CHAPTER 1 cause, a police cannot arrest a person nor avail the issuance
Introduction to Criminal Investigation of warrant of arrest or search warrant.
What is Criminal Investigation?
 Criminal Investigation – refers to the collection of
facts to accomplish the threefold aim: To identify
the guilty party, to locate the guilty party: and to
provide evidence of his guilt through criminal
proceedings.
The Etymology of Criminal Investigation
 The word Investigation came from the old French
investigacion which means “a searching into” and
from the latin word "investigationem” which
means “a searching for”. Investigation therefore
refers to searching into either individual or
properties.
Who is Criminal Investigator?
 Criminal Investigator – is a law enforcement officer
who is trained, discipline and experienced to
conduct criminal investigation and the one who
can carry the objectives of criminal investigation.
The investigator is sometimes called the superstar
in the process of investigation in which in all
instances investigator use his discretion – the wise
use of his judgment.
When to Investigate?
The police officer initially conduct investigation when one
of the following occur;
 complaint filed
 crime committed or crime is in progress
 drug related offense
 traffic accident
 operation of organized crime
 suspect is under arrest & detention
 suspect is at large and or fugitive from justice
What is the meaning of “AT LARGE”
 “AT LARGE” – means the suspect is not under
arrest or detention not being a wanted person in
the eyes of the law, and therefore cannot be
lawfully arrested without a warrant.
What is the meaning of “FUGITIVE FROM JUSTICE”
FUGITIVE FROM JUSTICE – This is obtained when “an
individual who, after having committed a criminal offense,
leaves the jurisdiction of the court where such crime has
taken place or hides within such jurisdiction to escape
prosecution.
 Is necessarily an escapee from detention or
escaped prisoner while serving sentence by virtue
of a final judgment rendered by a court of
competent jurisdiction that can be legally arrested
(par. C, Sec 5, Rule 113, Rules of Court) without the
necessity of a warrant of arrest.
As a general rule;
In all criminal investigation or proceedings
Probable Cause must well establish. Without probable
Probable Cause
 Mean the facts and circumstances that would  
engender a well-grounded belief that a crime has
been committed and the person to be arrested
committed it.
PHASES OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
1. The identification of criminal.
2. The criminal is traced, located and arrested.
3. The pieces of evidence to prove the guilt of the
accused are gathered.
4. Pieces of evidence are presented in court.
THE CONCEPT OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION AS AN ART
AND A SCIENCE
 It is an art because it is governed by rigid rules or
fixed legal procedures but most often based on
intuition and sometimes by chance.
 It is a science because it involves the application of
knowledge of forensic sciences in the process of
identifying, locating, collecting, processing, and/or
evaluating physical evidences.
GOALS OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
1. To determine whether a crime has been
committed.
2. To legally obtain information or evidence.
3. To identify persons involved (suspects/victims/
witnesses).
4. To arrest suspects.
5. To recover stolen properties.
6. To present the best possible case to the
prosecutor.
IMPORTANCE OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
1. It provides the facts of a crime and provided with
solutions.
2. It helps the five pillars of the Criminal Justice
System in recognizing and identifying criminal and
provide justice to offended party, offender(as the
case maybe), and in promoting social justice.
3. An aid in enforcing the laws and the protection of
lives and properties.
As a general rule
All crime incidents must be recorded in the official
police blotter – is a 18”x12” logbook that contains the daily
register of all crime incident reports, official summary of
arrest, and other significant events reported in the police
station.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INVESTIGATOR:
KNOWLEDGEABLE – this refers to the investigator who
exhibit understanding about crime, evidence, law, to
include suspect and the victim.
PERSEVERANCE – refers to the steadfastness, persistence
and resolution to bring the desired conclusion in spite of
obstacles connected with criminal investigation.
ENDURANCE – this refers to the ability of the investigator to
withstand hardship in the conduct of investigation to
include the ability to last physically and mentally.
HONESTY AND INTEGRITY – the investigator must always
observe the moral conviction of doing the right thing in all
circumstances. There is the ever temptations of money,
women and drinks, etc. that influence the result of
investigation.
THE INTELLIGENCE AND WISDOM OF SOLOMON – this is
very important in order that the investigator could easily
decipher falsehood from truth and separate the gain from
the chaff as king Solomon did when he settled disputes of
child’s ownership between the two mother.
ACTING ABILITY – it is the ability to go down to the level of
the subject (minor, the prostitute or the slum dwellers, or
the level of the other professionals or the members of the
elite).
GOOD IN ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION – this is
the ability of the investigator as he mingle with the
community to include in making a concise report.
THE KEEN POWER OF OBSERVATION AND DESCRIPTION –
these are very important in crime scene investigation and in
interview and interrogation.
COURAGE – it is the moral fortitude to tell the truth no
matter who will be hurt.
THE POWER TO “READ BETWEEN THE LINES – this is the
ability of the investigator to interpret the words or phrases
encountered in the process of investigation in their deeper
meaning in order to arrive with an accurate meaning of a
certain statement.
KNOWLEDGE OF MARTIAL ARTS AND FIREARMS
PROFICIENCY – this will help the investigator in defending
himself when confronting, arresting, and interrogating the
suspect.
OTHER QUALITIES OF INVESTIGATOR
Superior reasoning ability - the ability to analyze logically a
multitude of facts and determining how they interrelate.
This is related to critical thinking.
 This method of reasoning challenges one to adopt
an attitude of fair-mindedness, intellectual caution
and openness to questioned common or assumed
beliefs.
Imagination – is forming mental images of what is not
present or creating new ideas by combining previous
experiences.
Curiosity – is a desire to learn
Intuition – immediate apprehension or cognition, quick and
ready insight.
Observation ability – the ability to observed, noting and
recording of facts (using the sense of seeing and hearing)
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
The Code of Hammurabi ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC
 Is considered to be the oldest known code of law
from the Old Babylonian period.  The code is also
one of the earliest examples of the idea
of presumption of innocence, and it also suggests
that both the accused and accuser have the
opportunity to provide evidence.
It consists of 282 laws, with scaled punishments
known as Lex Taliones which mean "an eye for an
eye, a tooth for a tooth".
5th CENTURY B.C., ROME
6th CENTURY B.C. ATHENS
TIME OF ALFRED THE GREAT
 In the later part of 19TH Century, England’s king,
Alfred the Great established a system of “mutual
pledge” (social Control), which organized for the
security of the country into several levels:
1. TEN TITHING - One hundred persons are grouped
into one under the charge of a High Constable.
2. TITHING – Ten persons are grouped together to
protect one another and to assume responsibility
for the acts of the group’s members. The one who
heads this group is called Tithing Man.
SHIRES – The divisions of a specific geographic area. It is
being controlled by the king and governed by a Shire-reeve,
or Sheriff.
TIME OF EMPEROR AUGUSTUS
At about the time of Christ, Rome: The Roman Emperor
Augustus picked out special, highly qualified members of
the military to form the following:
1. PRAETORIAN GUARD – This was considered the
first police officers, their job is to protect the
palace and the emperor.
2. PRAEFECTUS URBI – Their function is to protect the
city. They have both executive and judicial power.
3. VIGILES OF ROME - The vigiles began as fire
fighters, they were eventually also given law
enforcement responsibilities and they patrolled
Rome’s streets day and night. The vigiles could be
considered the civil police force designed to
protect citizens.
TIME OF WINCHESTER
1285 A.D., England: THE STATUTE OF WINCHESTER was
enacted establishing a rudimentary criminal justice system
in which most of the responsibility for law enforcement
remained with the people themselves.
These statutes or laws were promulgated by
Winchester.
1. The Watch and Ward Act
2. Hue and Cry System
3. Parish Constable
4. Keeping weapon at home for family security
1720’s, England: JONATHAN WILD – a master criminal who
became the London’s most effective criminal investigator.
 He was the most famous THIEF-CATCHER in 1720s.
He conceived the idea of charging a fee for
locating and returning stolen property to its
rightful owners.
1750s, England: HENRY FIELDING – He was the creator and
a magistrate of the Bow Street Runners; he formed a group
of police officers attached to the Bow Street Court, not in
uniform performing criminal investigative functions.

1753, England: JOHN FIELDING – The “blind” younger
brother of Henry Fielding who took over the control of Bow
Street Court in 1753. He also introduced the practice of
developing informants, printing wanted notices, employing
criminal raids, and bearing firearms and handcuffs.
1800, London: PATRICK COLQUHOUN – A prominent
London President who proposed the unique idea of
creating sizeable uniformed force to police the city of
London in order to remedy the public outcry concerning the
increase of criminality during the early 1800s.
 
1811, France: EUGENE “FRANCOIS” VIDOCQ - established a
squad of ex-convicts to aid the Paris Police in investigating
crimes. He worked under the theory of “Set a thief to catch
a thief.”
 He is credited, as the founder of La Surete,
France’s National Detective Organization.
1829, London: ROBERT PEELS – The founder and chief
organizer of London Metropolitan Police. He introduced the
techniques in detecting crimes such as detectives
concealing themselves, and secretly photographing and
recording conversations.
1835, TEXAS RANGERS was organized as the first law
enforcement agency with statewide investigative authority.
This is the forerunner of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI).
 
(1847-1915), Dr. HANS GROSS – The earliest advocate of
criminal investigation as a science. Gross was a native of
Austria, born in Graz. Educated in law, he became
interested in investigation while serving as an examining
magistrate. He became a professor of Criminology at the
University of Vienna.
 
1852, U.S.A: CHARLES DICKENS – is a great novelist in which
through his story entitled bleak house, he introduced the
term detective to the English language.
 
1852, U.S.A: ALLAN PINKERTON – This individual truly
deserves the title of “America’s Founder of Criminal
Investigation.”
 Among methods pioneered by Pinkerton were;
“shadowing, roping, undercover.”
 They work with the motto “We never sleep.”
1856, U.S.A: KATE WAYNE: The first woman detective in the
history of criminal investigation. She was hired by the
Pinkerton Agency and contributed to the resolutions of big
cases of the United States of America.
 
1909-1924 JOHN EDGAR HOOVER – He became the head of
the Federal Bureau of Investigation, which was established
by the attorney general from 1909 to 1924.
 
1866, U.S.A: THOMAS BYRNES – He is an unusually keen-
minded individual who trained his detectives in recognizing
individual criminal techniques. He founded the criminal
“modus operandi,” or method/mode of operation.
1866, Liberty, Missouri, USA: THE JESSIE JAMES GANG -
made the first hold-up which marks the beginning of the
gang’s 15 year hold-up and robbery spree (12 bank hold-
ups and 12 train robberies in 11 states). Clay County
Savings Association (CCSA) was their first victim and their
take was $60,000,000.00.
1882, France: ALPHONSE BERTILLON - A French Police Clerk
who introduced and established the first systematic
identification system based on the Anthropological
Signalment (Anthropometry).
 He is considered as the founder of Criminal
Investigation in France.
1954, USA: Dr. PAUL KIRK – The best known Criminalist who
headed the Department of Criminalistics at the University
of California, USA.
1966, USA: MIRANDA vs ARIZONA – The US Supreme Court
established procedural guidelines for taking criminal
confessions. The case is the origin of the present Miranda
rights of every accused under the custody of police.
 
MIRANDA RIGHTS originated from the American
jurisprudence. Mr. Ernesto Miranda, a Latino was accused
of KIDNAPPING and RAPE in the State of Arizona. The
Arizona Police interrogated Mr. Miranda exhaustedly
leading to his confession.
Based on his confession, he was charged, tried and
convicted. Appeal of his conviction was made before the
Arizona Supreme Court but his conviction was affirmed.
The appeal was then elevated to the US Supreme Court
where there was a reversal of the decision and he was
acquitted on Constitutional grounds.
It was in this case, entitled Miranda vs. Arizona (Ernesto
Miranda versus State of Arizona, USA) that the US Supreme
Court laid down the constitutional rights of the accused
during the custodial interrogation. It was incorporated in
our 1973 Constitution and later in the 1987 Constitution of
the Philippines. This is known as the Miranda Rule,
Doctrine, or Warning.
The Law of PNP applicable in Criminal Investigation;
1987 PHIL CONSTITUTION, Art 16, Sec 6 – The State shall
establish and maintain one police force, which shall be
national in scope and civilian in character, to be
administered and controlled by a national police
commission. The authority of local executives over the
police units in their jurisdiction shall be provided by law.
RA No. 4864 – AN ACT CREATING THE POLICE
COMMISSION, AMENDING AND REVISING THE LAWS
RELATIVE TO THE LOCAL POLICE SYSTEM, AND FOR OTHER
PURPOSES.
RA No. 6975 – established the Philippine National Police
(PNP) under a Reorganized Department of the Interior and
Local Government. This law stated that PNP is supposed to
have a Maritime Police Unit, to absorb the police functions
of the Coast Guard and to be provided with sea capabilities.
RA No. 8551 – AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE REFORM AND
REORGANIZATION OF THE PHILIPPINE NATIONAL POLICE
AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES, AMENDING CERTAIN
PROVISIONS OF REPUBLIC ACT NUMBERED SIXTY-NINE
HUNDRED AND SEVENTY-FIVE ENTITLED, "AN ACT
ESTABLISHING THE PHILIPPINE NATIONAL POLICE UNDER A
RE-ORGANIZED DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR AND LOCAL
GOVERNMENT, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES"
RA No. 7438 – Act defining certain rights of persons
arrested, detained or under custodial investigation as well
as the duties of the arresting, detaining and investigating
officers, and providing penalties for violations thereof, 1992
CHAPTER 2ARREST, SEARCH AND SEIZURE, RAID
The term “arrest” came from the Latin word “arrestare”
which means “cause to stop” and “restare” which means
“stay behind”. These terms were used as early as during the
14th century. On the other hand, the word search was
derived from the Anglo-Norman word “searcher,” Old
French cerchier which means “to explore,” Latin word
“circare" which means “go around in circles.”
What is Complaint and Information?
Complaint is a sworn written statement charging a person
or a group of persons of an offense that is subscribed by the
offended party such as the victim/s of the offense
committed, or any other peace officer charged with the
enforcement of the law violated.
Information is an accusation in writing charging a person or
a group of persons of an offense that is subscribed by the
prosecutor or fiscal. It is substantiated on oath and includes
the name of the party, the offense committed, facts of the
offense and other factors relevant.
Contents of Information
➢ A certification by the filing Prosecutor that he is filing the
same in accordance with the provisions of Section 7, Rule
112, Rules on Criminal Procedure, in cases cognizable by
the Regional Trial Court;
➢ The full name and aliases, if any, and address of the
accused;
➢ The place where the accused is actually detained;The full
names and addresses of the complainant and witnesses;
➢ A detailed description of the recovered items. If any;
➢ The full name and address of the evidence custodian;
➢ The age and date of birth of the complainant or the
accused, if eighteen (18) years of age or below; and
➢ The full names and addresses of the parents, custodians
or guardians of the minor complainant or accused, as the
case may be.
What is Arrest?
Arrest is the actual taking of a person or persons into
custody by an authority in order that he/they may be
bound to answer for the commission of an offense.
Warrant of Arrest is an order in writing issued in the name
of the People of the Philippines; signed by a judge and
directed to a peace officer, commanding him to arrest the
person designated and take him into custody of the law in
order that he may be bound to answer for the commission
of an offense.
Richard Doe/ John (Jane) Doe Warrant is a warrant
containing no specific person to be arrested but only
descriptions based from the testimonies of the victim/s or
the witnesses/es. It contains the physical description of the
accused as well as other factors to be considered for the
identification of the accused (Sadili& Pena, 1998).Warrant
Officer is any authorized member from the law
enforcement agency usually from the Philippine National
Police (PNP) or National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) who
holds a warrant for execution within 10 days from receipt
subject to renewal in case of failure to execute the
same.Alias Warrant refers to the warrant of arrest issued by
a judge to the peace officer after returning the original
warrant of arrest after the lapse of the 10-day validity
period.
When a warrant of arrest not necessary;
➢ When the accused is already in detention
➢ When the accused was arrested by virtue of a
lawful arrest without warrant
➢ When the penalty is of a fine only
➢ Those covered by a summary procedure
Procedure when arrest is made;
1. Secure the person arrested (handcuff at the back)
a. Conduct thorough search for weapons and other illegal
materials
b. Inform the arrested person of his right
2. Use reasonable force in making arrest
a. Confiscated evidence shall be properly documented
b. Bring the arrested person to the nearest accredited
hospital for medical examination
c. Bring the arrested person to the police station for
documentation
Medical Examination of Arrested Person/ Suspect.
Immediately after the arrest of a person ordered arrested
by the court, or of a suspect under investigation, he should
be subjected to a medical examination. Prior to his release
or any change of custody, the suspect should also be
medically examined by a medico-legal officer or, in the
absence of such medico-legal officer, by any government
physician in the area.
The Basic Principle of Warrant of Arrest
➢ Issued by the judge to a peace officer and commanding
him to arrest a person stated therein.
➢ It is enforceable within the Philippine territory at
anytime of the day or night.
➢ Arresting officer must inform the person to be arrested
of the cause of the arrest.
➢ Arrest is made by actual restraint of the person to be
arrested or by his submission to the custody of the person
making the arrest.
➢ No specific expiration, but within 10 days of its receipt
the officer shall submit a progress report to the issuing
judge.
➢ Warrant of arrest is still valid if the suspect is not yet
arrested unless the court denounces its validity.
Duties of arresting officer;
➢ It shall be the duty of the officer executing the warrant
without necessary delay to arrest the accused and to
deliver him to the nearest police station.
➢ During arrest, with or without warrant, It shall be the
duty of arresting officer to inform the person to be arrested
of the cause of the arrest or his constitutional rights in
dialect or language known to the subject except when he
flees or forcibly resist.
➢ The officer must present the warrant to the person
arrested, incase that he did not bring with him at the time
of arrest, he shall be shown to him as soon as practicable.
➢ No torture, force or violence or any other means which
vitiate the free will of the arrested person
Summoning Assistance for the Arrest. Any officer making a
lawful arrest may verbally summon as many person as he
deems necessary to aid him in making the arrest. Every
person so summoned shall aid him in the making of such
arrest, when he can render such aid without detriment to
himself.Right of Attorney or Relative to Visit Person
Arrested. Any member of the bar shall, at the request of
the person arrested or of another on his behalf, have the
right to visit and confer privately with such person, in jail or
any other place of the custody at any hour of the day or, in
urgent cases, of the night. This right shall be exercised by
any relative of the person arrested subject to reasonable
regulation. [Sec. 14, Rule 113.]
Executive Order No. 155, dated 30, March 1987, amending
republic Act No. 857, penalizes any public officer who
deprives a person of his right to counsel. The penalty shall
be prison correctional or imprisonment of 6 months and 1
day to 6 years.
WHAT IS CUSTODIAL INVESTIGATION?
CUSTODIAL INVESTIGATION – it is the term to denote the
investigation conducted by the investigator on the suspect
who is under police custody. This is the stage of the
investigation where there is strict observance of the
Miranda Doctrine.
THE RIGHTS OF THE ACCUSED DURING CUSTODIAL
INVESTIGATION
a. Right to remain silent.
b. Right to counsel of his own choice and if he has none, the
government must provide one for him;
c. Right to be informed of the nature of the accusation.
These rights COULD BE VALIDLY WAIVED IN WRITING AND
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF COUNSEL in order that the
ensuing confession be admissible in evidence. The
confession must also be in writing, signed and sworn to by
the accused.
The invalidity of an arrest leads to several consequences
among which are:
a. The failure to acquire jurisdiction over the person of an
accused;
b. Criminal liability of law enforcers for illegal arrest; and
c. Any search incident to the arrest becomes invalid thus
rendering the evidence acquired as constitutionally
inadmissible.
INSTANCES OF WARRANTLESS ARREST, this is known as
citizen’s arrest
1. When, in his (peace officer) presence, the person to be
arrested has committed, is actually committing, or is
attempting to commit an offense.
2. 2. When an offense has just been committed and he
(peace officer) has probable cause to believe based on
personal knowledge of facts or circumstances that the
person to be arrested has committed it.
3. When the person to be arrested is an escapee from jail.
4. When the right is validly waived. This is when the person
arrested consented to the arrest, despite of no warrant
showed; the person is willing to be taken into custody.
The Inquest
➢ Inquest is an informal and summary investigation
conducted by a public prosecutor in criminal cases involving
persons arrested and detained without the benefit of a
warrant of arrest issued by the court for the purpose of
determining whether or not said persons should remain
under custody and correspondingly be charged in court.
What is SEARCH AND SEIZURE?
SEARCH – is an examination of an individual’s person,
house, papers or effect, or other buildings and premises to
discover contraband or some evidence of guilt to be used in
the prosecution of a criminal action
Search Warrant – is an order in writing issued in the name
of the People of the Philippines, signed by the judge and
directed to a peace officer commanding him to search for
personal property and bring it before the court.
Below are the properties that are subject to seizure:
1. Subject of the offense;
2. Stolen or embezzled properties;
3. Proceeds or fruits of the offense; and
4. Property used or intended to be used as means for the
commission of an offense.
The Basic Principle of Search Warrant;
➢ It shall be issued by the judge directed to a peace officer
commanding him to search for personal property and bring
it before the court.
➢ It has a 10 day validity period upon receipt of the search
warrant.
➢ The issuing judge must be within the place where the
crime committed, or the issuing judge must be within the
place where the property be seize.
➢ In enforcing the search warrant, the officer must observe
the two witness rule in the process of search.
➢ As general rule; it is only enforceable at day time,
except as provided by the issuing judge to search during
night time
➢ The officer must follow what specified in the search
warrant to include property to be seize and its location.
(house #, room # in hotel, and item to be seize).
➢ The officer has the right to break door or window to
effect search.
Procedure in executing Search Warrant;
➢ A search warrant must be served within ten (10) days
from its date (thereafter, it shall be void) [Sec. 9, Rule 126]
in the following manner:
➢ The police officer concerned must go to the place
indicated in the search warrant and take the things
described therein, in the presence of at least competent
witness who is a resident of the neighborhood. If he is
refused admittance to the place of search after giving
notice of his purpose and authority, he may force himself in
to execute the warrant; and if he is detained herein, he may
force himself out to liberate himself. [Sec.6, ibid]
➢ The search must be made at daytime, unless otherwise
stated. [Sec.8, ibid]
➢ The officer seizing the property must issue a detailed
receipt of the things seized to the person in whose
possession it was found, or in the absence of such person,
he must, in the presence of at least one witness, leave such
receipt in the place where such things where seized. [Sec.
10, ibid.]
➢ In compliance with this procedure, it has been standard
practice to issue a RECEIPT FOR PROPERTY SEIZED after a
seizure. The receipt is signed by the seizing officer only and
two witnesses. Recent Supreme Court decisions, however,
an extrajudicial confession of the commission of the offense
➢ Charged. [People de las Marinas, G.R. No 87215, 30 Apr
91; and People vs Mauyao, G.R No. 84525, 6 Apr 92].
Consequently, if the accused does not sign such receipt, if
may still be used in evidence. Moreover, Of the accused DID
in fact sign of receipt, but he signed it with the assistance of
a lawyer of his choice. That act would constitute a valid
waiver of his right against self-incrimination.
➢ It must be noted that in the cases cited above, the crime
charged is possession of prohibited drugs. Thus, the
signature of an accused on the receipt is a declaration
against interest and a tacit admission of the crime charged,
as mere unexplained possession o prohibited drugs is
punishable. The doctrine is therefore not a hard and fast
rule as far as the ‘’Receipt for Property Seized’’ is
concerned. If the crime charged is possession of unlicensed
fire arms. For example, the doctrine would apply. In other
cases, it will not apply.
➢ Another document which is made after search is a
CERTIFICALTION OF PROPERTY SEIZED. This is signed by the
owner of the seized property, and would seem to fall more
under the court pronouncement above than the ‘’Receipt
for Property Seized’’ does.
➢ As much as possible, during the opening of safes,
drawers, cabinets, tables, etc, the lifting of the articles
should be done by the owner of the house or his authorized
representative, or by immediate members of his family, to
preclude any suspicion of the theft or planting of evidence.
➢ Thereafter, the officer must immediately deliver the
things or property seized to the judge who issued the
warrant, together with an inventory duly verified under
oath. [Sec. 11, ibid.]
INSTANCES OF WARRANTLESS SEARCHES
➢ Warrantless search incidental to a lawful arrest
➢ WHEN PROHIBITED ARTICLES ARE IN PLAIN VIE
➢ SEARCH OF MOVING VEHICLES.
➢ A "stop and frisk" search
➢ Customs search
➢ Consented Warrantless Search
Techniques of Searches of Persons Arrested.
“Probe ,” do not “pat” - (A woman operative should be
used to search females.)The need to handcuff subjects(s).
Dangerous and violent criminals, as well as escapees from
prisons and escape artists, must be handcuffed.When
applying handcuffs, give the following orders to the subject
and follow this procedure:
First Order: ‘’ take your right hand off the wall and place it
in your back.’’ Fasten the handcuff to this hand and firmly
hold the other handcuff.Second Order: ‘’ Move up and put
your hand against the wall.’’ Allow the subject to move
closer to the wall, making certain his feet remain back far
enough to keep him ‘’ off-balance.’’Third Order: ‘’Take your
other hand off the wall and place it on the small of your
back.’’ Fasten the other handcuff and double-lock both
handcuffs.Final Order: ‘’ Stand up and face the wall.’’ Help
the subject in doing this.
➢ Do not stop the search when a weapon is found.
➢ Look for items which may be used to commit suicide
➢ Look items of evidence.Searchers should never cross the
line of fire.
➢ Do not talk to subject(s) in the course of the search.
➢ Do not grant subject’s request to attend to something
before, during and immediately after the search.
➢ In a search by a single officer, have the gun ready with
the land at a distance from the subject.
➢ Be sure to search every part of the body and clothing.
Types of Searches:
• Wall search
• Standing Search
• Kneeling Search
• Prone Search
Fruit of Poisonous tree doctrine
A rule requires that evidence that is illegally obtained
should be excluded from admission in criminal proceedings.
The purpose behind this doctrine is to deter police
misconduct that is reckless, deliberately or grossly
negligent.Mugshots and fingerprints
Arresting units shall at all times take the mugshots and
fingerprints of all arrested persons. Copies thereof shall be
submitted to the PNP Crime Laboratory Service to serve as
master file.
Raid Operation
➢ A raid is a surprise invasion of a building or area. Raids
are usually made after careful investigation and when other
methods of accomplishing the mission are not suitable.
➢ Legal basis. A raid must be legal, having its basis in lawful
process and conducted in a legal manner. This will be in the
form of a search warrant or warrant of arrest. The raid may
be in pursuit of a person reasonably believed to be guilty of
felony and when it is known that the felony has just been
committed.
The purpose of a raid is usually to:
a. Effect an apprehension;
b. Obtain evidence of illegal activity by surprising the
offenders in flagrante delicto; or
c. Recover stolen property.
USE OF REASONABLE FORCE
The use of force shall be avoided. However, when during
the conduct of the raid an armed confrontation took place
due to unavoidable circumstances, the police may use
reasonable force to overcome the threat posed by the
suspect. The use of firearm is justifiable only by virtue of
the Doctrines of Self defense, Defense of Relative, and
Defense of Stranger, and if the police have probable cause
to believe (based on facts) that the suspect poses an
imminent danger of death or serious physical injury to the
police or other persons. The officer-in-charge must ensure
that no innocent civilian is caught in the crossfire (Rule 6
and 7 supra).
Things to be done after a raid where an armed
confrontation ensued. The officer-in-charge shall:
a. Secure the sight of the confrontation;
b. Check whether the situation still poses imminent danger;
c. Evacuate the wounded to the nearest hospital;
d. Account for the killed, wounded and arrested persons for
proper disposition (Rule 9, ibid)
Jurisdictional Investigation – The police unit which has
jurisdiction over the area of the armed confrontation,
together with the SOCO team, if any, shall immediately
undertake the necessary investigation and processing of the
scene of the encounter (Rule 10, PNP Operational
Procedures).
Don’ts in Raid
a. Don’t take unnecessary chances.
b. Don’t underestimate the ability or courage of the
subject(s). PNP Criminal Investigation Manual 2011 4 - 11 –
c. Don’t raid when not properly prepared.
d. Don’t endanger the lives of bystanders.
e. Don’t use police personnel who are not well-acquainted
with each other.
f. Don’t forget gas masks when employing teargas.
g. Don’t be unnecessarily violent on the subject(s).
h. Don’t shoot unless very imperative.
i. Don’t touch the evidence unless seen by witnesses, or by
the owner or occupant of the place.
CHAPTER 3
BASIC ELEMENTS OF INVESTIGATING CRIME SCENE
The Crime Scene
➢ This is the place where the crime is committed and
physical evidence is evident therein.
➢ CRIME SCENE is said to be the “TREASURE ISLAND”
SUGGESTED PROCEDURES OF CRIME RESPONSE
1. The Means of Reporting
2. The Time of Report
3. The Receiver of Report
4. The Time of Dispatch
5. The Time of Arrival
INITIAL STEPS IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
1. Cordon the crime scene.
2. Identify and retain the person who first notified the
police for questioning.
3. Determine the suspect by direct inquiry or observation.
4. Detain all people present at the crime scene.
5. Safeguard the area by issuing appropriate orders.
6. Permit only authorized persons to enter the area.
7. Separate the witnesses in order to obtain independent
statement.
8. Do not touch or move any object found in the scene.
9. Summon assistance from responsible persons if
necessary.
10. The team leader assigns the duties of the searchers if
assistants are present.
THE GOLDEN RULE IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION“Do not
touch, alter, move, or transfer any object at the crime
scene unless it is properly marked, measured, sketched
and/or photographed.”
THE CRIME SCENE PROCESSING;
➢ Before the crime scene is conducted, the investigator
shall establish command post for the team to conduct
briefing and evidence be in place for proper inventory were
chain of custody begin.
ASSIGNMENT OF DUTIES OF RESPONDING OFFICERS
1. OFFICER-IN-CHARGE/ TEAM LEADER
2. ASSISTANT TEAM
3. PHOTOGRAPHER
Procedure in Photographing the Crime Scene
➢ General View or Long-range, taking an over-all view of
the scene of the crime. It shows direction and location of
the crime scene.
➢ Medium View or Mid-range, is the taking of the
photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into
section. This view will best view the nature of the crime.
➢ Close-up View/ Range, is the taking of individual
photograph of the evidence at the scene of the crime. It is
design to show the details of the crime.
Sequential Photographs of the Crime Scene;
1. Views of the exterior of the building/ vehicle in relation
to other buildings/ vehicles, roads/ streets, etc.
2. Point of entry and exit outside and inside.
3. Interiors of the crime scene/ room.
4. Condition of the crime scene.
5. Area from which valuable articles were removed
6. Articles left at the scene.
7. Trace evidence, such as hairs, fibers, footprints and
cigarette butts.
8. Tool marks and impressions of shoes or tire tracks.
9. Fingerprints as well as articles on which these prints may
be found.
SKETCHER – Make sketches of the immediate, background
and inside the scene of the crime.
MASTER NOTE TAKER – The one who writes down in short
hand all observations at the crime scene such as: weather
condition, time of dispatch and time of arrival at the crime
scene and other relevant data that’s should be taken down
note.
EVIDENCE MAN – The one in charge in the collection,
preservation, tagging of the articles of evidence found at
the crime scene.
MEASURER – Makes all relevant measurements of the
scene such as: the distance of the body of the victim to the
firearm used; in motor vehicle collision, the distances of the
two vehicles to the points of references.
SOME MATERIALS NEEDED IN RESPONDING TO THE SCENE
1. Searching Materials – Examples: flashlights, magnifier,
etc.
2. Sketching Materials – Examples: chalk, graphing paper,
a. sketching pad, clipboard, paperboard, pencil/ ball-pen,
etc.
3. Measuring Materials – Examples: compass, tape
measure, ruler, etc.
4. Recording Materials – Examples: tape recorder, video
recorder, etc.
5. Collecting Materials – Examples: such as cutting fliers,
knife, screw device, dropper, forceps, fingerprinting
equipment, etc.
6. Preserving Materials – Examples: bottles, envelopes, test
tubes, evidence tags/ label, etc.
CHAPTER 4
THE THREE TOOLS OR I’S OFCRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
In criminal investigation, we have the so-called three tools
or sometimes called as the I’s of criminal investigation to
include: Information, Interview and Interrogation and
Instrumentation.
INFORMATION – It is the knowledge or facts which the
investigator had gathered or acquired from persons or
documents, which are pertinent or relevant concerning the
commission of the crime or criminal activities.
 Psychologist estimate that approximately 85% of our
knowledge is gathered through sight, 13% from sense of
hearing and only 2% through the three other senses.
Psychological processes of accurate observation;
1. Attention – consist of the psychological process
involve in becoming aware of an existence of facts.
2. Perception – involve in the understanding fact of
awareness.
3. Report – involved in identifying what has been
perceive, narrated, and identified.
INFORMATION CLASSIFIED AS TO ITS SOURCES:
1. Regular Sources – Records, files from the
government or non-government agencies, news
items. The bulk of application of this nature is
news items. Included also is news or TV broadcast,
intercepted radio, telephone messages and stored
computer area.
2. Cultivated Sources – Information furnished by
informants or informers.
3. Grapevines sources – When the information is
disclosed by the underworld characters such as
prisoners or ex-convicts.
GENERAL TYPES OF SUSPECT IDENTIFICATION
1. POSITIVE IDENTIFICATION – this use information
that identifies an individual beyond question and is
legally acceptable as pertaining to and originating
from a particular individual.
Examples are the following: Information developed after
comparing questioned with inked fingerprints; Result of
DNA analysis of blood and semen.
2. TRACING IDENTIFICATION – this involves the use
of all other information that maybe indicative of
the personal identity of an individual.
Examples include the following: Description of witnesses as
to the appearance of culprits; Information about the
presence of a suspect’s personal belongings at the crime
scene.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
1. Government Records – Police files, NBI files,
Bureau of Immigration files, COMELEC files, files
from the local jails and the National Bureau of
Prisons and other government agencies.
2. Private Records – From private offices and
business and non-government organizations.
3. Intercepted Messages – From telephones, cellular
phones, radio telecommunications and other
means of communications.
4. Records of the Firearms and Explosive Unit –
concerning licensed holders of firearms and
authorized possessor of explosives.
5. Fire Busting – Tracing the chain of possession of a
firearm, from the manufacturer, distributor, seller
and to the last processor and possessor.
(Applicable in US, wherein This could be done
through the files of the FBI and other US police
agencies.
6. Stored Data on Computers and Cellphones – Only
experts must be employed to retrieve these stored
data.
RULES ON COMPUTER EVIDENCE
a. When the computer is OFF at the time of arrival,
do not turn it on.
b. When it is ON, do not turn it OFF nor touch its
mouse or keyboard.
c. The unplugging of the computer whether it is ON
or OFF should be done by pulling out the cable
directly from the back of the Central Processing
Unit.
d. Each unplugged cable should be marked in the
same marking corresponding to the socket from
where the cable was unplugged.
e. The computer should be carefully handled and
packed for transport to the police station.
f. Only computer forensic expert should search for
any information or evidence contained in the
hardware.
g. The expert should duplicate the computer and the
evidence custodian for future court presentation
should keep the original. Search and analysis must
be undertaken using the image disk.
THE INTERVIEW AND INTERROGATION
A Philosophy of Interview and Interrogation:
The RIGHT officer asking the RIGHT questions in the RIGHT
manner at the RIGHT time and in the RIGHT place will get
the RIGHT answers.
INTERVIEW is the simple questioning of a person who
cooperates with the investigator. In account of the
interview, the witnesses voluntarily give their accounts
about the commission of a crime.
Cognitive Interview is a form or technique in the conduct of
interview upon willing and cooperative witnesses, where
they are given the full opportunity to narrate their accounts
without intervention, interruption and interference from
the interviewer
Question and Answer style of interview are also practiced
by some investigators whereby after each question by the
investigator, the interviewee is required to answer on what
he knows about what is being asked.
THE GOLDEN RULE IN INTERVIEW
“Never conduct or let anyone conduct an interview if the
interviewer has not gone to the crime scene.” The
questioning should be in agreement with the facts and
conditions at the crime scene. The questioning will lead
wayward for the interviewer who had not seen personally
the crime scene and he will not be in a position to
distinguish half-truths, exaggerations of falsehood from the
answers of the person being interviewed.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD INTERVIEWER
a. Rapport – It is the relation between the
interviewer and the interviewee, which is
conducive to a fruitful result.
b. Forceful Personality – The appearance of the
interviewer and other qualities such as skills of
communication techniques or the force of his
language are the mainstays of the strength of his
character.
c. Knowledge of Human Behavior
d. Conversational Tone of Voice – His tone of voice
must be conversational, not confrontational as in
interrogation.
e. Acting Qualities – He must possess the qualities of
an actor, salesman and psychologist and know
how to use the power of persuasion.
f. Humility – He must be courteous, sympathetic and
humble, ready to ask apologies for the
inconvenience of the interview.
REASONS WHY WITNESSES REFUSE TO TALK OR TESTIFY
a. Fear of Reprisal – witnesses who lack the courage
to face the suspect, his associates or relatives
always entertain the fear of reprisal.
b. Great Inconvenience– On the part of those of
hands-to-mouth existence there is this real
inconvenience, which will deprive them the time
to earn for their living especially during the ordeal
of testifying during the trial.
c. Hatred Against the Police – This hatred maybe due
to previous bad experience with rogue members
of the police organization.
d. Bias of the Witness – The witness maybe an
acquaintance, friend, helper, or benefactor of the
suspect.
e. Avoidance of Publicity – There are witnesses who
are shy and they shun publicity that will bring
discomfort to their ordinary or obscure way of
living.
f. Family Restriction – Some famous and respected
families preserve their reputations by instilling to
their members the need of the approval of their
elders on matters affecting their families.
Opening the Interview
 The interviewer should identify himself and the
agency to which he belongs.
 He should try to size up the interviewee and reach
to tentative conclusion about his type, then use
the best interview approach.
 He should keep in mind the provisions of law
regarding the rights of people under custodial
investigation.
THE STAGES OF HANDLING INTERVIEW
a. Preparation/Planning– The investigator should
review the facts at the crime scene and
information from other sources in order that he
would be ready for the questioning. A background
data of the subject should be available so that he
could adapt himself to the kind of approach to be
employed.
In planning the interview, the interviewer should consider:
 The facts of the case which have been established
so far.
 The information needed to complete the picture.
 The sources of information that may be consulted
such as files and record.
 The possibility of confronting the suspect with
physical evidence.
 The time available for the interview.
 The time allowed by law.
b. Approach – The investigator must carefully select
his kind of approach, which maybe a single kind, a
combination of two or the application of all
techniques.
c. Warming Up – This is done by preliminary or
exploratory questions to clear the atmosphere,
promote a conducive ground for cordiality, respect
and trust for each other.
d. Cognitive Interview – The subject now is asked to
narrate his account without interruption,
intervention or interference. It is only after the
completion of the uninterrupted narration that the
investigator begins his direct and cross-
examinations.
RULES IN QUESTIONING A PERSON
a. One Question at a Time – Multiple, complex and
legalistic questions should be avoided. One
question at a time is desired.
b. Avoid Implied Answers – The nod of the head or
any other body language as a response to the
questions should be avoided. The answers must
be oral, clear, explicit and responsive to the
questions.
c. Simplicity of Questions – A short simple question
at a time is required. If the answer needs
qualification, then, it should be allowed. Avoid
legalistic questions such as: who is the murderer;
or who are in conspiracy with the subject.
d. Saving Faces – Embarrassing questions on the
subject on matters of exaggeration or honest
errors about time, distance and description can be
avoided if the investigator will cooperate with the
 subject “to save his face”. The investigator should
not fault or ridicule the subject on these matters.
e. Yes and No Answers – Do not ask questions which
could be answered by yes or no only. It will curtail
the complete flow of information and will lead to
inaccuracy.
Note: The interviewer should always leave the door open
for a re-interview. Don’t forget to say ‘’THANK YOU’’ after
the interview.
TYPES OF WITNESSES ACCORDING TO THEIR ATTITUDE
a. Know-Nothing Type – These are the reluctant type
of witnesses.
b. Disinterested Type – This is the uncooperative and
indifferent subject.
c. The Drunken Type – The style of questioning by
the investigator should be adapted to the
psychology of the subject. When the drunken
subject has sobered, another interview will be
conducted, confronting him about his disclosures
while in the state of drunkenness. The written
statement must be taken during his sobriety.
d. Talkative Type – These are witnesses who are
prone to exaggerate, adding irrelevant or new
matters to their narration.
e. Honest Witnesses – These are the truthful and
cooperative witnesses where the investigator
could rely upon, with little or no problem in
handling them.
f. Deceitful Witness – These are the liar type of
witnesses.
g. Timid Witnesses – They are the shy witnesses. The
approach must be friendly and reassuring
confidentiality of their information
h. Refusal to Talk Witnesses – These are the most
difficult subjects to deal with. Find out the reasons
of their personality
INTERROGATION
Interrogationis the vigorous and confrontational
questioning of a reluctant suspect about his participation in
a crime. Is the process of obtaining an admission or
confession from those suspects which means that the
suspect is confronted about his participation in the
commission in an offense is the act or process of
questioning somebody closely, often in an aggressive
manner, especially as part of an official investigation or trial
Goals of interrogation:
 To find out the truth about the crime.
 To obtain an admission or confession of guilt from
the suspect.
 To gain all facts in order to determine the method
of operation or modus operandi and the
circumstances of the crime in question.
 To collect information that guides investigators to
arrive at a logical conclusion.
CONFESSION DISTINGUISHED FROM ADMISSION
Confession is the declaration of the accused acknowledging
his guilt arising from the commission of a crime.
Admission is an acknowledgement of a fact or circumstance
without accepting guilt.
KINDS OF CONFESSION
1. Extra Judicial Confession – Those made by the
suspect during custodial investigation. Simply
explained are that those confessions are made
outside of the Court.
Sec 3, Rule 133, Rules of Court – Extra judicial confession,
not sufficient ground for conviction: An extra judicial
confession made by an accused, shall not be sufficient
ground for conviction, unless corroborated by evidence of
corpus delicti (body of the crime.)
2. Judicial Confession – Those made by the accused
in open Court. The plea of guilt maybe during
arraignment or any stage of the proceedings
where the accused changes his plea of not guilty to
guilty.
Sec. 2, Rule 129, Rules of Court states that “Judicial
Admission is made by the party in the pleadings, or in the
course of the trial or other proceedings do not require
proof and cannot be contradicted unless previously shown
to have been made through palpable mistake.”
KINDS OF EXTRA-JUDICIAL CONFESSION
a. Voluntary Extra-judicial Confession- The
confession is voluntary when the accused speaks
of his free will and accord, without inducement of
any kind, with a full and complete knowledge of
the nature and the consequence of the confession.
b. Involuntary Extra-judicial Confession- Confessions
obtained through force, threat, intimidation,
duress or anything influencing the voluntary act of
the confessor.
IMPORTANT NOTE:
 Confessions obtained from the defendant by
means of force or intimidation/violence is NULL
AND VOID, and cannot be used against him/her in
the trial.
 A confession made under the influence of spiritual
advice or exhortation is not admissible.
 The same through as confession made under the
influence of paternal sentiment is not admissible
as evidence.
Phases of interrogation;
a. Planning and preparation – this refers to the
interrogator keep himself aware on the situation
and he must observe and analyze the interrogee
without his knowledge.
b. Approach – in this step, the interrogator should
keep in mind to gain rapport with the subject.
c. Questioning – this is considered the hearth of
interrogation. Were all techniques could apply to
obtain information from the subject.
d. Termination – this refers to the ending of the
interrogation process, and it should end in a
friendly manner.
e. Recording – this refers to place in document the
result of the interrogation, in this process it is
advisable to tape record all conversation.
 f. Reporting – this is the end product of the
interrogation.
THE TECHNIQUES OF INTERROGATION
a. EMOTIONAL APPEAL – This is a technique where
the investigator, combining his skills of an actor
and a psychologist, addresses the suspect with an
emotional appeal to confess. Devotees of a
religion may belong to this type.
b. SYMPATHETIC APPROACH – The investigator, in
his preliminary or probing questions must dig deep
into the past troubles, plight and unfortunate
events in the life of the suspect. An offer of help,
kindness, friendliness, may win his cooperation.
c. FRIENDLINESS – A friendly approach coupled with
a posture of sincerity may induce the suspect to
confess.
d. TRICKS AND BLUFF TECHNIQUES
(1) The Pretense of Solid Evidence against the Accused
(2) The Weakest Link
(3) Drama
(4) Feigning Contact with Family Members
(5) The Line Up Method (Accused is lined-up among
suspects)
(6) Reverse Line Up (Accused is alone and coached
witnesses and victims are piled to make accusations against
the accused)
e. STERN APPROACH – The investigator displays a
stern (demands immediate response) personality
towards the suspect by using the following
methods:
 Jolting – In the questioning process, the
investigator selects the right moment to
shout a pertinent question in an apparent
righteous outrage. The suspect’s nerves
will break to a confession.
 Opportunity to Lie – The suspect is given
all the opportunities to lie. The suspect is
questioned about his personal life, family,
friends and his knowledge about the
complainant and witnesses. Then the
suspect is questioned about his activity
prior, during and after the commission of
the crime.
f. THE MUTT AND JEFF OR SWEET AND SOUR
METHOD – The first set of investigators must
appear to be rough, mean and dangerous.
g. REMOVING THE ETHNIC OR CULTURAL BARRIER –
If the suspect is an Gaddang, an Gaddang
investigator and the same should interrogate him,
the same with other ethnic or cultural groups. It is
the Filipino’s way of life that we put our trust and
confidence to those who belong to our clan or
tribe.
h. SEARCHING FOR THE SOFT SPOT – In every man’s
heart, there is always that softest spot. The heart
may have been hardened to steal by poverty,
destitution, hopelessness, despair, apathy,
indifference, injustice, hatred or other factors, yet
there is always that spot which could be
discovered by the investigator thru his knowledge
of human behavior
ADDITIONAL MODERN TECHNIQUES OF INTERROGATION
a. Rationalization – It is the use of reasons, which is
acceptable to the subject that led to the
commission of the crime
b. Projection – It is the process of putting the blame
to other persons, not alone to the suspect.
c. Minimization – It is the act of minimizing the
culpability of the suspect.
The following are signs of deception, which may help the
investigator corner the subject, some of which are:
 Pulsation of the carotic (neck)artery.
 Excessive activity of the Adam’s apple.
 Avoiding the eyes of the interrogator, swinging
one leg over the other foot-wiggling, wringing of
the hands, tapping of fingers, picking fingernails,
etc.
 Dryness of the mouth.
 Swearing to the truthfulness of assertions. This is
frequently used by guilty subjects to strengthen
their assertions of innocence.
 ‘’Spotless Past Record’’ – ‘’Religious Man’’. These
are asserted to support statements which the
subject knows, and realizes the interrogator
knows, to be false.
 A ‘’Not That I Remember’’ or ‘’ As Far As I Know’’
expression should be treated as a veiled admission
or half-truth.
Modes of Extra-judicial Identification of Accused
 Show-ups – where accused alone is brought face-
to-face with the witness for identification
 Mug shots – where photographs are shown to the
witness for identification
 Line-ups – where a witness identifies the suspect
from a group of persons lined up for the purpose
Identification will be admissible if it passes the totality of
circumstances test which considers the following factors:
 The witness’ opportunity to view the criminal at
the time of the crime
 Witness’ degree of attention at that time
 Accuracy of any prior description by the witness
 The level of certainty demonstrated by the witness
at the identification
 Length of time between the crime and
identification
 Suggestiveness of the identification procedure
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
 it is a process of applying instruments or tools of
the Police Sciences in criminal Investigation and
detection (the used of Police Laboratory)
 This is otherwise known as CRIMINALISTICS.
Methods of Instrumentation:
Polygraph Examination or Lie Detector Test,
  POLYGRAPHY or POLYGRAPH SCIENCE is the
scientific method of detecting deception using an
instrument called polygraph. Some people
consider polygraphy as the new name of lie
detection.
POLYGRAPH, A polygraph is a scientific instrument that
simultaneously records the changes in physiological
processes of the human body and capable of recording
internal bodily changes, such as blood-pressure/pulse-
rates, respiration, electro-dermal properties of the skin or
the Galvanic Skin-Reflex (GSR), which are indicative of
emotional excitement, especially lying, when questioned.
In polygraphy, the SUBJECT refers to the person to be (or
being) examined, usually a suspected criminal. The subject
is also called examinee.
The EXAMINER is the expert in polygraph science who uses
polygraph instrument to verify truthfulness of a subject’s
statement or testimony. Other descriptions for the
examiner are polygraphist, forensic psychophysiologist
(FP) and polygraph examiner (PE).
The REQUESTING PARTY refers to the person or persons
who ask for the services of the examiner to help verify the
truthfulness of a subject’s statement or testimony.
POLYGRAPH TEST It is the actual test whereby the reactions
of the subject on a specific stimulus are being recorded
using the polygraph instrument. is the specific part of the
polygraph examination that transpires from the moment
the chart drive (kymograph) is turned on until it is turned
off.
PRE-TEST INTERVIEW is the first official stage of polygraph
examination whereby the subject is informed about the
nature of the examination including his rights in relation to
the examination and conditioned to take the test.
INSTRUMENTATION is the stage of polygraph examination
whereby polygraph instrument is actually used while asking
questions to the subject. This is also known as the actual
test.
POST-TEST QUESTIONING refers to the questioning that
concludes the examination, either in the form of post-test
interview or post-test interrogation.
What are the objectives of using Polygraph services?
In crime detection and investigation, the common
objectives of using polygraph services are the following:
 To ascertain if a person (witness/suspect) is telling
the truth
 To locate the fruit/s and/or instruments of the
crime under investigation
 To obtain additional investigative leads to the facts
of the case/offense
 To locate the whereabouts of suspects and wanted
persons
 To identify suspects, witnesses, and/or victims
involved in the criminal/civil case.
 To recover valuable information from reluctant
witnesses
 To eliminate innocent suspects
What are the principal uses of polygraph examination?
There are 5 main uses of polygraph examination.
 Aid in investigation of criminal and civil cases
 Speeds up investigation process
 Eliminate innocent suspects
 Pre-employment screening
 Personnel test for honesty
What are the limitations of the polygraph instrument?
The polygraph instrument is
 Invaluable investigative aid but never a substitute
for an investigation.
 Not a lie detector, it is only a scientific diagnostic
instrument.
 Not capable of determining facts, it only records
responses of the subject.
 Not 100% accurate or 100% reliable, its accuracy
depends on the examiner’s competency.
Police Photography
 Is the study of the general techniques of
photographing the crime scene, physical
evidences, and other circumstances that can be
used for law enforcement purposes. It is a field
that focuses on the practical application of
photography in police work (law enforcement
operations).
Forensic Photography is that field covering the legal
application of photography in criminal jurisprudence and
criminal investigation. It is that branch of forensic science,
dealing with the:
 Study of the fundamental but pragmatic principles
of photography;
 Application of photography in law enforcement;
and
 Preparation of photographic evidences needed by
prosecutors and courts of law.
Fields of Photography Significant in Police Work
Photomicrography - involves the process of photographing
minute objects when magnified by means of the
microscope and enlarged 10 times (10x) or larger
Photomacrography - involves the process of photographing
objects that are directly enlarged at the negatives and
magnified up to 9X only
Infra-red Photography - the technique of photographing or
recording unseen objects by means of infra-red light and
infra-red film; example is the practice of photographing
charred or burnt materials & overwritten texts
Ultraviolet Photography - the technique of photographing
unseen objects by the use of ultra-violet light and filters;
example is the process of photographing overwritten text
and marked money
X-ray Photography - X-ray photography involves the
process of photographing or recording internal structure of
the human body
Forensic Medicine 3. Cooling of the body (ALGOR MORTIS) – The fall of
temperature of 14-20 degrees Fahrenheit
Legal Medicine - is the branch of medicine which deals with is considered as a certain signs of death.
the application of medical knowledge to the purposes of 4. Insensibility of the body and loss of power to move
law and justice. 5. Changes in and about the eye
Forensic Medicine - is a branch of medical science which 6. Loss of cornmeal reflex
deals with the application of medical knowledge to 7. Clouding of the cornea
elucidate legal problems.
Changes in the body following death
Methods of Preserving Evidences: Stage of Primary flaccidity or stage of muscular irritability
 Photography and sound recording, video, audio, 1. The muscles are relaxed and capable of
microfilm. contracting when stimulated. The pupils are
 Sketching dilated, the sphincters are relaxed, and there is
 Description incontinence of urination and defecation.
 Testimony of witnesses/ Preservation in the mind 2. Stage of Rigor mortis ( post-mortem rigidly or
of Witnesses cadaveric rigidity or death struggle of muscle) –
 Manikin Method The whole body becomes rigid due to the
contraction of the muscles. This develops three to
Kinds of Witnesses: six hours after death and may last from 24-36
Expert Witness the opinion of the witness regarding a hours.
question of science, arts or trade, where he is skilled 3. Stage of secondary flaccidity or decay muscles. –
therein, may be received in evidence. The muscles becomes flaccid, no longer capable of
Ordinary Witnesses- all persons who, having organs of responding to mechanical to electrical stimulus
sense, can perceive, the perceiving can make known their and the reaction becomes alkaline.
perception to others, may be witnesses. 4. Putrefaction or decay
5. Cadaveric lividity or post-mortem lividity
Medico-legal aspect of Identification.
When an unknown body is found, the following should be AUTOPSY
noted by the investigator to facilitate identification:  Autopsy came from the Greek word autopsia,
1. Place where body was found. meaning "seeing with your own eyes."
2. Time when found
3. Caused of death AUTOPSY (Sometimes Called MEDICOLEGAL
4. Time when death occurred EXAMINATION)
5. Approximate age  is the process by which the PATHOLOGIST or the
6. Supposed profession MEDICO LEGAL OFFICER conducts an examination
7. Description of the body on the cadaver to determine the exact cause of
death. Autopsy should be performed at once when
Points of identification Applicable to both living and death there is the slightest reason to suspect the
before onset of decomposition. probability of homicide.
1. Occupation mark
2. Race AUTOPSY/ NECROLOGY REPORT
a. color of skin Autopsy is more detailed compared to Post Mortem
b. Feature of face Examination.
3. Stature POST MORTEM EXAMINATION is the process of
4. Teeth examination conducted by a medico-legal officer to the
5. Tattoo marks cadaver of person at the crime scene to find out facts that
6. Weight may lead to reasons of death.
7. Deformitics
8. Birth marks Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology
9. Injuries leaving permanent Forensic chemistry is defined as the application of chemical
10. Moles principles in the examination of physical evidence in
11. Scars solution to problems that arise in connection with the
12. Tribal marks administration of justice. It encompasses a large field in the
13. Sexual organ determination and analysis of the crime evidence.
14. Blood group Forensic toxicology is a hybrid of analytical chemistry and
15. Finger prints fundamental toxicological principles. It is concerned
primarily with the medico-legal aspect of the harmful
Signs of Death effects of chemicals on humans and animals as well.
1. Cessation of heart action and circulation.
2. Cessation respiration – for a period not longer A forensic chemistry laboratory can:
than 3-1/2 minutes.  Examine blood and other bodily fluids
 Determine gunpowder residues and explosives.
  Examine wine, vinegar, and other substances for
unfair trade competition.
 Examine prohibited and regulated drugs.
 Examine the chemical aspects of hair, textile fibers,
and documents.
 Examine glass fragments, fractures, and moulage.
 Examine the nature, physiological action, chemical
and physical dosage, detection, and treatment of
poisons.
Forensic Ballistics
WHAT IS FORENSIC BALLISTICS?
 refers to the science of investigation and
identification of firearms and ammunition used in
crimes.
The term Forensic originated from the Latin word FORUM,
meaning market place, because this is where judicial trials
of Rome during the Roman times or it means debatable
argumentation in relation to the court of justice.
More broadly, the word Forensic has become almost
synonymous with Legal. For instance “FORENSIC
MEDICINE” means Legal Medicine.
WHAT IS BALLISTICS?
 is the science that deals with the study of the
motion of the projectile or simply the science of
firearms identification.
 in its legal meaning, it is the microscopic
examination of fired cartridge cases and bullets
together with the recording and presentation by
means of photography or what is revealed by the
microscope.
IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS;
 Firearms identification plays an important role in
the administration of justice.
 This science has advantage over confessions, direct
witness and other circumstantial evidence.
 It is regarded as the highest form of uncontestable
and conclusive piece of evidence with the utmost
legal significance.
Some important term;
Caliber – is a term used to indicate the bore diameter
measured from land to land.
Gauge – as applied to shotgun indicates that the bore
diameter of a lead ball whose weight in pounds is equal to
the reciprocal gauge index.
Bullet Recovery Box – is a device for catching test bullets
fired from the suspected firearms or weapons.
Photomicrographic Camera – a camera used by connecting
the camera with the ocular of the bullet comparison
microscope for permanently recording the microscope
image.
Pitch of rifling – is the distance that the rifling advances to
make one complete turn.
Caliper – a measuring device used in the calibration of
bullets and gun bores.
Choke – the constriction of a shotgun bore at the muzzle at
various ranges or degrees designed to control pellet
charged at the target.
Chronograph – instruments which measure the velocity of
projectiles.
Class Characteristics – those which are determinable prior
to the manufacturer of the firearm and are Bullet
Comparison Microscope – is a microscope especially
designed to permit workers to determine points of
similarity or difference between two objects by observing
their multi-magnified images simultaneously in a single
microscope field.
Individual Characteristics – those which are determinable
only after the manufacturer of the firearms. Recoil – the
equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward
movement of the bullet during explosion.
Dactyloscopy
 is the study of classification of fingerprints as a
means of identification.
 from root word Dactyl (dactile)
 GREEK word DAKTYLOS meaning FINGER.
SCIENCE OF FINGERPRINTS
 is the most positive means of personal
identification. It has been found out that the
intricate pattern on the fingers are permanent to
individual and never undergo a natural change.,
except in the size of the pattern during the life
time of individual.
Friction skin patterns/designs/ formations appear on the
finger tips, palms of the hands and soles of the feet five (5)
months before birth to DEATH.
FINGERPRINTS probability of an individual to have the same
fingerprint is 1:64 billion.
DEFINITION OF FINGERPRINTS
As an IMPRESSION:
 It is the reproduction of pattern or design formed
by the ridges on smooth surface of the end joint by
the fingers or thumb, through the medium of ink
or any coloring substance capable of producing
visibility.
As a SCIENCE:
 It is the identification of person by means of the
ridges appearing on the fingers, on the palms and
on the soles of the feet.
NATURE OF FINGERPRINT AND PRINCIPLES
1. PRINCIPLES OF CONSTANCY – Fingerprint ridges
are formed during the third to fourth or
sometimes fifth month of fetal development.
These ridges consist of individual characteristics
called ridge endings, bifurcations, dots ad many
ridge shape variances.
 This principles was proven by Sir William James
Herschel whose fingerprint had been recorded in
the span of almost 57 years in a different event
and age of his life.
2. PRINCIPLES OF INDIVIDUALITY - no two
fingerprints of different person or the neighboring
finger of the same person have ever been found to
 be identical or exactly alike in all respects, and it
has been studied and proven that ridges
appearing in a fingerprints of man wherein it
has been used as an infallible means of
identification.
3. Principles of Infallibility – Fingerprint is exempt
from error of judgment. Mans fingerprints cannot
be forged. Criminals have tried to destroy their
fingerprints in an effort to fool Justice, even if they
cut his finger with a razor, or knife, time brought
new ridge to the surface. True, there were scars in
the lower layer of the skin, but the patterns were
so distinct that when classifying will show positive
identification of the its real identity.
Questioned Document Examination
DOCUMENT Is any material which contain marks, symbols
or signs either visible, partially visible or invisible that may
presently or ultimately convey a meaning or message to
someone. Pencil or ink writing, typewriting or printing on
paper is its most usual form.
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT Any document about which
some issue has been raised or under scrutiny, with respect
to its genuineness and its origin.
Holographic Document refers to any document completely
signed and written by one person.
Graphology refers to the study of handwriting to determine
one personality trait. This is not part of handwriting
analysis and is not considered a science.
Albert S. Osborn, considered as the “Father of Questioned
Documents” published his work Questioned Documents in
1910. In 1935, the Lindbergh baby kidnapping case, State
vs. Hauptmann Osborn proved in court as an expert witness
that the accused Bruno Richard Hauptmann had written all
of the ransom notes found or sent after the abduction of
the son of Charles.
Questioned document examination principally covers:
 Identification of seal, stamps and other
authenticating devices.
 Examination of handwriting which includes
signatures' and handwriting for the purpose of
determining authorship or their genuineness.
 Examination of type prints and typewriting for the
purpose of determining their source or genuine,
 Detection of alteration
 Restoration of obliterated writing
 Decipherment of erased writing
 Determination of age of documents.
CARE, PRESERVATION AND HANDLING OF QUESTIONED
DOCUMENT EVIDENCE
1. Disputed documents should not be cut, torn in any
manner mutilated in the slightest degree.
2. Documents should not be touched with an eraser
or any kind, nor with pen, pencil, or sharp
instrument of any character.
3. Documents should not be folded in any new place.
4. Documents should not be folded and unfolded
unnecessarily.
5. Except by special permission, no chemicals should
applied to papers in any manner that will injure
deface them, and test of this kind should be made
only by those properly qualified to make them.
6. Never point closely at letters or any parts of it with
a pencil
CHAPTER 5
SKETCHING THE CRIME SCENE AND EVIDENCE
Sketch is the graphic representation of the scene of the
crime with complete measurements of the relative
distances of relevant object and conditions obtaining
therein.
Sketching refers to the process of recording of information
with respect to its location, position, measurement,
orientation and details of findings in a sketch pad through
symbols, arts and figures.
The General Kinds of Sketch
1. Rough Sketch is the sketch made by the
investigator at the crime scene which is full of
important details but without the scale of
proportion. This is used as the basis for the
finished sketch.
2. Finished sketch is the sketch with a scale of
proportion and drawn by a draftsman which can
be used for court presentation. Rough and finished
sketches if requested by the court shall be
presented by the draftsman to clear doubts of the
jury.
REASONS OF MAKING SKETCH
1. To refresh the memory of the investigators.
2. To express the precise location of objects and their
relationship to other objects and its surroundings.
3. To assist the prosecutor and the judge in
understanding conditions at the crime scene;
4. To supplement photographs;
5. To assist in questioning of witnesses and suspects.
PARTS OF SKETCH
The following are parts of sketch that is usually practiced by
the Philippine National Police (PNP). This may vary
depending on the sketcher and purpose of sketch.
1. Title – it refers to the crime committed or the
incident happened such as vehicular accident,
homicide case, drowning, rape case and others.
2. Body – refers to the sketch proper to include the
position of the victim and other items in the crime
scene. It includes proper measurements of
distances of objects in the crime scene.
3. Compass direction (orientation) - A standard
arrow to indicate the north direction.
4. Nature of case – refers to the status of the case
whether currently committed or days have passed
after its discovery.
5. Location of incident – refers to the place where
the incident happened.
6. Date/time of incident – refers to the exact time
and date of the incident. This can be gathered
through interview from eyewitnesses and other
persons in the area.
7. Name of victim – the part of the sketch where
name of the victim is written
 8. Name of suspect – refers to the part of the sketch
where the name of the suspect is written.
9. Legend – This is usually placed at the bottom of
sketch outside the sketch of the scene. Numbers
represent the objects in the crime or letters in
order not to unnecessarily crowd the graphic
presentation. Their descriptions are found in the
legend.
10. Signatory – the part of the sketch where the name
of the sketcher and the team leader or the officer
in charge are written and signed.
11. Date and time- refers to the exact time the sketch
was made.
SOME ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF SKETCH
1. Measurements – This is the element of sketch
wherein measurements are shown in the sketch to
show accurate spaces and distances of relevant
objects to their point of reference.
2. Essential Items – All items in the scene must be
included. Never decide outright that some items
are irrelevant. As you proceed in the investigation,
these seemingly irrelevant items will become
relevant or material in the investigation.
3. Scale Of Proportion – It is the element of the
finished sketch. It is the essential of the finished
sketch to the actual size or measurements at the
scene. The scale of 1:50 means that one inch in the
sketch measurement is 50 inches in the actual
scene measurement.
4. Victim and Suspect identification – This includes
the name of the victim. Other identification data
may be included if available such as: birthdate and
birthplace.
5. Time and date – It includes the exact time of the
preparation of the sketch but most importantly the
time and date of the occurrence of the crime
should be recorded.
THE SPECIFIC KINDS OF SKETCH
Sketch of Locality – It deals with the vicinity of the crime
scene in relation to the environs, to include neighboring
buildings, structures, or means of access leading to the
scene
Sketch of Grounds – This is the kind of sketch which
illustrates the scene of the crime with the nearest physical
surroundings, such as the room adjacent or opposite the
room of the crime scene, the number of floors of a building
or house, the yard and the other natural structures.
Sketch of Details – It includes the positions and exact
locations of the physical evidence in the crime scene. It
describes the immediate scene only like the room which
the crime was committed and the details of items in the
room.
EVIDENCE
 is the means, sanctioned by these rules, of
ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth
respecting a matter of fact (Sec 1, Rule 128, Rules
of Court).
 is any material which tends to persuade the court
of the truth or probability of some facts asserted
before it (Murphy, A Practical Approach). It is the
means by which any alleged matter of fact, the
truth of which is submitted to investigation, is
established or disproved (Carter, Treatise Cases
and Statutes on Evidence)
WEIGHT AND SUFFICIENCY OF EVIDENCE;
1. Proof beyond reasonable doubt
 Does not mean such degree of proof as,
excluding possibility of error, produces
absolute certainty
 Moral certainty only is required, or that
degree of proof which produces
conviction in an unprejudiced mind
2. Circumstantial evidence to sustain conviction
must:
 More than one circumstance
 Facts from which inferences are derived
are proven
 Combination of all circumstances such as
to produce conviction beyond reasonable
doubt
3. Substantial evidence
 That amount of relevant evidence which a
reasonable mind might accept as
adequate to justify a conclusion.
CHAPTER 6
THE INTELLIGENCE OPERATION
The function of Intelligence division is to determine
intelligence requirements task allocations and disseminates
Priority Intelligence Requirements (PIR) and
uncompromising action against those who trample upon
the democratic rights of our people or any attempt to put
up their own government. As the first line of defense
against subversion or dissidence, the intelligence arm must
also be our first line of defense in the protection of human
rights.
Important Events and Personalities:
The Bible – this is the earliest source of intelligence. Found
in Numbers 13:17, when Moses sent a spy to spy out the
land of Canaan.
Moses – he is the first person who used and formalized
intelligence.
Rahab – the harlot of Jerico, who sheltered and concealed
the agent of Israel.
Delilah – she used her beauty in order to gain the
confidence of the enemy and to gather information.
Sun Tzu – A Chinese Philosopher who wrote a Book entitled
“The Art of War” a book that was a favorite reading of Mao
Tse Tung. Sun Tzu contributed his principle of intelligence;
“If you know thy Enemy and know thy Self,
you need not fear the results of a hundred Battles,
if you know yourself and not the enemy,
for every victory, you will suffer defeat,
if you know neither yourself nor the enemy,
you are a fool who will meet defeat in every Battle”.
In this, Sun Tzu, a Chinese philosopher considered the
Father of Intelligence.
Alexander the Great – Called the Marching of Asia, devised
the first letter sorting and opening to obtain information,
because there are rumors of dissatisfaction growing among
his allies.
Gen. Romano Q. Sertorious – The Roman Commander in
Spain who possessed a white Fawn, that come widely to
reveal and use secret and guidance from Fawn.
Akbar – The Master of Hindustan. Who employed more
than 4,000 agents to know the truth if his throne might rest
upon it.
Genghis Khan – The Leader of Mongol Conqueror. And the
one who used prisoners as a source of information.
Sir Francis Walsingham – Organized the first National
Intelligence Service and protected Queen Elizabeth from
countless Assassin.
Arman Jean du Plessis – Took the name Richelieu, which
means the network of covert intelligence and used accurate
information.
Louis XIV – He employed the used of surveillance, postal
censorship, and military intelligence organization.
Napoleon Bonaparte – Introduced the principle “One spy in
the right place is worth 20,000 men in the field” also
maintain Military Intelligence and secret political police
service.
Karl Schulmeister – called the Napoleon’s eye, because he
is the Napoleon’s military secret agent. Through espionage
he infiltrate the Australian General Staff.
Joseph Fouche – Bonaparte’s Head of Internal Security.
Founded the modern system of spying on spies which later
known as COUNTER ESPIONAGE.
Frederick the Great – Known as the Father of Organized
Military Espionage. His method was to divide his agent into
four(4) classes;
 Common Spies – this refers to a recruited person
to earn money
 Double Spies – The Law informers and unreliable
renegades of value, means spreading false
information to the enemy.
 Spies of Consequences – invariable requiring a
substantial bribes or bait.
Hannibal – Considered one of the brilliant military who
used intelligence in history. Developed an effective
intelligence system for 15 years, often disguise as a beggar
to gather information.
Alfred Redl – one of the most brilliant intelligent agent and
the Chief of the Australian Hungarian Secret Service and
latter on they discovered that he is Agent of Russia. The
Brahma Kautilya – Introduced his Intelligence principle
“The ruler should strike at his enemy’s weak points by
means of spies”.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) – established in 1908,
as investigative arm of the US Department of Justice. JOHN
EDGAR HOOVER became the first FBI Director.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) – The Agency Created
under the US National Security Act of 1947. The first
Director was Admiral Roscoe Hillenkoetter.
KomitetGosudarstvennoyBezopasnosti (KGB) – The
Intelligence Agency of Russia.
The Mossad – The Intelligence Agency in Israel. Reuven
SHiloah was the first Director of Mossad.
Two Branches of Mossad
 Aman – Military Intelligence for defense force.
 Shabak – this is for General Security Service for
Internal Security, from the word “Shin Bet” means
defender who shall not be seen.
KCI – which means Korean Central Intelligence Agency.
The Scotland Yard – This refers to the London Metropolitan
Police Force which was established by Sir Robert Peel in
1829.
BASIC CONCEPT OF POLICE INTELLIGENCE
Police Intelligence – it is the end product resulting from
collection, evaluation, analysis, integration and
interpretation of all available information regarding the
activities of criminal and other law violators.
Police Intelligence Officer – is the person who carry the
objectives of Police Intelligence.
IMPORTANCE OF INTELLIGENCE
1. It is vital to enable a nation to formulate its
policies, strategic plans and conduct its diplomacy.
2. Intelligence is needed in order to enable a nation
to forestall the activities of its internal and external
enemies.
3. It is necessary to detect and prosecute the
activities of criminals and subversive elements.
4. it is vital in providing ample security for the people
and the state.
5. Intelligence plays an important role in the life and
survival of a country by providing advance and
exact knowledge of the intentions and design of its
enemies.
Desirable Qualities of an Intelligence Officer
1. Knowledge ability – this refers to the intelligence
and mental capacity.
2. Perceptive about people – this refers to the good
judgment of personal character.
3. Flexibility/Adoptability – able to work with others
even under difficult conditions.
4. Can distinguish between facts and fiction, between
essentials and non essentials.
5. Possess inquisitiveness or an inquiring mind.
6. Have ingenuity – able to improvise, look for
solution
7. Observant and alert
8. Able to express ideas clearly, briefly and
interestingly
9. Discipline
10. Patient and hardworking
11. Good memory
12. Integrity
13. Discreet – knows when to talk or keep mouth.
Functional Classification of Police Intelligence
Criminal Intelligence (CRIMINT) – this refers to the
production of intelligence essential to the prevention of
crimes, investigation and arrest and prosecution of criminal
offenders.
Internal Security Intelligence (INSINT) – refers to the
knowledge essential to the maintenance of peace and
order.
Public Safety Intelligence (PUSINT) – refers to the
knowledge essentials to ensure the protection of lives and
properties.
Forms of Intelligence
Sociological Intelligence – deals with the demographic and
psychological aspect of groups of people and group
dynamics of a population. Sociology is key to understanding
a region's stability, military capability, and foreign policy.
Biographical Intelligence – deals with the individual
personalities who have actual possession of powers.
 refers also to a subset of intelligence analysis
based on knowing, and recording, every possible
name, nickname, code, and other identifiers for
individuals.
Armed Force Intelligence - military Intelligence deals with
the armed forces of the nation)
 is an element of warfare which covers all aspects
of gathering, analyzing, and making use of
information, including information about the
natural environment (Shulsky and Schmitt, 2002),
over enemy forces and the ground. It involves
spying, look-outs, high-tech surveillance
equipment, and also secret agents.
Geographical Intelligence – deals with the progress of
research and development as if affects the economical and
military potential of nation.
Kinds of Intelligence
Strategic Intelligence – an intelligence data that are not of
an immediate value. But rather in a long range of its nature
it may became relevant in Police Operation.
Line Intelligence – Immediate in its nature. It is the kind of
intelligence required by the commander to provide for
planning and conduct tactical and administrative operation
in Counter Insurgency.
Intelligence information to be determined in line
Intelligence is the word PWET;
 P – people, refers to the living condition of the
people.
 W- weather, refers to the visibility/cloudy.
 E – enemy – refers to the location and strength of
the enemy.
 T – terrain, refers to the surface of the land and of
the target area.
Five Military aspect of terrain
1. Covert and concealment.
2. Obstacle.
3. Critical key terrain features.
4. Observation .
5. Avenue of approach.
Counter Intelligence(CI) – this kind of intelligence covers
the activity devoted in destroying the effectiveness of
hostile foreign activities and to the protection of
information.
Three activities of CI
1. Protection of information against espionage.
2. Protection of personnel against subversion.
3. Protection of installation and materials against
sabotage.
CI is also known as negative intelligence. That refers to the
three generic term;
Security Intelligence – the sum total of efforts to counsel
the national policies, diplomatic decisions, military data and
any other information affecting the security of the nation.
Counter Espionage – to investigate actual or theoretical
violation of espionage laws to enforce those laws and to
apprehend any violators. And it is also refers to a job to
catch spies.
Three aims of counter espionage
1. To locate the enemy
2. To identify the enemy
3. 3. To neutralize the enemy
Two General types of CI
A. Passive Measures – are those measures which
seeks to conceals information from the enemy
B. Active measures – are those measures which
seeks actively blocks the enemy’s effort.
Five categories of CI Operation
1. Military Security – this refers to the measures
taken by a command to protect itself against
espionage, enemy operation, sabotage, subversion
or surprise.
2. Port Frontier and Travel Security – to control all
point of entry and departure.
3. CIVIL Security – this refers to the protection of
people within the residing area under military or
police control.
4. Censorship – is the control, examination and
analysis of individuals, the armed forces, field
press, and POW’s.
5. Special Operation – counter subversion, sabotage
and espionage.
Combat Intelligence – is that intelligence required by a
commander to provide a basis for the planning and conduct
of tactical operations.
Intelligence service – is an agency that chiefly gathers and
evaluate information for a countrys political and military
leaders
Two kinds of intelligence service;
1. Foreign Intelligence service – which gather
information about foreign countries and its
institutions, analyzes such information or both. It
can conduct in covert operation.
2. Internal security service – seek to neutralize
hostile intelligence services operating within the
country and focus also on the detection of
terrorist/criminal groups.
Operational intelligence – Operational intelligence is
focused on support to an expeditionary force commander
and will be attached to the formation headquarters.
Major Intelligence Services in the Philippines;
1. NICA – National Intelligence Coordinating Agency,
is the primary intelligence gathering and analysis
arm of the Philippine government, in charge of
carrying out overt.
2. NBI - National Bureau of Investigation, is an agency
of Politics of the Philippines under the Department
of Justice (Philippines), responsible for handling
and solving major high profile cases that are in the
interest of the nation.
3. Intelligence Services, Armed forces of the
Philippines
CHAPTER 7
THE OPERATIONAL CYCLE
The Operational Cycle – is a chronological development of
intelligence activities from basic requirements to final
product and its report/result.
Principles of Intelligence Activities;
1. Intelligence activities must be done by dedicated
personnel
2. When the task cannot be obtain by other means.
3. Risk must be justified by expected results.
4. Collection effort cannot be undertaken without
operational information.
Basic Elements of Operational Cycle;
1. Target or mission – refers to the subject of
operation.
2. Agent/s – this refers to the man on action who will
used or gather information
3. Support Facilities and function – this refers to the
gadgets or equipment used to accomplish its
mission.
Steps in Operational Cycle;
1. Mission – this refers to the classified targets and its
operational condition.
2. Operational Planning – this refers to the formulation of
course of action in order to give specific task to each
operating personnel.
3. Spotting – this refers to the process of locating,
identifying and gathering data on person who appear to be
of potential value or called the target.
4. Investigating – this refers to the gathering of pertinent
facts as to the status of the target. This will done discreetly.
5. Recruiting – this refers to the selection among the
expertise of the team in relation to the target.
6. Training – this is a must in order to enhance and to
provided both general and special knowledge and skills
which the agent must possess.
7. Briefing – Consist of providing the agent with the most
recent developments that may affect the operation, a
general review of operation and detailed instruction.
8. Operational testing – this is called Dry run Operation,
this refers to the operation learned which put on practice
for effective actual operation.
9. Operation or engagement – this refers to the actual
operation against the enemy.
10. Debriefing – this refers to the information concerned on
the past operation, it tells the strength and weakness of the
conducted operation.
Order of the battle intelligence;
 is defined as the manner in which armed forces are
organized, disposed, maneuver and supplied.
Order of the battle intelligence consist of accepted data
regarding the following information on enemy forces;
1. Composition – the factor of composition includes
the identification or organization of units
2. Disposition – consist of the location of the enemy
units
3. Deployment – this refers to the predetermine
deployment of enemy unit. Thus, the knowledge
of how enemy units are echeloned initiates which
unit may be used in the initial attack.
4. Movement – this refers to the movement or
tactics of the enemy unit.
5. Strength – the factor of strength is concerned with
the total number of personnel, type units and
supporting weapons in a given enemy force.
6. Tactics – this refers to the conduct of operation by
the enemy.
7. Training – this refers to enhance the capabilities of
each personnel most specially in battle field.
8. Logistics – this factors refers to the factor closely
related to combat efficiency and the ultimate
determination of capabilities.
9. Combat efficiency – is a term use to describe the
effectiveness and fighting quality of the enemy
unit.
10. Miscellaneous data – this includes in knowing
more with regards to the enemy for effective
combat operation.
Order of battle intelligence is mandatory for commanders
and staff at all levels in the preparation of accurate
estimates of the situations and effective plans of actions.
Phases of the Intelligence Cycle
Phase I – Direction the Collection Efforts/Planning Phase –
this refers to the determination of Intelligence
requirements; the EEI, means Essential Elements of
Information now became PIR, means Priority Intelligence
Requirements.
Phase II – Collection of Information – this may be Overt or
Covert method of collecting information.
Information is the knowledge or facts which the
investigator had gathered or acquired from persons or
documents, which are pertinent or that has relevant
concerning the subject.
Psychologist estimate that approximately 85% of our
knowledge is gathered through sight, 13% from sense of
hearing and only 2% through the three other senses.
Psychological processes of accurate observation;
 1. Attention – consist of the psychological process
involve in becoming aware of an existence of facts.
2. Perception – involve in the understanding fact of
awareness.
3. Report – involved in identifying what has been
perceive, narrated, and identified.
What is Elicitation?
 this refers to the process of extracting information
from a person believe to be in possession of vital
information without subjects knowledge.
Two devises in the conduct of elicitation;
1. Approach – this refers to the process of setting
people to start talking.
Types of Approach;
a. Flattery – people are susceptible to praise so
use this weakness as a way of approaching the
subject for elicitation;
1. Teacher pupil approach – the subject is
treated then solicit his view point and
opinion on a subject matter.
2. Kindred soul approach – this refers to a
technique by showing concern to the
subject in order to gain information.
3. Good samaritan approach – is the sincere
and valid offer of help including assistance
to the subject.
4. Partial dis agreement approach – this
refers to the technique wherein the agent
and subject had something partial
disagreement.
b. Provocative Approach
a. Teaser bait approach – the elicitor
accumulates the source of knowledge about a
particular subject to tempt the subject to give
his views of knowledge
b. Manhattan from Missouri Approach – the
elicitor adopts an unbelievable attitude, he
questioned all statements and opposition.
c. Joe blow Approach – the elicitor adopts the
attitude of being apparoachable.
d. National pride approach – this is when the
elicitor become patriotic in all aspect of
elicitation.
2. Probe
a. Competition probe – this is effective when
used in connection with the teacher pupil
approach
b. Clarity probe – used to elicit additional
information in an area which the response is
unclear.
c. High preassure probe – it serves to point out
contradiction in what the subject had said.
d. Hypothetical probe – present a hypothetical
situation and let the subject react to that
situation.
Purpose of Elicitation;
1. To acquire information through other channel
2. To obtain information that is unpublicly known
3. To provide source of information
4. To assist various individuals
Phase III – Processing
Priority Intelligence Requirements (PIRs) – this refers to
the highest intelligence requirements and are the bases for
intelligence operation. These are personally approved by
the police executive.
Steps in processing RAW Information
Collation – organize raw data/information into usable form
or grouping them into similar items.
Recording – this refers to the reduction of information into
writing.
Evaluation – this refers to the examination of information
to determine intelligence value. This determine the
following;
a. Pertinence – does it hold some value?
b. Reliability – judging the source of information.
c. Credibility – the truth of information.
EVALUATION GUIDE; this refers to the Acronym CUFNUR -
CPPDIT , that usually come out in the Criminology Board
Examination;
Evaluation of Reliability of Items;
Evaluation of Accuracy of Information
A – Completely Reliable A-1 1 – Confirmed by other
sources
B – Usually Reliable B-2 2 – Probably true
C – Fairly Reliable C-3 3 – Possibly True
D – Not Usually Reliable D-4 4 – Doubtfully True
E – Unreliable E-5 5 – Improbable
F – Reliability Cannot be Judge F-6 6 – Truth
Cannot be Judge
Evaluation of Accuracy of Items;
T – Direct observation by commander.
U – Report by DPA or Resident agent.
V – Report by PNP/AFP.
W – Interrogation of captured enemy.
X – Observation of Government/Private employee.
Y – Member of the populace.
Z – Documentary.
Interpretation defined
 This refers to the establishing the meaning and
significance of the information.
Analysis – shifting and isolating those elements which have
significance in light of mission or objectives.
Integration – combining the elements isolated in the
analysis and known information to form a logical picture or
theory.
Deduction – formulation of a conclusion from the theory
developed, determination of effect and meaning of the
information.
Who are the users of Intelligence;
1. National leaders, PNP/Military commander for the
formulation and implementation of policies.
2. Advisors and staff for preparation of plans and
estimates.
 3. Friendly nations or other branches of the
government.
4. Processor for basis of evaluation and
interpretation.
Area of Operation (AOR) – description of the actual or
potential area of operation weather or terrain) and its
effect on the contending force.
Phase IV – Dissemination and Use – this refers to the
information that are disseminated to the
organization/personnel who need it.
Methods of Dissemination;
A. Personal Contact – this can be done formal or
informal in order to feel the interest and needs of
the user.
B. Messages – this is through telephone, radio or cell
phone
C. Formal intelligence documents – permit the
presentation of intelligence in comprehensive
form.
Other Methods of Dissemination;
1. Fragmentary orders from top to bottom of the
command.
2. Memorandum, special order.
3. Conference.
4. Reports.
5. Verbal/personal contact.
Five different collection agencies of intelligence
HUMINT – (Human Intelligence), defined as "a category of
intelligence derived from information collected and
provided by human sources
IMINT – (Imagery Intelligence), interpretation of
photographs from aerial units or satellite.
Aerial photography is the taking of photographs of the
ground from an elevated position.
MASINT – (Measurement and Signature Intelligence),
usually consist of acoustic intelligence; radar intelligence,
nuclear radiation detection.
OSINT – (Open Source Intelligence) is a form of Intelligence
collection management that involves finding, selecting, and
acquiring information from publicly available sources and
analyzing it to produce actionable information gathering.
SIGINT – (Signals Intelligence), which refers to the
communication signals.
Intelligence files;
1. Journal file – this refers to the file contains a copy
of each message or document noted in the journal.
This is permanent and official record.
2. Information or reference file – all information
should be filed for future reference.
3. Order of battle and wanted list files –
Order of battle is the identification,
strenght, command structure and
disposition of personnel.
Wanted list file is the consolidated list of
persons with warrant of arrest.
What is mean by Classified Matters?
 This includes all information concerning
documents, cryptographic devices, projects or
materials falling under Top Secret, Secret,
Confidential and Restricted.
Four Categories of Classified Matters;
1. Top Secret – these are information and materials,
the unauthorized disclosure of which would cause
exceptionally grave damage to the nation. This
category is reserved for the nations closest secret
and is to be used for great reserve.
Example;
A. Very important political document
dealing with negotiations for major
alliances.
B. Major government project, such as
proposal to make adjustment to the
nation’s economy.
C. Matters relating to scientific
developments in methods of Nations
defense.
D. Military advantage over other
nations, and others.
2. Secret – Information and material, the
unauthorized disclosure of which would endanger
national security, cause serious injury to the
interest of the nations or any governmental
activity or would be of great advantage to the
foreign nation.
A Secret grading is justified if;
A. It materially influence the major aspect of
military tactics.
B. Result in revolutionary manner if it divulge the
said information.
C. Knowing or revealing weapons or secret
weapon.
D. Endanger intel. Relation from other nation.
E. War plans for future operation.
F. Order of battle info.
3. Confidential Matter – Information and material
the unauthorized disclosure of which would cause
administrative embarrassment or unwanted injury
to an individual and would take advantage to other
nation.
4. Restricted – refers to information and material
that requires special protection other than that
determine to be Top Secret, Secret, Confidential.
What is mean by Cryptographic Security?
 Is that component of communication security
which results from the provision of technically
sound crypto – system and their proper use.
Cryptography – is the art and science of preparing coded or
protected communication intended to be intelligible only to
the person possessing a key.
 This comes from the Greek word Kryptos that
means secret. And Graphos that means Writing.
Important Terminology in Cryptography;
 1. Plaintext – refers to original communication that is
scrambled.
2. Cryptogram – the product of enciphering process
that usually involves an algorithm and a key.
3. Encryption Algorithm – is a particular method of
scrambling a computer program or a written set of
instruction.
4. Cryptanalysis – refers to the Arts of analyzing
ciphertext to extract a plaintext or the key.
CHAPTER 8
SURVEILLANCE, INFORMANT AND INFORMER
SURVEILLANCE is defined as the discreet observation of
persons, places and vehicles for the purpose of obtaining
information concerning the identities or activities of
criminals.
SURVEILLANT is the person who conducts the surveillance
or performs the observations.
SUBJECT refers to a person or a group of persons, place
that is being observed by a surveillant.
Objectives of Surveillance:
a) To detect criminal activities.
b) To discover the identity of persons who frequent
the establishment and determine their
relationship.
c) To discern the habits of a person who lives in or
frequents the place.
d) To obtain evidence of a crime or to prevent the
commission of a crime.
Practical consideration for the conduct of surveillance;
1. Tactics – this refers to the strategic consideration
govern the use of surveillance in particular cases,
and it determine the tactical execution.
2. Planning – should be concise and it should be in
relation to operation activities.
3. Preparation – it is important to develop a plan of
action for handling difficulties in the conduct of
operation. Thus, include the following;
a. Familiarization – it is crucial that the
surveillant be certain of the identity of the
subject.
b. Equipment – all equipment needed
should be in serviceable.
4. Discontinuing the surveillance – this is only done
when the subject directly or indirectly suspected
that he is under surveillance.
1. Note. – The investigator must maintain a note
or log contain-ing a chronological record of
the activities of both the investigator and the
subject. The log can be used either in the
interrogation of the suspect or for purposes of
cross-examination during trial.
COVERT AND OVERT SURVEILLANCE
 COVERT SURVEILLANCE is the type of surveillance,
which is conducted to subject, who are unaware
that they are under surveillance.
 OVERT SURVEILLANCE is a surveillance conducted
to subject who is aware that he is under
observation.
FIXED AND MOVING SURVEILLANCE
Fixed surveillance is performed usually when surveillance is
directed to a particular building or premise. The surveillant
is immovable in place while observing the subject.
Stakeout – Also called fixed surveillance. is a form of closed
surveillance of a particular place where criminal expected
to appear.
Moving Surveillance is performed by surveillant by foot or
with the use of transportation vehicles in observing the
subject.
Procedures in fixed surveillance
 Using a room in a nearby house or building = Using
cameras with telephoto lens and powerful
binoculars in order to get pictures of subject,
visitors and activities.
 The use of devices to record the illegal activities of
the subjects.
 Other surveillants may remain outdoor, posing as
carpenters, plumbers, or other means of
communication will coordinate their activities with
those surveillants inside their observation room.
SHADOWING AND TAILING
 “SHADOWING” OR “TAILING” refers to the act of
the surveillant of following his subject to detect
criminal activities, to establish the association of
subject, to find a wanted person and many other
purposes.
 Shadow means to fallow secretly, while Tailgaiting
is a form of open surveillance in which the
subject’s vehicle is closely followed.
“ROPING” is a kind of undercover work wherein surveillant
assumes different roles and identity inorder to obtain
information.
Objectives of Shadowing & Tailing;
a) To detect evidence of criminal activities.
b) To establish the association of a suspect.
c) To find a wanted person.
d) To protect a witness
There are three (3) types of shadowing employed,
depending upon the objective of the surveillance:
a) ‘’Loose Tail’’ is employed when a general
impression of the subject’s habits and
associates is required.
b) ‘’Rough Shadowing’’ without special
precautions may be used when the
criminal must be shadowed and he is
aware of this fact; or where the subject is
a material witness and must be protected
from harm or other undersirable
influences.
c) ‘’Close Tail’’ surveillance is one in which
extreme precautions are taken against
losing the subject.
Tactics. – The subject should be kept unaware that he is
being shadowed. The investigator should be inconspicuous.
Types of Surveillance;
1. Stationary/Fixed Surveillance – this refers to a
fixed position in observing a place or person.
2. Mobile surveillance – this refers to actually follow
the subjects on foot or vehicles. This may be done
close or loose.
Close surveillance – the subject is kept
under observation at all times.
Loose surveillance – the subject is watch
part of the time or his activities are spot
checked.
3. Tailing or shadowing – it is the act of following a
person or persons.
Methods of Tailing;
a. One man Method – refers to a difficult to do
because subject can be lost.
b. Leapfrog Method – only one member of the
team maintain contact with the subject. It is
close tail with the other member of the squad
keeping contact with those immediately
ahead of them.
c. Group method – this methods refers to
several men assigned as Group Tail.
4. Undercover investigation or sometimes called
“roping” – it is police operations wherein the
investigator assumes a fictitious identity in order
to infiltrate the ranks of the criminals
 Roping – refers to the surveillance of
other things such as events, or activities.
5. Clandestine Activities – this refers to the
concealment of intelligence activities under false
identity.
6. Undercover Assignment – an investigative
technique in which the investigator conceal its true
nature or activity.
Types of undercover assignment;
a. Dwelling – is one which the undercover agent
establishes residence in or near the dwelling which
houses the subject.
b. Work assignment – places the under cover agent
in a type of employment where he can observe the
activities of the subjects.
c. Social assignment – requires the under cover
agent frequent places of entertainment and
amusement known to be habitualy visited by the
target.
d. Multiple Assignment – the under cover agent
assigned in two or more as stated above
assignment.
e. Personal contact assignment – also term as rope
job. Agent is required to develop friendship and
trust with the tARGET.
THE METHODS OF FOOT SURVEILLANCE
1. ONE MAN SHADOW
 It is conducted by one man alone in
shadowing a subject. The surveillant
should establish the contacts of the
subject, place visited, girl friends and
confidants. In case the subject will use the
telephone booth, the shadower must
feign a call at the available booth.
2. TWO-MAN SHADOW
 This is easier for the surveillants to fully
cover the subject. The method allows the
exchange of the positions of the
shadowersinorder to avoid discovery.
3. THREE-MAN SHADOWER OR ABC TECHNIQUE OF
SHADOWING
 The three shadowers are represented as
A, B and C.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD UNDERCOVER AGENT
 TEMPERAMENT – a calm, enduring and affable
personality. Self-control and self-confidence are a
few of his qualities,
 PHOTOGRAPHIC MEMORY – he must have a
photographic memory because most often, he
could not use written notes about his activities and
observations. He must also possess keen power of
observation and sound judgment.
SPECIFIC TYPES OF UNDERCOVER ASSINGMENT
1. WORK ASSIGNMENT – If the agent is to be
employed as janitor, he must know his work and as
such he should appear as such, focusing his
mentality and habit to work assignment.
background will appear to that of a janitor.
2. SOCIAL ASSIGNMENT – These are places of
amusements, such as bars, nightclubs and other
places of entertainment where is subject
frequents. He must know how to drink socially
without getting drunk.
3. SUBVERSIVE ORGANIZATIONS – He must know
the ideologies of the organizations in order that he
could suit his philosophies and actions while inside
the said organization.
4. RESIDENTIAL ASSIGNMENT – This concerns the
neighborhood of the suspect where he will fit
himself as a new resident without generating
suspicion. His purposes are to be friend those who
could give information and possibly getting closer
to the subject.
5. THE FICTITIOUS PERSONALITY – The preparation
should include the fictitious background of the
undercover agent. He must discard all papers and
affects such as identification cards, etc. and a new
set be issued to him. The agent memorized all the
details of his fictitious background.
Convoy – this refers to a countermeasure to detect whether
or not a subject is under surveillance.
Casing or reconnaissance – it is the visual inspection of the
area, installation or building to determine its suitability for
operational activity.
Information desired in casing;
1. Area condition and habit – this refers to the
description of the locality as whether the placeis a
residential, commercial, highly urbanized or rural.
 It includes also living condition, population and
whether condition.
2. Active Opposition – the task is to prevent
intelligence activity includes not only the enemy
but also the effort of neutral or allied countries to
discover and observe our intelligence activities.
3. Disposal plan – this refers to the disposal of
information to attain goals and objectives.
4. Escape and evasion – this refers to the exit
planning incase of compromise or emergencies.
Cover story – the logical fabrication use by individual to
hide his identity, background and activities.
Cover identity/personality – the process or procedure by
which an individual conceals his true identity and activities.
Types of cover;
1. Natural cover – using true or actual personal
background to fit the purpose.
2. Artificial cover – a cover using biographical data
adopted for a fictitious purpose.
3. Cover within the cover – use of secondary cover in
case of compromise which necessitate the
admission of a lesser crime.
4. Multiple cover – this refers to any tactic to cover
himself.
Importance of cover;
1. Secrecy of operation against enemy intelligence
2. Secrecy of operation against unfriendly/enemy
3. For the succesful accomplishment of the mission
‘’Roping’’ or Undercover Work – It is a form of
investigation in which the investigator assumes a different
and unofficial identity (a cover story) in order to obtain
information.
Arrest of Undercover Agent. – If an investigator is arrested
by police, he must act in accordance with his orders. If he
has not received orders regarding the disclosure of his
identity in case of arrest by other law enforcement officers,
he must act according to his judgment
THE INFORMANT
 Informant refers to a person who give
information voluntary without any
consideration or reward. It is also defined
one who relays confidential information
to someone, especially to the police
Types of Informant;
1. Criminal Informant – who give information to the
police pertaining to the organized crime or
underworld crimes.
2. Confidential Informant – similar to the criminal
informant but give information against the law
informing crimes and criminals
3. Voluntary Informant – who give information freely
and willfully as a witness to a certain acts. They are
considered as the best witness.
4. Special Informant – who gives information on
specialized cases, ex; teacher, clerk or those who
are in a profession.
5. Anonymous Informant – they give information
through telephone or cell phone for them not to
identify.
6. Incidental Informant – a person impart
information without intention of providing it.
7. Recruited Informant – refers to a person selected
or cultivated into a continuous source of
information.
MOTIVES OF INFORMANTS
a. Vanity – The motive is for self-
aggrandizement by gaining favorable
attention and importance by police.
b. Civic Mindedness – Those imbued with
the sense of duty and obligation to assist
the police in their task.
c. Fear – It is the engendered illusion of
oppression from enemies or from
impending dangers.
d. Repentance – Those lesser criminals such
as accomplices or accessories who will
have a change in heart to unburden their
conscience.
THE INFORMER
 Refers to a person who give information
in consideration of reward.
Policies in the use of Informants and Informer;
1. Provide protection, do not let him down.
2. Keep record, keep a safe file on each.
3. Remuneration, give what is due to him.
4. Maintain regular contact.
 
CRITICAL AREAS IN THE DEPLOYMENT OF INFORMERS
a. Within the ranks of criminals and criminal
syndicates
b. Associates and friends of criminals
c. Places of hang-outs of criminals such as night
clubs, bars, hotels, billiard halls and other places
d. Slums and residential places where criminals have
their contacts.
e. Detention Centers such as local jails and the
National Bureau of Prisons. In many instances,
crimes were solved by planting moles among
detention prisoners in the holding centers of
investigative units and in the local jails and also in
the National Bureau of Prisons, thru the
agreement with prison authorities.
f. Places where criminals dispose their illegal
products
General rules to follow in handling informer;
1. Treat fairly – regardless of character, occupation
or education.
2. Run the show – do not allow informant/er to take
over the investigation.
3. Be scrupulously exact – this is by given promise of
exact rewards.
4. Keep your promise – not only for finance but also
for protection or any promise that might give.
5. Do not adopt informant standard – be yourself,
always changing decision will result to the lost of
trust and confident of your informant/er
6. Avoid using informant in court – the success of
investigation lies to the investigator himself.
7. Use of derogatory words – this should be avoided.
8. Conceal informant identity – this is a must.
9. Accept all information – all information should be
considered.
10. Maintain fairness