedure :
The experiment was performed online via phone call. First, we use the recalling
method in which first subject is experiment. As a psychologist I recall the first the non-sense
words the subject listens carefully according the inform concerned he recall the words which
the subject remembers. The right and wrong pronunciation of words counted a then the
meaning words recalling and same procedure repeat. The experimental group has two
chances to improve the memorization. Then the turn of the control group and recall the sense
then non-sense words and record it.

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Results:
Table 1
Experimental Group non-sense syllables: List A
Trail Response Error
1 5 7
2 2 10
3 3 9
4 4 8
5 7 5
6 6 6
7 9 3
The table 1 shows the results for experimental group non-sense syllables list A. The
results indicates that subject accurately responded for all the non-sense words in 7 trials.
Table 2
Experimental Group non-sense syllables: List B
1 9 6
2 4 8
3 5 7
4 7 5
5 9 3
6 10 2
7 11 1
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The table 2 shows the results for experimental group non-sense syllables list B. The
results indicates that subject accurately responded for all the non-sense words 7 trials.
Table 3
Experimental Group Meaningful word: List A
1 6 6
2 7 5
3 8 4
4 9 3
5 9 3
6 10 2
7 11 1
The table 3 shows the results for experimental group meaningful words list A. The
results indicates that subject accurately responded for all the meaningful words in a total of 7
trials and error in recalling the meaningful words was found.
Table 4
Experimental Group Meaningful word: List B
1 11 1
2 9 3
3 11 1
4 12 0
5 10 2
6 11 1
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7 12 0
The table 4 shows the results for experimental group meaningful words list B. The
results indicates that subject accurately responded for all the meaningful words in a total of 7
trials and error in recalling the meaningful words was found.
Table 5
Recall
List Trial Responses Errors
Experimental A 7 5-9 7-3
group non-sense
syllables
Experimental B 7 9-11 3-1
group non-sense
syllables
Experimental A 7 6-11 6-1
group meaningful
words
Experimental B 7 11-12 1-0
group meaningful
words
Table 5 indicated the final recall for the non-sense and meaningful words List A, and
B for the experimental group. The results show that for the non-sense syllables List A the
subject responded to 5 words accurately and only made error for 7 words from the list,
whereas for List B the subject accurately responded to 11 words and made error for 1 word in
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the list. For the meaningful words List, A responded 6 words accurately and make 6 errors
and B the subject responded accurately 11 words from list and made one error.
Table 6
Control Group non-sense syllables
1 6 6
2 7 5
3 9 3
4 11 1
5 9 3
6 12 0
7 12 0
The table 6 shows the results for control group non-sense syllables. The results
indicates that subject accurately responded for all the non-sense words 7 trials in which errors
occurred.
Table 7
Control Group Meaningful words
1 5 7
2 4 8
3 3 9
4 5 7
5 5 7
6 9 3
20
7 8 4
The table 7 shows the results for control group meaningful words. The results
indicates that subject accurately responded the meaningful words in 7 trails.
Table 8
Recall
Trial Responses Errors
Control group 7 5-8 7-4
non-sense syllables
Control group 7 6-12 6-0
meaningful words
Table 8 indicated the recall for the control group non-sense syllables and meaningful
words. The results indicate that subject responded 6 words accurately and make 6 errors in
meaningful words while in non-sense words 5 right and 7 errors.
Table 9
Total Recall for Experimental Group and Control Group Meaningful and Non-Sense
Syllables
Groups List Trail Responses Errors
Experiment A 7 5-9 7-3
al group non-sense
syllables
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Experiment B 7 9-11 3-1
al group non-sense
syllables
Experiment A 7 6-11 6-1
al group
Meaningful words
Experiment B 7 11-12 1-0
al group
Meaningful words
Control - 7 6-12 6-0
group non-sense
syllables
Control - 7 5-8 7-4
group Meaningful
words
Table 9 indicated the total recall for the experimental group and control group non-
sense and meaningful words. The results indicate for the experimental group, the non-sense
syllables List A the subject responded to 7 words accurately and only made error for 5 word
from the list, whereas for List B the subject accurately responded to 9 words and made error
for 3 words in the list. For the meaningful words List, A and B, the subject responded
accurately to all 7 trials from both of the list and made some error. For the control group
non-sense syllables and meaningful words. The results indicate that subject responded to 6
words accurately for the non-sense words and made 6 errors, whereas for the meaningful
words the subject responded to 5 words correctly and made error in 7 words from the list.
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Discussion:
The study consisted of two groups one was experimental and the other was control
group who performed recalling experiment with the help of non-sense syllables and
meaningful words which they had to recall after they were shown to them after intervals.
Experimental group had two chances for each list while control group only one chance for
each list. Results were noted and the comparison shows us that the subject in experimental
group performed better in both the lists of words in comparison to the control group. Control
group has more visible errors in recalling both the meaningful words and the non-sense
syllables as well. These results from the experiment are considerably contradictory from the
studies which have been quoted in the literature of this report, whereas in one study the
control group performed better than experimental group which contradicts with this study.
The experiment produced different results as compared to the experiments conducted by
Postman (1960, as cited in McLeod, 2018) and McKinney (1935) as they conducted
experiments on interference by providing their experimental groups with interfering
information on a recall list they were advised to learn earlier, this experiment thus only
checked subjects’ errors in memory recall for meaningful and non-sense words.
References
Britt, S. H. (1935). Retroactive inhibition: a review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin,
381–440.
McKinney, F. (1935). Retroactive inhibition in advertising . Journal of Applied Psychology,
59–66.
McLeod. (2018).). Initial Assessment of High Utilizers of Emergency Department Services.
Doctoral dissertation, Shepherd University.

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McLeod, D. S. (2018). Proactive and Retroactive Interference. Retrieved from .
www.simplypsychology.org/proactive-and-retroactive-interference
Smirnov. (1973). Conditions for Retroactive Inhibition. Problems of the Psychology of
Memory, 279–298.
Guarnera, M., Pellerone, M., Commodari, E., Valenti, G. D., & Buccheri, S. L. (2019).
Mental Images and School Learning: A Longitudinal Study on Children. Frontiers in
Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02034
Sanders, C. W., Sadoski, M., van Walsum, K., Bramson, R., Wiprud, R., & Fossum, T. W.
(2008). Learning basic surgical skills with mental imagery: using the simulation
centre in the mind. Medical Education, 42(6), 607–612.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2007.02964.x
Nelis, S., Vanbrabant, K., Holmes, E. A., & Raes, F. (2012). Greater Positive Affect Change
after Mental Imagery than Verbal Thinking in a Student Sample. Journal of
Experimental Psychopathology, 3(2), 178–188. https://doi.org/10.5127/jep.021111

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EXPERIMENT NO: 3
Free Association:
Introduction:
Association is the connection between a percept an idea or between one idea and
another by virtue of which one appearing in consciousness tends to revive the other. You
perceived a pen and ink-pot always together in the past; an association has been established
between the ideas of the two articles in your mind; hence whenever you perceive or think of
one of them, you are reminded of the other.
Free association refers to the process in which one idea connects to another. Freud
introduced the concept to identify underlying unconscious conflicts, personality assessment
and therapeutic purpose. Panch, (2015) Free association is typically performed in a therapy
setting by first having the patient get into a relaxed position (sitting or lying down). It can be
done with the eyes open or closed; although, most people find closing their eyes helpful to
avoid surrounding distractions. The person then begins to talk, saying the first things that
come to mind. There is no effort made to tell a linear story or shape the ideas that come to
mind. The person spontaneously says his or her first thoughts without any concern for how
painful, silly or illogical it might sound to the therapist. (Barowski, 2021)
Laws of Free Associations:
There are two basic types of laws that are given by two different persons.
Primary Laws:
This law is given by Aristotle in 350 B.C.E which has following laws.
1. Law of similarity
2. Law of contrast
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3. Law of continuity
 Relative time period
 Law of relative place
Law of similarity:
The Law of Similarity states that when two things are very similar to each other, the
thought of one will often trigger the thought of the other. For example, when we think of
coffee, we often think of tea as well.
Law of continuity:
The Law of Contiguity states that we associate things that occur close to each other in
time or space. For example, if we think of thunder, we immediately think of lightning, since
the two often occur one after the other.
Law of contrast:
The Law of Contrast states that the thought of something is likely to trigger the
thought of its direct opposite. For example, when we hear the word "hot," we often think of
the word "cold."
Secondary Laws:
This law is given by Brown in 1970.
 Law of Privacy
 Law of Recency
 Law of Frequency
 Law of Vividness and Interest
Law of Privacy:
The right to intimate association refers to the right of individuals to maintain
close familial or other private associations free from state interference.

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Law of Recency:
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best
remembered.
Law of Frequency:
A principle of association stating that the more often ideas, events (e.g., stimuli and
responses), or other items co-occur, the stronger the connections between them.
Law of Vividness and Interest:
The most spectacular or striking impressions tend to be remembered rather than those
that are more ordinary.
Other types of association:
 Discrete association
 Continuous association
 Controlled association
 Partial control
 Fully Controlled
Importance:
Free association a tool used in psychoanalysis aims to deepen your self-understanding
by looking at whatever thoughts, words, or images come freely to your mind. During a free
association session, your therapist may ask you to share anything that is on your mind, such
as memories, words, images, or daydreams.
Association Retention Time:
The Ideal time for this experiment is 2 Seconds. Some factors effect it that are
 Type of stimulus
 Selection of experiment
 Age and gender

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 Disturbances
 Mental alertness
Literature review:
Theoretical concepts that were developed a few decades ago are often understood
rather as theoretical foundation stones and may be even seen as outdated in some cases.
Sometimes, however, situations occur when some older theory is still very influential and
inspiring for the field. In psychology, this is the case with Kelly’s (1955) personal construct
theory (PCT), to which the attention of researchers is turned rather frequently.
In dealing with the meanings of words, more precisely: in measuring the meanings of
words, the term semantic space is widely employed and two basic ways of delimiting it are
distinguished: (1) the traditional one, which is word-based and focused on the co-occurrence
of words (Lowe, 2006), and (2) the syntax-based, which reflects the mutual relations between
words (e.g., Geeraerts, 2010). Kelly’s PCT is focused primarily on a person who is actively
engaged in giving meaning to the world and the self. After many years Kelly’s contribution is
still considered to be radical, because his personal constructs psychology means abandoning
the mechanistic and reductionist traditions in psychological thinking, and it fits comfortably
into more recent developments aiming to see man in a holistic perspective (Stark, 1996)
The process of associating is comprehended as verbal constructing. As Kelly states,
“there are always some alternative constructions available to choose among in dealing with
the world” (Kelly, 1991, p. 11). Associations of the terms world and self-acquired in the
present study are considered to be basic meaning elements of what Kelly calls constructs:
“man creates his own ways of seeing the world in which he lives … man might be seen as an
incipient scientist … each individual man formulates in his own way constructs through
which he views the world of events” (Kelly, 1991, p. 9). Kelly also highlights the importance
28
of how people construct and understand the self: “The self is, when considered in the
appropriate context, a proper concept or construct. It refers to a group of events, which are
alike in a certain way and, in that same way, necessarily different from other events. The way
in which the events are alike is the self. That also makes the self an individual, differentiated
from other individuals” (Kelly, 1991, p. 91). Categorizing and further analysis of associations
of the words world and self, both of which are fundamental terms, became the key to our
study, inspired by Kelly’s PCT.A study report of free association in which participants were
asked to produce the first two words to come to mind. The findings were used to estimate the
reliability of indices of strength and set size for different types of items and to model free
association as a retrieval task. When confined to first responses, reliability was generally high
for both indices, particularly for words with smaller sets of associates and stronger primaries.
When second responses were included, reliability declined. A second response added new but
weak items to the set, and, when the primary associate was not produced on the first
opportunity, it tended not to be produced on the second. Relative to when multiple responses
are requested, first-response free association provides more reliable indices of the relative
strength and set size for a word’s strongest associates. A model of free association assuming
that a strength distribution underlies each response provided a good fit to the data. ( (Douglas,
2000)
Two operationally distinct data sources yielding estimates of associative meaningfulness have
evolved since 1950. One, Noble's m, is an intrasubject estimate. A second one, N, given by
the number of different single free associations occurring at least once over So, is an inter-
subject estimate. The two measures are substantially inversely correlated. Compared with m,
N is shown to be more parsimonious, and more general in being rationally applicable to
verbal learning, pattern learning, and to the learning of complex serially ordered stimuli such
as sentences. Adoption of free associative N as the empirical datum for associative

29
meaningfulness permits prediction of learning in extant studies according to the function:
Learning = f(1/N). Interference is assumed to be a positive function of N. Traditional
associative probability theory and its paradox then become unnecessary. (Edmund S. Howe)
A study report of free association in which participants were asked to produce the first
two words to come to mind. The findings were used to estimate the reliability of indices of
strength and set size for different types of items and to model free association as a retrieval
task. When confined to first responses, reliability was generally high for both indices,
particularly for words with smaller sets of associates and stronger primaries. When second
responses were included, reliability declined. A second response added new but weak items
to the set, and, when the primary associate was not produced on the first opportunity, it
tended not to be produced on the second. Relative to when multiple responses are requested,
first-response free association provides more reliable indices of the relative strength and set
size for a word’s strongest associates. A model of free association assuming that a strength
distribution underlies each response provided a good fit to the data. (Douglas L. Nelson,
November 2000)
Problem statement:
To identify the nature of association along with retention time.
Methodology:
Hypothesis:
Responses for Law of similarity would be higher than other form of laws.
Sample/subject:
A single subject performed the experiment, her age is 21 years and had no previous
knowledge about the experiment.
Instruments/Tools:
A document on which Free association table was used, paper, and pencil.
30
Procedure:
The form is filled by the subject sample in which we tell his one word and told that
now you have to tell us the thing that comes in your mind first while listening the word. The
time given to him is 2 sec and we have to write the thing and time on our form. Then we
relate his answers with the laws given in this experiment. Then we write all scores on scoring
sheet and calculate reaction time and percentage of our score.
Result:
Our experiment shows that the hypothesis has been approved and our participant
follows the law of similarity more than others.
Table 1:
Stimulus Subject Associated Response
words response time type
Day light Sun 1s S
Pretty Cute 1s S
Sunflower Ghee 2s I
Wedding Mine 1s I
Red Rose 1s R
Space Empty 1s S
Body Figure 1s S
Pigeon Cute 1s I
Tree Mango tree 1s S
Man Handsome 3s R
House Large 1s F
Ghost Horrible 1s S
Girl Pretty 1s F
31
Yellow Mango 1s R
Baby Innocent 1s F
Flag Green 1s F
Summer Beautiful 3s I
Dra cat 2s R
Good Very good 1s S
Rose Red 1s F
Scoring sheet:
S Law of Association No. of Reaction
.No responses time
1 Law of Similarity 7 8s
2 Law of Contiguity 0 0
3 Law of Contrast 0 0
4 Law of Frequency 5s 5s
5 Law of Primacy 0 0
6 Law of Recency 4 6s
7 Law of Vividness and 4 6s
Interest
The total no. of responses of law of similarity is 7 and reaction time for it is 8s sec.
So by dividing the response no with reaction time is 1.143. And the formula of
𝑇𝑂𝐴𝑇𝐿𝐴 𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸 𝑂𝐹 𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑃𝑂𝑁𝑆𝐸
ART= 𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑁𝑂.𝑂𝐹 𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑃𝑂𝑁𝑆𝐸 𝑊𝑂𝑅𝐷𝑆
So at last the hypothesis of our experiment has been approved that law of similarity is
used most of the time for free association.

32
Discussion:
By conducting we feel some difficulty that how we taught the participant to
respond and the participant also feel ambiguity to answer. So, we have the ability to convey
our point to the participant. Then after writing the responses from the participants, I feel
problem to detect the laws that have to connect with the responses of the participant. But the
scoring of this experiment is quite easy . (Panch, 2010)
References:
Barowski, J. (2021, 9 20). study.com. Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-
is-free-association-definition-lesson-test.html
Cañs, J. J. ( 29 May 2007). Associative strength effects in the lexical decision task. The
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 121-145 .
Douglas L. Nelson, C. L. (November 2000). What is free association and what does it
measure? Springer Link.
Edmund S. Howe. (n.d.). Number of different free associates: A general measure of
associative meaningfulness. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18-28.
Lowe. (2006). Factors associated with patient-rated cosmetic scores. Emergency Medicine
australia, 259-267.
DISCUSSION.
Stark. (1996). Review of Words in the Mind: . An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon, by J.
Aitchison, 408–410.
33
Experiment No: 4
Problems solving
Qualitative
Introduction:
The early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany placed the beginning of
problem solving study (e.g., Karl Duncker in 1935 with his book The psychology of
productive thinking). Problem solving is the act of defining a problem; determining the cause
of the problem; identifying, prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution; and
implementing a solution. Imagination is more important than knowledge (Nilsson, 2010)A
systematic approach to defining the problem ( questions or situations that present uncertainty
and perplexity) and creating a vast number of possible solution without judging the solution.
The problem solving is process overcoming difficulties that appears to interfere with the
attainment of goal. It is a procedure of making adjustment instead of interference (Skinner,
1953).
Types of problem solving:
In words:
 Verbal
 Written
Qualitative Problems
 Example: What can go through glass without breaking it?
 Example 2: What question can you never answer yes to?
 Problem 1:
34
Tom is younger than Dave but older than Jill. Lou is older than Sally who is
older than Tom. Dave is older than Lou. Who is the middle child?
 Problem 2:
While a cat was outside, it started to downpour. The cat couldn’t find any
shelter and got completely soaked by the rain, yet not a single hair was wet. How
could this be?
Problem Statement:
To observe the subject in a problem-solving situation.
Literature Review:
In literature a research is conduct on complex problem solving skills in which the
participant is one, the experimenter, the methodological issues in cps where the the task
situation, and the interaction between the person and the task situation were systematically
manipulated after that discussed in appropriate manner and check the affectivity on pons and
cons relation’s analyze tool is unmoved structures of the experimental approach] / a
classification of variables that affect complex problem solving / experimental research on
complex problem solving [studies on person factors, studies on situation factors, studies on
system factors, studies on interaction effects (Funke, 1995), another study in which check the
meta analysis of reading and listening across age group was conducted which Based on
robust variance estimation (46 studies; N = 4,687), the overall difference between reading
and listening comprehension was not reliably different (g = 0.07, p = .23). The findings may
be used to inform theories of comprehension about modality influences in that both lower-
level skill and affordances vary comparisons of reading and listening comprehension.
Moreover, the findings may guide choices of modality; however, both audio and written
options are needed for accessible instruction. (Clinton-Lisell, 2021) Although earlier
researches illustration that the reading comprehension effect of audio channel is better than
35
that on visual channel and the reading comprehension effect of dual channel combining
visual and audio channel is better than the single channel. However, is that also conventional
on the new mobile device? Using an experiment approach, we found that the reading
comprehension effect of the audio channel is better than that of the visual channel. The
reading comprehension effect of the dual channel is better than that of any single channel.
That means listen to audiobooks through the audio channel and even the new reading format,
like VR reading or AR reading should be encouraged in terms of the reading comprehension
effect (Liu, 2019)
Methodology:
We conduct this test as followings parameters.
Hypothesis
Reading is better than listening.
qualitative and Qualitative Problems.
Dependent Variable
Participant responses to the given problems.
Sample/Subject:
One subject take part here
Instruments/Tools
Some verbal or written numerical and qualitative problems, paper, pencil and stop
watch.
36
Procedure:
The form is filled by the subject sample in which experimental asked about puzzle
statement and told that now you have to tell us the thing that comes in your mind while
listening the statement. The time given to him is 8 sec and we have to write the thing and
time on our form. Then we relate his answers with the laws given in this experiment. Then
we write all scores on scoring sheet and calculate reaction time.
Results:
Types Solution Accuracy / Inaccuracy T
Problems of Test ime
No Verbal Taken
/ Written
Tom is younger than Dave but older than Jill. 5
1 Reading Lou is older than Sally who is older than Tom. Dave s
is older than Lou. Who is the middle child?
Listeni While a cat was outside, it started to 8
2 ng downpour. The cat couldn’t find any shelter and got s
completely soaked by the rain, yet not a single hair
was wet. How could this be?
Qualitative Interpretation:
The result is that the reading is better than the listening.
Discussion:
By conducting the performer feels some difficulty in listening and writing and the
participant also feels ambiguity to answer. Then after writing the responses from the
participants and experimental scoring the data. The total no. of responses of problem solving
37
is 4 and reaction time for it is 8s sec. If participant answer in 8s sec/ or less than 8s then we
write the responses So at last the hypothesis of our experiment has been approved. (Funke,
1995),
References:
Duncker, K. (2019). On problem-solving. Psychological Monographs, i-113.
Funke, J. (1995). Complex Problem Solvinge. The European Perspective.
Liu, Y. O. (2019). A robustly optimized bert pretraining approach.
Skinner, B. F. ( 1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.

38
Experiment No: 5
Problems solving
Quantitative:
Introduction:
The early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany placed the beginning of
problem solving study (e.g., Karl Duncker in 1935 with his book The psychology of
productive thinking). Problem solving is the act of defining a problem; determining the cause
of the problem; identifying, prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution; and
implementing a solution. Imagination is more important than knowledge (Nilsson, 2010)A
systematic approach to defining the problem ( questions or situations that present uncertainty
and perplexity) and creating a vast number of possible solution without judging the solution.
The problem solving is process overcoming difficulties that appears to interfere with the
attainment of goal. It is a procedure of making adjustment instead of interference (Skinner,
1953).
Types of problem solving:
In words:
 Verbal
 Written
In Numbers:
 Verbal
 Written
Qualitative Problems
 Example: What can go through glass without breaking it?

39
 Example 2: What question can you never answer yes to?
 Problem 1:
Tom is younger than Dave but older than Jill. Lou is older than Sally who is
older than Tom. Dave is older than Lou. Who is the middle child?
 Problem 2:
While a cat was outside, it started to downpour. The cat couldn’t find any
shelter and got completely soaked by the rain, yet not a single hair was wet. How
could this be?
Numerical Problems:
 Example 1: What can you put between a 7 and an 8 so that the result is greater than a
7, but less than an 8?
 Example 2: What’s the maximum number of times you can subtract five from
25?
 Problem 1:
If seven people meet each other and each shake hands only once with each of
the others, how many handshakes happened?
 Problem 2:
If four men can build four tables in four hours, how many can eight men build
in eight hours?
Problem Statement:
To observe the subject in a problem-solving situation.
Literature Review:
40
In literature a research is conduct on complex problem solving skills in which the
participant is one, the experimenter, the methodological issues in cps where the the task
situation, and the interaction between the person and the task situation were systematically
manipulated after that discussed in appropriate manner and check the affectivity on pons and
cons relation’s analyze tool is unmoved structures of the experimental approach] / a
classification of variables that affect complex problem solving / experimental research on
complex problem solving [studies on person factors, studies on situation factors, studies on
system factors, studies on interaction effects (Funke, 1995), another study in which check the
meta analysis of reading and listening across age group was conducted which Based on
robust variance estimation (46 studies; N = 4,687), the overall difference between reading
and listening comprehension was not reliably different (g = 0.07, p = .23). The findings may
be used to inform theories of comprehension about modality influences in that both lower-
level skill and affordances vary comparisons of reading and listening comprehension.
Moreover, the findings may guide choices of modality; however, both audio and written
options are needed for accessible instruction. (Clinton-Lisell, 2021) Although earlier
researches illustration that the reading comprehension effect of audio channel is better than
that on visual channel and the reading comprehension effect of dual channel combining
visual and audio channel is better than the single channel. However, is that also conventional
on the new mobile device? Using an experiment approach, we found that the reading
comprehension effect of the audio channel is better than that of the visual channel. The
reading comprehension effect of the dual channel is better than that of any single channel.
That means listen to audiobooks through the audio channel and even the new reading format,
like VR reading or AR reading should be encouraged in terms of the reading comprehension
effect (Liu, 2019)

41
Methodology:
We conduct this test as followings parameters.
Hypothesis
Reading is better than listening.
Numerical/quantitative
Dependent Variable
Participant responses to the given problems.
Sample/Subject:
One subject take part here
Instruments/Tools
Some verbal or written numerical and qualitative problems, paper, pencil and stop
watch.
Procedure:
The form is filled by the subject sample in which experimental asked about puzzle
statement and told that now you have to tell us the thing that comes in your mind while
listening the statement. The time given to him is 8 sec and we have to write the thing and
time on our form. Then we relate his answers with the laws given in this experiment. Then
we write all scores on scoring sheet and calculate reaction time.
Results:
42
Types Solution Accuracy / Inaccuracy T
Problems of Test ime
No Verbal Taken
/ Written
If seven people meet each other and each 8
1 Written shake hands only once with each of the others, how s
(Numerical) many handshakes happened?
If four men can build four tables in four 5
2 Verbal hours, how many can eight men build in eight hours? s
(Nu
merical)
Qualitative Interpretation:
The results comes that reading is better than the listening.
Discussion:
By conducting the performer feels some difficulty in listening and writing and the
participant also feels ambiguity to answer. Then after writing the responses from the
participants and experimental scoring the data.The total no. of responses of problem solving
is 4 and reaction time for it is 8s sec. If participant answer in 8s sec/ or less than 8s then we
write the responses So at last the hypothesis of our experiment has been approved.
Preschoolers appear to be capable of clear up problems using visible imagery or a grown up
recommended approach. This rising ability might be developed in academic settings to help
students remedy problems. According to literature review (Duncker, 2019) Motivation,

43
creativity, emotion, surroundings, time of day, intellectual ability, fixation, know-how,
language parsing, information, and memory are only some elements located via research to
persuade trouble-fixing abilities. The present day investigates the hyperlink between hassle
solving and reminiscence. An experiment was performed to compare this memory belongings
with hassle-fixing, with the speculation, that if trouble-solving and remembering were
sincerely the same, human beings might be capable of expect their future problem-fixing
performance after handiest a brief publicity to a hassle. But, the findings contradicted this
concept, as people had been unable to predict the final results.
References
Duncker, K. (2019). On problem-solving. Psychological Monographs, i-113.
Funke, J. (1995). Complex Problem Solvinge. The European Perspective.
Liu, Y. O. (2019). A robustly optimized bert pretraining approach.
Skinner, B. F. ( 1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.

44
Experiment No: 6
Code Learning:
Problem Statement:
To measure the progress in code learning with the help of code learning substitutes.
Introduction:
The Test was initially developed as an experimental tool over a century ago by
researchers seeking to understand human associative learning. Substitution tests are speed-
dependent cognitive tasks that require the participants to match particular signs (e.g.,
symbols, digits, or letters) to other signs.it is used to assess information processing speed, a
cognitive ability that reflects the speed by which elementary cognitive operations can be
performed.
The term Morse code refers to either of two systems for representing letters of the
alphabet, numerals, and punctuation marks by an arrangement of dots, dashes, and spaces. The
Morse code systems was invented in the United States by American artist and inventor Samuel
F.B. Morse during the 1830s for electrical telegraphy. A variant called the International Morse
Code was devised by a conference of European nations in 1851 to account for letters with
diacritic marks. The International Morse Code encodes the 26 English letters A through Z. The
codes are transmitted as electrical pulses of varied lengths or analogous mechanical or visual
signals, such as flashing lights.
Trial and error is a fundamental method of problem-solving. It is characterized
by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success, or until the practice stops
trying.
Used as a general test the intelligence, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence was developed
to assess cognitive ability for adults. This instrument aids in examining the relationship
45
between intellectual functional and memory. A common purpose for the WAIS is for
educational planning and placement with older adolescents and adults.
Literature Review:
The study reports the results of a large scale literature review of research studying
therelationship between intelligence and speed of information-processing. Data from 172
studies, with a total of 53,542 participants, were analyzed to find the mean correlations
between a variety of intelligence and mental speed measures. (Sheppard, 2008).
The resurgence of computer programming in the school curriculum brings a promise
of preparing students for the future that goes beyond just learning how to code. This study
reviewed research to analyses educational outcomes for children learning to code at school. A
systematic review was applied to identify relevant articles and a thematic analysis to
synthesize the findings. Ten articles were included in the synthesis and an overarching model
was developed which depicts the themes. The results demonstrate that although students are
learning to code, a range of other educational outcomes can be learnt or practiced through the
teaching of coding. These included mathematical problem-solving, critical thinking, social
skills, and self-management and academic skills. The review also identified the importance of
instructional design for developing these educational outcomes through coding. (Starkey,
2018)
Animals must continuously evaluate sensory information to select the preferable
among possible actions in a given context, including the option to wait for more information
before committing to another course of action. In experimental sensory decision tasks that
replicate these features, reaction time distributions can be informative about the implicit rules
by which animals determine when to commit and what to do. Accuracy increases with
reaction time. a. Accuracy (% correct) as a function of reaction time, from same data as
46
Figure 1 a-b. Error bars indicate binomial confidence intervals. b. Accuracy (% correct) is
higher in slow trials than fast trials across the population (11 experiments from 6 rats;
symbols defined in Figure 1c). Fast and slow trials are defined as the highest and lowest
quartile of each rat's overall RT distribution within the block respectively. Crosses indicate
binomial confidence intervals. (Reinagel, June 2013)
Methodology:
Hypothesis:
As the number of trials increase the accuracy of responses also increase.
The list of non-syllables, Meaningful word
Dependent Variable:
Subject recall
Sample/subject:
No of participants, age, semester, previous knowledge
Instruments/Tools :
 List of non-syllables, memory drum paper pencil, stop watch
Procedure:
The Subjects was given digit substitute codes for 5 minutes which contains 26
alphabets. We gives the sheet to the subject to add codes for each substitute code. We give
proper instructions to the subject to fill out the blank boxes. The subject was given by an
interval of one minute after each trail. The subject made errors in every trail and we record
time for every trail. The same procedure is repeated for the second, third, fourth and fifth
trail.
47
48
Experimental Group non-sense syllables
Table 1
Trails No. of errors Time taken
1 6 5 minutes
2 0 4 minute 5 seconds
The table 1 shows the results of digit substitute sheet.
In our experiment, we give five trails to participant and she fill the first line (trail) in 5
minutes than in 4.5 min but the time increases in third trail to 2 sec and then in 1.26 sec and
49
1.25 sec respectively. So the results show that the participants takes less time with the
passage of trails. Hence our hypothesis is approved that the number of trials increases the
accuracy of responses also increases.
Results:
The results indicates that as we increase the nu. Of trail the no. of the errors become
less. In the first trail the no. of the errors is highly frequent six in no. while in the second trail
the no. of the errors falls and become two. In the third trail no errors commented by the
subject. While in the 4th and 5th trails the no. of errors becomes one. So, the hypothesis is
approved as the no. of the trails increase the efficiency of accuracy also increase.
Discussion:
In the first trail the subject take 5 minutes to complete the task with 6 errors. In the 2nd
trail the subject complete the task in 4.5 minutes and there is improvement in errors which are
2. When we give the test to the subject for the 3rd time she contains 4 minutes with no error.
In the 4th and 5th trail the subject complete the task in 3 minutes with 1 error in both. In
related to other researchers, the others researches also shows that the participants take more
time in first attempt and when they attempt it first time they know about the process, then in
next trials they take less time and fill the sheet more rapidly and take less time to fill the sheet
(Patel T, Kurdi MS. A 2015). In first trial of this experiment, our participant take 3 minutes to
complete the task and in first trial there was no error and when we give her 2nd trial she takes
only 1:55 sec to complete the task and in third trail her time increased by just 4 sec .And after
this trial her time gradually decreased and her accuracy of responses increased. While doing
this experiment we find the capacity of our learning and we enjoyed the experiment a lot. We
find the code language that is very interesting and it enhance our ability to think. During the
experiment we learn to find secret messages behind simple words. Our participant completes
50
the task accurately in just first trial but she takes time and gradually her time decreased and it
is exceptional case.
The Cognitive-code view of learning suggests that information is gathered and
processed by our brain, and information processing is a cognitive view of learning. CCLT
likens human thinking to the way computers process information. By definition, therefore,
education must be viewed as a cognitive activity; that’s why the term "cognitive" refers to the
process of thinking, goal-setting, planning for future activities, solving problems, learning,
storing information, and remembering (Demirezen, 2015)
The concept of coding, which refers to what is stored in memory during learning, is
defended as an important and nnecessary conceptual advance in learning-memory theory
during the last decade. It is unmaintained that the concept covers a wide variety of
functionally different coding operations, with many specifics of its operation still to be
experimentally determined, and that attempts to restrict its meaning to arbitrary
transformational coding, as suggested by Restle, should be rejected. The paper comments on
the empirical contributions to coding theory by Johnson, Wickens, Martin, and Postrnan and
Bums in the symposium for which it served a discussant function (James R. Melton, July-
August 1973)
References:
Andre. (2021, sep 15). Limked.in. Retrieved from Trial and Error: Fail your way to Success:
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/trial-error-method-success-andre-lord
Britannica. (2021, august 20). Retrieved from T. Editors of Encyclopaedia:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Morse-Code
Demirezen, M. (2015). Cognitive-code theory and foreign language learning relations.
International Online Journal of Education and Teaching, 309-317.

51
James R. Melton, W. L. (July-August 1973). Direct Vaporization and Quantification of
Arsenic from Soils and Water. socialscience society of american journal, 558-561.
Retrieved from Direct Vaporization and Quantification of Arsenic from Soils and
Water†.
Psychopharmacol., J. C. (2017). Digit Symbol Substitution Test. Journal of Clinical
Psychopharmacology, 513–519.
52
Experiment No:7
PERCEPTION REVERSIBLE FIGURE:
Introduction:
An ambiguous figure in which the perspective easily shifts, so that at certain times
specific elements appear to make up a distinct figure while at others those same elements
appear as an indistinct background (see figure–ground). Examples include the Necker cube
and Rubin’s figure. Reversible figures such as the Necker cube, Rubin’s face/vases, and
Boring’s young girl/old woman are ambiguous visual patterns that support at least two
markedly different perceptual organizations or interpretations. During a period of continuous
viewing, observers experience fluctuating perceptions that alternate between the possible
interpretations of the figure even though the stimulus pattern itself remains unchanged.
Interest in this class of illusions can be traced at least as far back as a paper published by
Necker. A rotated figure is an ambiguous figure with a slight change in perspective such that
certain elements appear to form a certain shape at a certain time, and the same element
appears as an obscure background in other elements. It is examples are the Necker cube and
the ruby figure. In this experiment, participants were shown two such drawings and their
variations. Perception is basically noted down and studied using this experiment. Following
are the figures used in this experiment of ‘perception reversible figure ‘: we determine the
how person perceive the image according to the law.
Laws of Free Associations:
There are two basic types of laws that are given by two different persons.
Primary Laws:
This law is given by Aristotle in 350 B.C.E which has following laws.
4. Law of similarity
53
5. Law of contrast
6. Law of continuity
 Relative time period
 Law of relative place
Law of similarity:
The Law of Similarity states that when two things are very similar to each other, the
thought of one will often trigger the thought of the other. For example, when we think of
coffee, we often think of tea as well.
Law of continuity:
The Law of Contiguity states that we associate things that occur close to each other in
time or space. For example, if we think of thunder, we immediately think of lightning, since
the two often occur one after the other.
Law of contrast:
The Law of Contrast states that the thought of something is likely to trigger the
thought of its direct opposite. For example, when we hear the word "hot," we often think of
the word "cold."
Secondary Laws:
This law is given by Brown (1970)
Law of Privacy
 Law of Recency
 Law of Frequency
 Law of Vividness and Interest
Law of Privacy:
The right to intimate association refers to the right of individuals to maintain
close familial or other private associations free from state interference.

54
Law of Recency:
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best
remembered.
Law of Frequency:
A principle of association stating that the more often ideas, events (e.g., stimuli and
responses), or other items co-occur, the stronger the connections between them.
Law of Vividness and Interest:
The most spectacular or striking impressions tend to be remembered rather than those
that are more ordinary.
Other types of association:
 Discrete association
 Continuous association
 Controlled association
 Partial control
 Fully Controlled
Importance:
Free association a tool used in psychoanalysis aims to deepen your self-understanding
by looking at whatever thoughts, words, or images come freely to your mind. During a free
association session, your therapist may ask you to share anything that is on your mind, such
as memories, words, images, or daydreams.

55
Literature review:
Researcher can exercise a degree of intentional control over the perception of
reversible figures. And the portion of the stimulus that is designed for primary or enhanced
processing impacts how observers perceive a reversible figure. Two experiments examined
whether volunteer control over perception of a Necker cube could be explained in terms of
deliberately selecting appropriate focal features within the stimulus for primary processing.
Experiment no.1:
56
In Experiment 1, varying observers’ intentions and the focus of primary processing
produced additive effects on the percentage of time that one alternative was perceived.
Experiment: 2
In Experiment 2, the effect of varying the focus of primary processing was eliminated
by the use of a small cube, but the effect of intention was unaltered. The results indicate that
intentional control over perception can be exerted independently of focal-feature processing,
perhaps by top-down activation or priming of perceptual representations. The results also
reveal the limits of intentional control. (Toppino, 2003) Participants showed unambiguous
version of both stationary and rotating Necker cube illusions with different time duration in
each case the subject were likely more report the ambiguous figures in the same configuration
as that of the preceding prime following brief pre-exposure periods and while in the opposite
configuration from that of the preceding prime following long pre-exposure-periods. In
addition, the number of reversals of the figure during the test period was also strongly related
to the duration of the pre-exposure period, with progressively fewer reversals reported
following longer pre-exposure periods. The results are interpreted as revealing the concurrent
roles of “set” effects in the brief pre-exposure conditions and neural fatigue effects in the
long pre-exposure conditions. Furthermore, the ability of the proposed two-process model to
integrate the myriad of empirical effects in the reversible-figure. (Gerald M. Long, 1992)
Reversible figures such as the Necker cube are ambiguous visual patterns that support at least
two markedly different perceptual organizations. During a period of continuous viewing,
viewers’ conscious experience varies, alternating between the possible interpretations.
Attempts to explain this cultivable perceptual character of reversible figures traditionally
have attributed reversals to either bottom-up (stimulus driven) or top-down (conceptually-
driven) processes. In the former case, perceptual fluctuations are attributed to the alternating
fatigue and recovery of competing cortical organizations. In the latter case, perception is
57
thought to be analogous to a hypothesis-testing or problem-solving process that successively
considers alternative “solutions” to the perceptual puzzle denoted by a reversible figure. We
argue for a hybrid theoretical framework in which both types of processes contribute to figure
reversals. By explicitly recognizing the contributions of both lower-level sensory processes
and higher-level cognitive processes, the hybrid approach can resolution outward conflicts in
the reversible figure literature by calling attention to the fact that different viewing conditions
can differentially engage top-down and bottom-up processes. The approach also provides a
framework for future research, encouraging work that addresses how bottom-up and top-
down processes are coordinated and how their effects are integrated in determining conscious
perceptual experience. (Long, 2005)
Methodology:
Hypothesis:
The participant will perceive the two figures using the law of similarity the most.
The two given /shown figures.
Dependent Variable:
Subject perception
Sample / Subject:
No. of participants = 1
Age = 20 years old
Semester = 6th
Previous knowledge = Yes, a little bit about reversible figures. Learned in the 1st
semester but only briefly.

58
Instruments / Tools:
The pic with the reversible figures, stopwatch, a page and a pen.
Procedure:
As a psychologists I display two images in front of my subjects for little time and ask
give some sentences on the images what you perceive.
First image:
It is umbrella has black and white and has curved lines, has little spots on it. There is
no support of the umbrella.
Second image:
It is stairs having three steps has side handle for protection with black and white
picture has little dots.
Perception Reversible Figure:
Sr. Law of No. of Reaction
No Association Responses Words Time
1 Law of Similarity 3 15 sec
2 Law of - -
Contiguity
3 Law of Contrast - -
4 Law of - -
Frequency
5 Law of Primacy - -
6 Law of Recency - -
7 Law of Vividness - -
and Interest
59
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑠

ART = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
3
ART = 15
ART = 0.2
Result:
There no. of similarities is higher than others. People perceives things according to the
similarities. There are three times similarities law is applicable.
Discussion:
The participant was first shown the picture containing the two figures used in this
experiment in a computer. The participant perceived the first figure as an umbrella that was
labelled as the law of similarity. The participant’s reaction time was noted down for each
response and she responded the first time within 10 sec. This perception of the participant
was also associated with the law of regency and frequency because of the rainy season
recently and a frequent use of the umbrella these days. The participant also gave the
perception of a gem in a ring about the first figure and this was associated with the law of
interest as it shows the participant’s own interest in her perception of the first figure. The
participant also perceived the first figure as two fans together, black and white in colour, each
having four wings. This was associated with the law of frequency as the participant has seen
a lot of fans around her. The participant perceived the second figure as stairs with three steps
and a wall attached to it that represents the law of similarity and the response time was 5
seconds and it was calculated using the stop watch. All her responses were written on a page
using a pen and were than labelled the laws of association eventually by the researcher. As
our problem statement was to experimentally study the organization of figure-ground
relationship by means of two reversible figures. The result of our experiment proves that our
hypothesis is true as the participant observes the similarities and differences in the images.
60
Like in the images there are some similarities in different angles and some differences in
other angles.
So this experiment showed that our results are much more related and supported by
the literature review because our experiment also focuses on similarities and differences
(Boring, 1942).
References:
Toppino, T.C. Reversible-figure Perception. Mechanisms of intentional control.
Perception & Psychophysics 65, 1285–1295 (2003).
Pheiffer, C. H., Eure, S. B., & Hamilton, C. B. (1956). Reversible figures and eye-
movements. The American Journal of Psychology, 69, 452–
455. https://doi.org/10.2307/1419051
Toppino, T. C., & Long, G. M. (1987). Selective adaptation with reversible figures:
Don’t change that channel. Perception & Psychophysics, 42(1), 37-48.
Boring, E. G. (1942). Sensation and perception in the history of experimental
psychology.
61
Experiment: 8
Muller-lyre Illusion
Problem statement:
Introduction:
It is created by the German Psychologists Franz Carl Muller-Lyer in 1889 in which
two lines with same length to be of different length. It is also known as optical illusion. In
which asking that where you observe the line length.
Like other optical illusions, the Muller-Lyer illusion has become the subject of considerable
interest in psychology over the years. Different theories have emerged to explain the
phenomenon.
I.
For supposed, a child who perceive someone sitting in room in midnight when lights are dim
but in real there is no one sitting there is a curtain on the lamb.

62
Literature review:
This research is about an army man shooting precision on ability of visual illusion,
here we think that the misperception of visual stimulus might be linked with the sensation
seeking related personality, the methodology invited 103 army man 104 age matched
university male students the result was scored significantly lower than students did not ZKPQ
impulsive sensation seeking sight test while on the other hand higher on Aggression-Hostility
and Sociality test, and displayed less misperception magnitude to the illusion The Impulsive
Sensation Seeking, Neuroticism-Anxiety and Aggression-Hostility traits in military men, and
the Activity in students were respectively correlated with the misperception magnitudes of
the illusion in different manners. Limited results in our study have indicated that the military
men had pronounced personality traits which were correlated with the misperception
magnitude of the Müller-Lyer illusion. (Yingchun Zhang, 2017)This research is supported by
neuropsychological, brain-imaging, and psychophysical evidence which is controversial in
prediction still which may be considered not effected by the visual illusion. In which Muller
lyre illusion is used and functional interpretation is split into dorsal and ventral split here the
conclusion is that 33 independent studies (neuroscience and bio behavioural review) analyse
on 18 studies on grasping objects comes in domain of Muller lyre illusion. Findings comes
that the median effects across studies are indeed larger for perceptual than for grasping
measures. However, almost all grasping effects are larger than zero and the two distributions
show substantial overlap and variability. Variability and no. of trails effects on the
experiment, and the angle of the illusion fins. When all these factors are considered together,
the data support a difference between grasping and perception only when online visual
feedback is available during movement. Thus, unlike pointing, grasping studies of the
Müller-Lyre (ML) illusion suggest that the perceptual and motor effects of the illusion differ
only because of online, feedback-driven corrections, and do not appear to support

63
independent spatial representations for vision-for-action and vision-for-perception. (Bruno,
2009) In the three-dimensional world, this principle allows us to perceive a tall person as tall
whether they are standing next to us or off in the distance. When we apply this same principle
to two-dimensional objects, Gregory suggests, errors can result. Researchers from the
University of London suggest that the illusion demonstrates how the brain reflexively judges
information about length and size before anything else (Cherry, 2020) the main objective of
this research was to compare the effects of experience and knowledge about the Müller-Lyer
illusion on participants’ perceptual precision.in which a horizontal shaft with an inward-
pointing chevron (fins-out) affixed to each end is perceived longer than a shaft with outward-
pointing chevrons (fins-in) sample size is 108 whose are undergraduate students who are
familiar with the Muller lyer illusion before the experiment. The task of participants was to
adjust one movable line to make it equal to the other in Müller-Lyer figure. They received
ascending and descending Müller-Lyer trials in three blocks with 20 trials each. The
Experimental Group received information about the Müller-Lyer illusion prior to the third
block. For the Experimental Group, the amount of departure in Block 3 was reduced
significantly compared with previous blocks. Knowledge about the mechanisms underlying
visual illusions may play an important role in helping individuals overcome them. (Abbas A.
Khorasani, 2007)
Methodology:
Hypothesis:
No. of trails increase no. of errors decrease.
Independent variable:
No. of trails
Dependent variable:
Response
64
Sample/subject:
One participant
Instruments/tools:
Two cards in which upper outward arrow and inner card the inward arrow and both
has scale for measurements.
Procedure:
We take 40 trails from a subject. First ten inward to outward trail and check the errors,
ten trial outward to inward from right hand and note down the errors next we take 10 trails
from the left hand inward to outward and then outward to inward ten trails and record the
errors.
Results
Point of Subjective Equality
Right Hand Outward to Left Hand Outward to
Inward to Inward Inward to Inward
Outward Outward
30 25 27 25
25 24 26 25
25 26 26 26
25 25 25 24
25 25 28 25
26 25 25 26
26 25 26 25
27 25 26 27
26 25 25 26
26 25 25 26
65
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

Average = 40
1025
Average = 40
Average: 26
Magnitude of Illusion: 60 – 26 = 34
Result:
Illusion is 34 means that our subject underestimate the things.
Discussion:
Our participants underestimate the things because the total length is 60cm while the
subject underestimate it is 34cm. most of time people underestimate the things in Muller lyre
illusion. Two experiments repeated the effects of selective spatial attention on the magnitude
of the wings in and wings out in Muller lyre illusion. And a version of the illusion in which
the two forms are superimposed to produce a figure ignoring the outer wings produced
significant underestimation of shaft length, whereas ignoring the inner wings had no
significant effect. For the Muller lyre illuminated figures, ignoring the wings was more
effective in attenuating the magnitude of the wings-out than of the wings-in illusion. The
results are discussed with reference to space-based approaches to visual attention and to
claims that attentional modulation of illusion magnitudes implicates high-level or cognitive
factors in the formation of the Muller lyre illusion. (Predebon, 2004)

66
References
Abbas A. Khorasani, J. S. (2007). Effect of practice versus information on the visual illusion.
Neuroscience Bulletin volume , 30-34.
Bruno, N. &. (2009). When is grasping affected by the Müller-Lyer illusion? When is
grasping affected by the Müller-Lyer illusion?, 1421-1433.
Cherry, K. (2020). What Is the Muller-Lyer Illusion? verywell mind. Retrieved from
https://www.verywellmind.com/how-the-muller-lyer-illusion-works-4111110
Fedor, A. (2015). Problem solving stages in the five square problem. Frontiers.
doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.20
DISCUSSION.
Predebon, J. (2004). Selective attention and asymmetry in the Müller-Lyer illusion.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 916–920 .
Yingchun Zhang, J. L. (2017). Personality traits and perception of Müller-Lyer illusion in
male Chinese military soldiers and university students. Translational Neuroscience.
doi://doi.org/10.1515/tnsci-2017-0004
67
Mental Imagery no. # 9
Problem statement:
What is the role of different types of imagery in retrieval of memory (memory error)
and mental imagination (strong imagination power).
Introduction:
Sir Francis Galton discovered this in 1883 when he asked 100 people, including
prominent scientists, to form an image of their breakfast table from that morning. Some had
detailed images, others reported none at all. Images which present in our mind is known as
imagery images. It is the form of stimulus which comes in the domain of recalling from
memory pieces of information stored from experience and shaping these pieces into
meaningful images. Images are thoughts you can see, hear, smell, taste or feel, and include
memories. There are different types of imagery such as mental imagery, visual imagery,
auditory imagery, smell imagery, taste imagery etc. for instance visual imagery helps the
individual to visualize anything what he is represented with that may be a stimulus word or a
picture. There is evidence that mental imagery plays an important role in retrieval and that the
brain regions supporting imagery overlap with those supporting retrieval. Mental imagery
enables us to reactivate and manipulate internal representations when the corresponding
stimuli are absent. It helps to activate our sense be active in our conscious level, recognize,
imagine recall and then interpret. Close your eyes and visualize an apple. Many readers will
have a quasi-perceptual experience that may be a bit similar to actually seeing an apple. For
those who do, this experience is an example of mental imagery – in fact, it is the kind of
example philosophers use to introduce the concept. It is not clear whether introducing the
term ‘mental imagery’ by example is particularly helpful, for at least two reasons. First, there
are well-demonstrated interpersonal variations in mental imagery, so much so that some

68
people report no experience whatsoever when closing their eyes and visualizing an apple.
Second, it is unclear how such an example like visualizing an apple could be generalized in a
way that would give us a coherent concept. It does not seem like mental imagery is an
ordinary language term – it was introduced at the end of the 19th century as a technical term
in psychology and no languages other than English has a term that would mean mental
imagery (as distinct from ‘imagination’ or ‘mental picture’). But if ‘mental imagery’ is
indeed a technical term, then it is supposed to be used in a way that maximizes theoretical
usefulness. In this case, theoretical usefulness means that we should use ‘mental imagery’ in
a way that would help us to explain how the mind works. (Nanay, 1997).
The concept of mental imagery was first consistently used in the then very new
discipline of empirical psychology at the end of the 19th century. At that time, psychologists
like Francis Galton, Wilhelm Wundt or Edward Titchener (Titchener, 1909) thought of
mental imagery as a mental phenomenon characterized by its phenomenology – a quasi-
perceptual episode with a certain specific phenomenal feel. This stance lead to serious
suspicion, and often the outright rejection, of this concept in the following decades when
behaviourism dominated the psychological discourse (Dennett 1969). It was not until the
1970s that mental imagery was again considered to be a respectable concept to study in the
empirical sciences of the mind
Literature Review:
Previous studies using introspective reports have suggested that although mental
images can contain elements referring to all sensory modalities, visual images tend to be
experienced as most vivid, whereas olfactory and gustatory images tend to be least vivid.
However, these studies have typically used arbitrarily selected events

69
and objects as the to-be-imagined stimuli, which may have biased cross-modal
comparison. Therefore, in the present study participants were instructed to imagine an event
or product of their choice that elicited a conspicuous or characteristic appearance, sound, feel,
smell, or taste. The results showed that the types of events imagined differed considerably
across modalities. Similar to previous studies in this Area. We found that the reported image
quality was consistently highest for vision and audition, and lowest for smell. Mental imagery
abilities vary among individuals, as shown both by objective measures and by self-report.
Few imagery studies consider auditory imagery, however. The Bucknell Auditory Imagery
Scale is a short self-report measure encompassing both Vividness and Control subscales for
musical, verbal, and environmental sounds. It has high internal reliability, no relation to
social desirability, and only a modest relation to musical training. High scores on Vividness
predict fewer source memory errors in distinguishing heard from imagined tunes on a
recognition test, and better performance on pitch imitation tasks. Furthermore, higher scores
are related to hemodynamic response and gray matter volume in several brain areas that are
known to be involved in auditory imagery. Even though self-report measures encompass both
cognitive and metacognitive aspects, they are useful tools in accounting for individual
differences in high-level cognitive skills. The objective of the present study was to investigate
three issues in imagery research: how imagery perspective preference may relate to imagery
ability; the angle of external visual imagery usage; and the order of visual and kinesthetic
imagery experience. One hundred and fifty-nine athletes (M age = 19.60, SD = 2.67 years)
completed an adapted version of the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire – 2
(Roberts, 2008). Significant but small correlations between imagery perspective preference
and imagery perspective ability were revealed. With reference to angle, athletes reported
imaging from a variety of external angles. However, the angle of external visual imagery did
not relate to differences in imagery ability. In terms of the order of visual and kinesthetic
70
imagery, regardless of visual imagery perspective, athletes’ experienced visual and
kinaesthetic imagery concurrently most often.
The results are discussed in terms of the importance of taking imagery preference into
account when designing imagery studies. Further, future research directions are proposed in
relation to exploring angle of external visual imagery and order of visual and kinaesthetic
imagery.
Methodology:
Hypothesis:
Reported image quality and high score for vision and audition indicated few memories
error and better performance rather than in smell, taste and body movement.
Imagery and the stimulus words
Dependent Variable:
The test score response for visual, auditory, smell, taste and body movement imagery.
Sample:
The sample was selected from Gift University. Data was collected from a female age
of 21 years doing BS Psychology who has a little knowledge about the imagery.
Instruments:
Instruments included sheet of paper with stimulus words, pencil and Stopwatch.
Procedure:
In which we have a chart in which the visual imagery, auditory imagery, smell
imagery, taste imagery, Olfactory Stimulus as an experimenter I announced some words and
said that can you image this word or stimulus if the stimulus is clear I write that the stimulus
71
is clear if that participant is never clear on the image, I note it. I do it all senses like smelling,
taste, visual etc. and keep the record.
Results:
Table
Table 1
Visual Stimulus Words and Imagery Reponses
Visual Stimulus Imagery Response
The Pakistani Flag clear
A cat clear
A yellow rose Clear
The Quaid’s mazar clear
A village clear
A clock clear
An airport clear
Your house clear
A train clear
A river clear
Table 2
Auditory Stimulus Words and Imagery Reponses
Auditory Stimulus Imagery Response
Thundering clouds clear
Gun shots clear
Siren clear
72
Sound of Typewriter No
A barking dog clear
A baby’s cry clear
A moving train clear
Earthquake No
Sea waves clear
Chirping birds No
The table 2 indicates the subject’s imagery responses to the auditory stimulus words,
in which maximum imageries were clear whereas a few were found as null and vague.
Table 3
Olfactory Stimulus and Imagery Response
Olfactory Stimulus Imagery response
Coffee clear
Fish clear
Lilies No
Onions clear
Lighted cigarette No
Roses clear
Perspiration No
Garlic clear
Cooked rice clear
Sui-gas Clear
Gustatory stimulus Imagery response
Lemon clear
73
Tea clear
Milk No
Vinegar clear
Mango No
Soap clear
Salt No
Coca Cola clear
Chilly clear
Chicken Curry No
Table 4
Gustatory Stimulus Words and Imagery Responses
Table 5
Kinaesthetic Stimulus Words and Imagery’s Response
Kinaesthetic Stimulus Imagery response
Opening a book clear
Chewing food clear
Yawning No
Running clear
Falling No
Taking clear
Jumping No
Screaming clear
Bowing clear
Climbing No
74
Results:
Results of the study Indicated that participants scored higher and showed better
performance in visual and auditory imagery rather than the others. This showed that
participant had greater power of visual imagination and retrieval memory of seeing and has
greater audible power in hearing which shows participant retrieval memory is good and
showed great performance in hearing different sounds. Table of different imagery shows
us the responses of individual and time taken. Less memory errors were found for vision
and auditory imagery and more for olfactory, gustatory and kinaesthetic.
Qualitative interpretation:
Visual Mental Imagery
There is no ambiguity all clear In visual mental imagery.
Auditory Mental Imagery
There is on three words in which the participant has ambiguity while on others the
participant is clear.
Olfactory Mental Imagery
There is on three words in which the participant has ambiguity while on others the
75
Gustatory Mental Imagery
There is on four words in which the participant has ambiguity while on others the
Kinaesthetic Mental Imagery
There is on four words in which the participant has ambiguity while on others the
Discussion:
Our study and results are in line with our hypothesis which stated that Reported
image quality and high score for vision and audition indicated few memories error and better
performance rather than in smell, taste and body movement. The research conducted by
Rick (2008) results showed the types of events imagined differed considerably across
modalities. And it was founded that the reported image quality was consistently highest for
vision and audition, and lowest for smell. Therefore, better image quality, lessen memory
errors and greater performance in shown in vision and auditory imagery reported by
participants
References:
Nanay, B. (1997). Mental Imagery. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archive.
Simon E Blackwell on Jan 23, 2. (2018). MENTAL IMAGERY RESEARCH AND
PRACTICE. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration.
Sanders, C. W., Sadoski, M., van Walsum, K., Bramson, R., Wiprud, R., &
Fossum, T. W. (2008). Learning basic surgical skills with mental imagery: using the
simulation centre in the mind. Medical Education, 42(6), 607–612.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365- 2923.2007.02964.x
76
Roberts, C. H. (2008, Apr). Pubmed.gov. Retrieved from
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18490791/
Schifferstein, H.N. (2009).Comparing mental imagery across the sensory modalities.
Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 28(4), 371-388.

77
Experiment 10
Human Maze Learning
Introduction
Most historians agree that the animal maze was first developed at Clark University in
the late 1890s, in the laboratory of Edmund Sanford, PhD, in a study by his graduate student,
Willard Small. A maze is a path or group of paths, characteristically from an entrance to a
goal. It is puzzle like in which the participant must find the rout to find out the goal. and to
simpler non-branching patterns that lead unambiguously through a convoluted layout to a
goal. The pathways and walls in a maze are typically fixed, but puzzles in which the walls
and paths can change during the game are also categorized as mazes or tour puzzles.
Most popular kind of learning experiments has been done with mazes. A maze is
essentially a series of alloys some leading to the goal and others leading into dead ends. From
the starting place to the goal, the subject meets a number of points where he must choose one
or two alternatives.
Learning domains:
Tolman (2010) In this type of learning an association appears to be formed between
certain objectives and certain drives states. Persons belonging to cold countries where liquors
are usually consumed for satisfying the thirst drive will certainly tend to seek such drinks in
preferences to a simple glass of water mainly because for them water has not been associated
with the satisfaction of thirst drive.
 Equivalence beliefs: Sometimes a sub goal like scoring of high grades provides the
same motivation as might be provided by the main goal like winning love and
78
appreciation, etc. The learning performed in such a condition is said to the
equivalence beliefs learning.
 Field Expectancy: In this type of learning the learning, the learning takes place on
account of the expectancy of something occurring in one’s environment. Upon seeing
a certain sign for instance, one expects that a certain other sign will follow. The only
reward in such learning is the fulfillment the expectation.
 Field cognition models: This type of learning involves the learning of a strategy or a
way of approaching a problem-solving situation by arranging the perceptual field in a
specific way for application to each new field with which one is presented.
 Drive discrimination: This type of learning requires the learner to identify and
determine his own drive states and responds accordingly. The individual therefore has
to learn the behavior needed for satisfying his thirst drive quite differently from the
learning of the behavior needed to satisfy his drive for love and affection.
 Motor patterns: In such learning the motor patterns are associated with or
conditioned by behavior.
Literature review:
The human brain activity related to strategies for navigating in space and how it
changes with practice was investigated with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Subjects
used two different strategies to solve a place-learning task in a computer-generated virtual
environment. One-half of the subjects used spatial landmarks to navigate in the early phase of
training, and these subjects showed increased activation of the right hippocampus. The other
half used a nonspatial strategy and showed, with practice, sustained increased activity within
the caudate nucleus during navigation. Activation common to both groups was observed in
the posterior parietal and frontal cortex. These results provide the first evidence for
spontaneous variability and shift in neural mechanisms during navigation in humans.

79
(Giuseppe Iaria, 2003) We examine how oscillations in the intracranial electroencephalogram
(iEEG) relate to human maze learning. Theta- band activity (4–12 Hz in rodents; 4–8 Hz in
humans) plays a significant role in memory function in rodents and in humans. Recording
intracranially in humans, we have reported task-related, theta-band rhythmic activity in the
raw trace during virtual maze learning and during a nonspatial working memory task. Here
we analyze oscillations during virtual maze learning across a much broader range of
frequencies and analyze their relationship to two task variables relevant to learning. We
describe a new algorithm for detecting oscillatory episodes that takes advantage of the high
signal-to-noise ratio and high temporal resolution of the iEEG. Accounting for the
background power spectrum of the iEEG, the algorithm allows us to directly compare levels
of oscillatory activity across frequencies within the 2- to 45-Hz band. We report that while
episodes of oscillatory activity are found at various frequencies, most of the rhythmic activity
during virtual maze learning occurs within the theta band. Theta oscillations are more
prevalent when the task is made more difficult (manipulation of maze length). However,
these oscillations do not tend to covary significantly with decision time, a good index of
encoding and retrieval operations. In contrast, lower- and higher-frequency oscillations do
covary with this variable. These results suggest that while human cortically recorded theta
might play a role in encoding, the overall levels of theta oscillations tell us little about the
immediate demands on encoding or retrieval. Finally, different patterns of oscillations may
reflect distinct underlying aspects of memory function. (Jeremy B. Caplan, 2001) Zajonc's
proposal that the presence of others facilitates emission of dominant responses was examined
in a coaction setting with human maze learning. On a maze where dominant responses were
likely to be correct, coacting subjects made fewer errors than those working alone. On a maze
where dominant responses were likely to be incorrect, subjects performing alone made fewer
errors than those coacting. Investigation of task performance at different stages in learning
80
showed that a change in the rate of learning corresponded to a change in the dominant
response from incorrect to correct. It was concluded that the presence of others has a
facilitative effect on the dominant response, hindering learning when the dominant response
is incorrect and helping learning when the dominant response is correct. Coaction effects
were extremely pronounced in females but almost nonexistent in males. (M.Hillery, 1973)
Maze tests have been used in research and clinical practice to enable the evaluation of
different cognitive and motor processes (Sousa D. E., 2013). The task of solving a maze
involves attention and perception during the analysis of the visuospatial stimulus, executive
function at the moment of planning, organization and motor action, as well as when deciding
on the correct solution path, especially when encountering a fork in the path. The response is
planned based on decisions made, trial and error, and performance improves through various
trials until it is stabilized and the learning process is understood; the information is then
stored in memory. Studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have shown
evidence of an activation pattern of numerous cerebral structures linked to different cognitive
and motor processes.
During the processing of visual information related to the analysis of the spatial
characteristics of the stimulus, the occipital and parietal regions were activated. Furthermore,
activation occurred in regions associated with planning and motor execution, such as the
basal ganglia, supplementary motor areas and premotor and primary motor areas as said by
(Sousa, 2013) .The question raised by Edward L. Thorndike, who in 1898 became the first
researcher to obtain an American doctorate in animal psychology, concerned the
identification of the senses used by animals in finding a way to escape from a puzzle box.
The term trial and error go back to Alexander Bain, who used it in his analysis of the
“constructive intellect” in the sense of a “feeling of the end to be served” and the ability to
judge when that end has been satisfactorily attained though it was introduced into animal
81
psychology by Lloyd Morgan to describe the process by which his dog Toni learned such
tricks as opening a gate by raising the latch with his muzzle, etc. Trial and error then became
the main assumption underlying Thorndike’s mechanistic theory.
When he moved to Columbia in 1897 to complete his M.A., he enlarged his sample to
include cats and dogs. The findings were reported in his 1898 doctoral dissertation, Animal
Intelligence: An Experimental Study of the Associative Processes in Animals, the publication
of which was described “as the founding of experimental animal psychology. In effect, his
work led to the production of a convention that treats animals as abstract devices for
introducing concepts that were to become common in human psychology as stated by
(Traetta, 2020).
Problem Statement
Experimentally demonstrate human maze learning and specifically investigate the
subject
Performance and the nature of learning task.
Hypothesis
The no. of trials is positively correlated to the accuracy of response.
No. of Trials were 3
Dependent Variable
Response was that participant should 3 errors in one step, 2 errors in second step and
only one error in third step.
Sample/subject
The experiment was performed by three participants in total. Two subjects were
Experimenter and one subject performed the experiment.

82
Instruments/Tools
Stylus maze, Graph and Table sheet, Pencil, Erasers, Sharpeners, Blindfold, Stop
Watch.
Procedure
There is a route in which the participant finds the rout to reach the final goal. As a
researcher I put the black cloth on the participant eyes and give her a pencil and guide her
that how to find out the rout and approach the goal. As I guide her make a line to find out the
rout and record the errors that how many times, she touches the boarder and make mistakes.
Participants take three chances and write down the mistakes.
Results
Trails Number of errors Time taken
1 3 2min
2 2 1.5min
3 0 1min
Qualitative Interpretation
The 1st trail had three errors and the participant took three minutes to complete the
rout and find out the goal.
The 2nd trail had two errors and participant took 1.5 minutes to complete the rout and
find out the goal.
The 3rd trail had no of error and the participant took 1 minutes to complete the rout
and find out the goal

83
Discussion:
As the no. of trails increase the no. of the errors become lower. That participants
complete the maze 3 times. Data can be plotted for each of the 3 trials and should reflect a
decrease in the time to complete the maze.as we move on next trail the o. of trail decrease.
Another research in which the no. of trail effects as same. (Srinivasan, 2016)
REFRENCES:
Giuseppe Iaria, M. P. (2003). Cognitive Strategies Dependent on the Hippocampus and
Caudate Nucleus in Human Navigation: Variability and Change with Practice.
Journal of Neuroscience, 5945-5952;.
Jeremy B. Caplan, J. R. (2001). Distinct Patterns of Brain Oscillations Underlie Two Basic
Parameters of Human Maze Learning. joural of neurosciences.
M.Hillery, H. J. (1973). ocial facilitation in a coaction setting: An examination of the effects
over learning trials. journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 563-571.
Srinivasan, P. (2016). Psychology Experiment- Insight motor learning-Maze learning.
prakasheducationblog .
Sam. (2013, april 7). MAZE LEARNING. From PsychologyDictionary.org:
https://psychologydictionary.org/maze-learning/
Sousa, D. E. (2013). Maze test: an instrument to evaluate age-related cognitive and motor
changes in humans. Revista Brasileira de Ciências do Envelhecimento Humano 10.1.
Sousa, D. E. (2013). Maze test: an instrument to evaluate age-related cognitive and motor
changes in humans.
Traetta. (2020). At the Beginning Of Learning Studies There Was the Maze. Open Journal of
Medical Psychology, 09(04), 168–183.

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1

name Roll no.

Atia Ghafoor 191870090

Ayesha Mahmood 191870052

Ayesha Saeed 191870092

Tehreem Saba 191870093

Applied Psychology. GIFT. University

Experimental Psychology, PSY-206

Mam Sana Rehman

Digit Span Experiment:

A digit-span task is used to measure working memory's number storage capacity.

The person repeats those numbers back to you.

measures working memory. (Heerema, 2022)

Verbal working memory is involved in many everyday tasks, such as remembering a

one of the two original paradigms used by experimental psychologists to investigate

cognition. (Libon, 2018).

performance on a digit-span task cannot be affected by factors such as semantics, frequency of

capacities may therefore aid mastery of a new language.

two original paradigms used by experimental psychologists to investigate cognition. The

Separate Digits tests: A brief history, a literature review, and a

Blankenship, A. B. (1938). Memory span: a review of the literature, the ability of a

person to immediately reproduce, following a single presentation, a succession of discrete

attitude, distraction, practice, subjective grouping of the units, temporarily pathological

more than 20 studies ranging in dates from 1994 to 2011.

Unfortunately, limitations within some of the research minimize clinical

cerebrovascular accident, severe memory disorders, mental retardation, borderline intellectual

To study the forward and backward memory for digit span.

A single subject performed the experiment, her age is 23 years and

had no previous knowledge about the experiment.

then write the results and save them.

Forward Memory Span

Stimulus Trail Recall Score

Forward Memory Span

Stimulus Trail Recall

Forward Memory Span

Trail Recall Score

Backward Memory Span

Trail Recall Score

it in two tries in the last lines.

Backward Memory Span

Trail Recall Score

Backward Memory Span

Trail Recall Score

last two lines.

Total Memory Recall for Forward and Backward Span

Sequence of Recall Memory Span

Forward memory span 9

Backward memory span 7

Banken, J. A. (1985). Clinical utility of considering Digits Forward and Digits

Backward as separate components of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised. Journal

of Clinical Psychology 41: 686–691.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02214760

Panch, G. (2010). Association: Concept, Types and Laws | Psychology. PSYCHOLOGICAL

Battista, M. (2022, august). cambridge brain science . Retrieved from

Christopher, e. a. ( 147-159). Expansion and re-examination of Digit Span effort indices on

the WAIS-IV. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 2012.

Heerema, E. (2022, February 24). Verry well mind. Retrieved from

malingering detection: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Clinical and Experimental

Libon, J. (2018). Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology. SpringerLink, 844–849.

Retroactive inhibition is the negative effect of an activity following memorization on

retroactive inhibition. Obviously, this "retroactive effect" cannot be interpreted literally as an

Retroactive inhibition became the object of extensive study (printed in a considerable

phenomenon of great scientific interest were examined (Smirnov, 1973). Retroactive