2.0 MECHANICAL TERMINOLOGY AND BEHAV! STRESS STRAIN RELATION > When one studies the mechanical behavior of elastic bodies under load (elasticity theory), one has to consider the following: > An elastic body subjected to stresses deforms in a reversible manner. > Ateach point within the body, one can identify the principal planes on which there are only normal stresses > The normal directions on these planes are called the principal stress directions > Simplest form of stress occurs when a direct axial load is applied to a bar of material of a constant cross-sectional area. Stress (0) = SS (N/m?) aml For tensile * For compression F F o= o=Applied stress will always produce a deformation in form of change of length of the bar The change in length is always described as a fraction of the original length, known as strain, Suan = Mase nae Hooke’s law states that for a perfect material the stress is proportional to the strain up to the elastic limits. Therefore oae a= Ee where E= Young's Modulus a _stress => strain Strain € has no unit, therefore the Young’s modulus of Elasticity E has same unit as stress (0)Stress-Strain Curve Proportional limit Elastic limit Breaking stress tnt Df E Fracture point or Breaking point Plastic behaviour oe behaviour gf Permanent ot Tensile Simin 30% <1%SHEAR STRAIN AND STRESS > Shear stress is defined to be the ratio of the tangential force to the cross sectional area of the surface upon which it acts, | Strain is the measure of a material’s deformation during loading. Normal strain isa measure of the elongation or contraction of a material in a particular direction | during loading (Fig. 1a). Normal strain measurements are required for determining | | the modulus of elasticity £ and Poisson’s ratio v of a material. | | Additionally, shear strain y is an angular deformation measurement defined as the | | change in a 90-degree angle at a point in the material during loading (Fig. 1b). | f Shear strain measurements are used in determining the shear modulus G. | v v Fig 1. Normal stein € Fgh Shearstrain y = AL/L(mm/am) 1 =Change 0" an rans) ‘e Normal ad shea sasSHEAR MODULUS (c) 1 _ shear stress Y Shear strain - BULK MODULUS (kK) > Pressure involved in deformation of material is proportional to the materials volume change. i Pressure P a volume change A P = KAwhere K = bulk modulusHressuce pry Initial state Messane = p&p, + Xp buh stro = ay Beth strain = AY Buk stress __Ap Bulk strain ~ 3V/Vo Bulk Modulus (K) = POISSON'S RATIO, V > When a material is stretched in one direction, it stretches in the other two directio! Poisson's ration is the negative of the ratio of the lateral or transverse strain, é¢,to axial strain, ¢ in tensile loading lateral strain ~“axlal strain > It’s the constant that relates modulus of rigidity G, to the Young’s modulusRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS Young's modulus Shear modulus Poisson ratio Bulk modulus oar rt 7 i I od w Relationship between E, G, v Consider a cube of material of side ‘a’ subjected to a force producing the shape shown below; <—— A ..¢ Assuming the stains are small and angle ACB is 45° 327° ‘Therefore the strain on the diagonal OA 7 _ change in length “original length> Since angle between OA and OB is very small hence OA = OB therefore BC, is the change in the length of the diagonal OA Thus, strain on diagonal 0A = 3 _ AC cos 45° = £ bur AC = ay where y = shear strain y a Thus, strain on diagonal = = i: ee Thus th strain on thediagonal = >= >= > This shear stress system is equivalent or can be replaced by a system of direct stresses at 459 as shown. One set will be compressive, the other tensile, and both will be equal in value to the applied shear strain.oer ore+e ett > Therefore, for the direct state of stress system which applies along the diagonals: tr diagonal = 2 — yZ strain on diagonal = 4 — y Hd EE ) Equating the two strains one gets Tor (+0) 2G —E Where E = 2G(1 + v) > The formula is valid only within the elastic limit of a materialRelationship between E, K, and v » Consider a cube subjected to three equal stresses as shown in the figure below | The total strain in one direction or along one edge due to the application of hydrostatic stress or volumetric stress is given as; = Pres “EEF = 20-20) bulk/volumetric strain = 3x linear strain linear strain &, = &y = & Therefore Bulk strain = 3[2(1 - 2v)] Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K) = SE Sirese nad & bulk strain = KR fo Equating the two strains we get;2 x [Ea-20)] E =3K(.-20) Relationship between G, K, and v > From the derived equations E can be eliminated E=26(1+v) E=3K(Q-2») > Equating the two; 3K(1- 20) = 2601 +») > Therefore; K-26 Y= 206+ 3K)GENERALISED HOOKE’S LAW - DERIVATION > Consider an element on which there is only one component of normal stress acting (say on x-axis) Strain on x — axis = &, = = strain on y,z— axis = fy, = E21 = vey =—pZ =F > Consider an element with normal y-axis stress only Strain on y — axis = &y2 = E strain on x,z— axis> Consider an element with normal z-axis stress only a, LISS Strain on 2 axls = 3 = ES I strain on x,y — axis = &y3 = Eys oO, L = ve, > If the cube is acted upon by the three normal stresses oy, 0,,and oz Total strain on the x-axis, ey = Ex: + £2 + &x3 eR ee Total strain on the y-axis, ey = &y1 + Ey2 + £y3 Total strain on the y-axis, ez fe1 + E22 t+ Ea 22 y By E vette> Hence the generalized Hooke’s law becomes; > Each shear stress component produces only its corresponding shear strain z za Shear strain in x-y plane, yey = but G = 2080) Therefore, Yoy = ‘THE ENDGENERALISED HOOKE’S LAW > The generalized Hooke’s Law is used to predict the deformation caused in a given material by an arbitrary combination of stresses. » It connects the stress and strain in 3-D objects > For a3-D state of stress, the normal strain in a given direction (such as x) is a function of the stresses in all three orthogonal directions 1.e x, y, and z directions. 1 By = Bt — vay — v0,] 1 B= Fl — va; — v9;] Ey =;le — va, — voy] Where E= Young’s Modulus of Elasticity v= Poisson’s ratio > The generalized relationship for Hooke’s law for shear in the xy plane can be given as. 1 Ixy = 20 + vty]> The generalized Hooke’s law also reveals that strain can exist without stress. For example, if the member is experiencing a load in the Y-direction(which in turn causes a stress in the Y-direction), the Hooke’s law shows that the strain in the X-direction does not equal to zero. > This is because as the material is being pulled outward in the Y-plane, the material in the X-plane moves inward to fill the space once occupied, just like the elastic band becomes thinner as you stretch. In this situation, the X-plane does not have any external force acting on them but it experiences a change in length. > In this situation one can say that strain existed without stress in the X-planeEXAMPLE. > The stress components at a point are given by o, = 20 MPa, 6, = 10 MPa, 0, = 15 MPa, 1, = 10 MPa, Tq = 20 MPa. Calculate the strain component taking E = GPa and v=0.25 Solution 1 gle — ve + 22)] 106 = £e = FoH spe [20 — 0.25(10 + 15)] = 68.75 x 10 1 gl — 2G + 22)) 6 wa 0,25(20 + 15)] = 6.25 x 10-6 plee- vex +6] 10° =] = 0.25(20 + 10)] = 37.5 x 10- £2 = A xp IS — 0.256 »] E-2G(v+1) or GE 200 S-yasaag = 80GPa Yay Yay 125 x 10-6 Ye Bx 10°ISOTROPIC MATERIAL > An isotropic material has properties that are the same in all directions. example, the Young’s modulus of steel is the same in all directions. > There are three elastic constants: E, v, G. The relation among them is E 20+) > From the relation above a material that is isotropic and elatsic can be characterized by two independent elastic constants E and v ForStress-Strain Behavior in an Isotropic Material He coy» Stress-strain relationship YF canbe writen in a mata 5; oe BeANISOTROPIC MATERIAL > Anisotropic materials has material properties that are different in all directions at a point in the material. The Young’s modulus changes with the direction of the material. > The matrix equation for anisotropic material as E a) | 3 {=} ee rey irDeformation in an Anisotropic Material + One shear modulus: Gy. > There are only four independent G,yand Vyq (OF Vy). The 5 obtained from the others Felation & Yo = tneIsotropic material ‘anisotropic material T T Comparison between deformatior of isotropic and anisotropic plate 7/77} 1 i q 1 ; ! 1 { j q 1 4 q q q i"HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL > Ahomogeneous body has properties that are the same at all points in the body. A steel rod is an example of a homogeneous body. However, if one heats this rod at one end, the temperature at various points on the rod would be different. Because Young's modulus of steel varies with temperature, one no longer has a homogeneous body. The body is still isotropic because the Properties at a particular point are still identical in all directions. > Most composites materials are neither isotropic or homogeneous. For example consider epoxy reinforced with long glass fibres. The properties on the glass fibre location are different from the properties on the epoxy matrix location. This makes the composite material nonhomogeneous. Also the stiffness in the direction of the fibre is higher than in the direction perpendicular to the fibres. This makes the material properties dependent on the direction hence anisotropic. ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS > An orthotropic material is a homogeneous linear elastic material having two planes of symmetry at every point in terms of mechanical properties, these two planes being perpendicular to each other.Principle axes for an Orthotropic ply Orthotropic axes and arbitrary ‘ direction in the plane of a ply ae oA ar mechanical symmetry i Orthotropic medium