U3AOS1

Fields:
 Field: Region of space in which each point subject to non-contact force
 Field line conventions:
o Closer = stronger
o Arrowheads indicate direction
o Lines never intersect/touch
o Parallel lines = uniform field
 Uniform field: Magnitude &/or direction constant
 Non-uniform field: magnitude &/or direction differ at different locations
 Monopole: 1
 Dipole: 2
 Force field model represents region in which each point is affected by force (grav, mag, elec)

Gravitational Fields and Force:

 Gravitational field strength: Force per unit mass experiences (force 1kg mass experiences
anywhere in field) or force per unit mass due to gravity
GM M 1
g= 2 or
g=G 2 because g ∝ M and g ∝ 2
r r r
o If M doubles, g doubles
o If r increases by factor of 4, g decreases by factor of 16
o Grav field strength = accel due to grav:
FG
g=
m
 gsurface of Earth=9.8 m s−1∨N kg−1
 r of Earth = 6.37 ×10 6m
 Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation:
GMm
F G=
r2
r2 g
M= => can be used to find mass of Earth (for example)
G
o Mag of force directly proportional to product of masses of objects & inversely proportional
to square of distance between them
o Mass (m) is in grav field of another (M) & is attracted by field
o All masses have grav field but only large masses produce noticable effect
o Grav field always points towards centre of mass
 Gravitational field: Region of space surrounding body in which another body experiences
force of grav attraction
 Grav=always attractive force
 Grav field lines point towards centre of spherical mass & stop perp to surface
 Inverse square law:
1
F∝
r2
o Force on planet = inversely proportional to square of distance
o Grav force decreases as move further from planet
  Weight ≠ mass, weight = force of grav on object
o Don't experience weight directly => experience normal reaction force
o Feel:
 Lighter: F N <¿ F ¿ G

 Heavier: F N >¿ F G ¿

 Normal: F N =¿ F G ¿
 Movement determined by net force:
o F net=ma=F N + F G
 In free fall: Net force acting = grav => no normal
o Not actual weightlessness
o Weightlessness implies no F G => only outside any grav field
o Any object falling freely through grav field will fall w/ accel equal to grav field
strength at that location
 Work = mg
 Use field-distance graph for different masses
o Area under graph must be multiplied by mass to obtain change in potential energy

Gravitational Potential Energy in Non-Uniform Fields:

 GPE: Energy object possess due to position in grav field
 GPE comes from idea that work is done when object moved away from Earth surface
 Work=transf of mech energy
o W=∆ E K =−∆ E G
 For uniform force => W =Fd
o Area under F-x graph
o True for non-unif forces too
 Grav force=mass x strength of grav field
 Satellites of Earth in continuous free fall through grav field
 Grav field does work on satellite => ∆ E k & ∆ E G so ET is constant
 Satellites in circular orbit => ∆ E k & ∆ E G constant
 For Earth, grav field = non unif => weaker as higher
 Graphs of grav f-x used to analyse energy change as body moves through grav field
o F due to grav F is only force acting on object
 Satellite is smaller body held in orbit around larger body by grav attraction
 Geostationary time = 24 × 60× 60=86,400sec
 Geostationary orbit => orbit satellites appear motionless
o Orbital height chosen so speed relative to rotating Earth => θ=0
 Polar orbiting travel N-S => cover more territory due to Earth's rotation

Orbital Motion:
 Satellite speed:
2 πr
v=
T
 Satellite centripetal accel
2 2
v 4π r GM
a= = 2 =g= 2
r T r
  Satellite grav force
2 2
m v 4 π mr
F= = =mg
r T2

 Radius (m)

√
2
3 GM T
r=
4 π2
 Mass (kg)
2 3 2 3
4π r GMm 4 π r m
m∨M = 2
→ 2 =
GT r GT2
 Period (s)


T=
√ 4 π2 r3
GM
Put satellite into orbit at certain height, must enter orbit at correct speed
o In circular orbit, satellite always travels at same speed & stays same distance from
Earth
 Satellites stay in orbit cos grav
o w/out grav, shoot into space in straight line
1
 Mag of F G decreases as distance of Earth increases by 2
r

Electric Forces:
 Size of charge of electron=size of charge of proton
 Elementary charge (e)=mag of charge on proton/electron=>smallest natural charge
o Measure of charge=Coulomb (C)=>standard # of elementary charges
o 1 C=6.25× 1018 elementary charges or e=1.6 ×10−19
 Electrostatic induction: 2 materials brought close together electrons can transfer from 1
material to other
 Charged object brought near 1 end of conductor, electrons in conductor
attracted/repelled=>induces movement of charge
 Coulombs Law: Force of attraction/repulsion between 2 charges(q 1& q 2)distance of r m
apart=> proportional to square of distance between charges
k q1 q2
F=
r2
 Electric field=space around charge/group of charges
 Magnitude of field=size of force cause 1C charge
 Direction of field defined as direction of force causes to act on +ive charge
 Electric field (E)=region around charged body where another charged body would
experience electric forces of attr/repul
 Direction of electric field=direction of force on +ive charge placed in field
 Determine electric field strength around single point charge
kq
E=
r2
 Electric force on charged particle given by product of electric field & quantity of charge
F E =qE => F G=mg
 kq GM
E= 2 =>
g= 2
r r
k q 1 q2 GMm
F= 2 => F= 2
r r

Motion of Charged Particle in Uniform Electric Field:

 Electric field between charged plates:
o Region betw para charged plates=>electric field (E)=unif
o Strength of field depends on potential difference voltage betw plates & distance
betw plates
F qE
 F E =qE => a= =
m m
 Elec fields: Charge placed at point in unif electric field will experience force F=qe => charge
act uniformly along field in direction field lines facing
o Charge travelling w/ velocity (v) across field placed in electric field will have
trajectory motion due to motion having 2 components
 Grav fields: Mass placed at point in grav field experience F=mg => mass accel uniformly
along field in direction field lines facing
o Mass travelling w/ velocity (v) placed in grav field will have trajectory motion due to
motion having 2 components
 2 components of motion:
o Unif vel perp to field
o Unif accel parallel to field along field lines
 EMF of battery/its voltage=amount energy battery gives to each C of charge
 Battery of V (volts) use up Joules (J) of energy by transferring 1C of electrons that battery
from top plate through wires to bottom plate
o On -ive plate this C of electron have J of poten energy
o If C of electrons could be released from -ive plate, would be accel by constant force
of elec field betw plates
o Gain in E K =loss∈Elec PE
∆ E K =W =qV
V
W =Fd∧F E=qE ∴ W =qEd → qEd=qV → E=
d
V
Potential difference E=
d
 Work associated w/ transform of energy
o Charged object being accel through elec field=>lose elec PE & gain E K if charge
moves in direction of force
1 2
m v =qV
2

Magnetic Fields and Forces:

 Like repel, opposites attract
 Magnet freely suspended horizontally always align in N-S direction
o Due to fact that magnet aligns itself w/ Earth's magnetic field
  Field around magnet=dipole field
 Out of N, into S
 Using vector analysis & compass can compare strengths of 2 mag fields for overall strength
& direction (SOHCAHTOA)
 When wire placed over compass & current pass through wire=>compass needle deflected at
right angles to wire
o Wire carrying magnetic effect
 Direction of field depends on direction of currents
 Right hand grip rule: Direction of mag field around current-carrying wire
o Thumb points in direction of current
o Fingers point in direction of mag field
 Mag field inside hoop enhanced due to field from all parts of wire pointing in same direction
 At any point outside loop, contribution to field from opposite sides of hoop in opposite
direction=>will cancel
 If place many loops side by side=>fields all ad=stronger
o Winding many turns of wire into coil=solenoid
 Mag field around solenoid=same shape as field around bar mag
 Solenoid mag only when current flows through it
 All atoms of iron had own permanent, closed current loops, making own electromagnet
o Many little electromagnets orientated randomly produce no external field
o Many little electromagnets aligned w/ their fields parallel produce large external
field
 Solenoid-use right hand & curl fingers around solenoid in direction of current flow, thumb
point direction of mag field through solenoid
 Anticlockwise current=out of page mag field

Motion of Charged Particle in Magnetic Field:

 Velocity perp to field
o Mag field applies force to charged particle that both at right angles to motion of
charge & direction of mag field
F=qvB
 Right hand slap rule: Find direction of force on +ively charged particle in mag field
o Thumb=direction of particle
o Fingers=direction of field
o Out from palm=force direction (out of back of hand for -ively charged)
 When wire suspended betw poles of magnet & current dlows through wire=>experience
force which makes wire move
 If vel=0, F=qvB=0 => motionless charged particle=no force
 If vel parallel to field lines=>no force & continue moving at same vel
 If vel=perp to field lines (90°), will be force exerted (direction via slap rule)
 Net force on charged particle as moves in mag field F=ma
o In this case, only sig force is mag field
ma=qvB
 Accel is centripetal & constant in magnitude
m v2 m v2 mv
a= → =qvB →r =
r r Bq
 Force acting on current carrying wire can increased by:
 o Incr size of current (J)
o Incr strength of magnets (B)
o Incr amount of wire in mag field (I)
o Incr # of wires
 Force is at max when conduction at right angles to mag field
o Becomes 0 when parallel to mag field

 Variable B=strength of mag field acting on length of current

F
B=
nIl
F=nIlB

DC Motors:
 Electric current in mag field experiences force F=nIlB
 All direct current (DC) motors work by action of this force on a wire loop containing an
electric current
o Loop tends to rotate about horizontal axis, around pivot point
 Forces on sides (if call +ive up => +IBl, on left, & -ive down => -IBl on loop) generate turning
movement/torque
 Greater # of loops, greater overall turning effect
 Force equal by in opposite on opposite sides => create torque effect
 Once plane of loops reached vertical position, forces act to pull loop apart
o Only angular momentum of clockwise turning movement keep its going
o But now pair of forces will try to pull it back to this vertical position unless can
reverse current and keep loop turning clockwise
 After every half-turn direction of current must be changed to maintain clockwise torque
o To do this, direct current connected via carbon brushes to split ring/commutator
 Use Ohm's Law if give voltage instead of I if given V & res of wires
 When rotating from hori position to vert position, mag of forces remains constant
 Replacing split ring commutator w/ slip rings => coil will oscillate around vert position before
coming to rest
U3AOS2
EMF:
 Electromagnetic Induction
 If connect insulated copper wire to galvanometer & bar magnet moved into coil, galv needle
=> right
o Stationary = needle @ 0
o Magnet removed from coil, needle => left
 When magnet moves, current produced in coil => emf induced in coil => electromag
induction
 Strength induced current increased by:
o Moving coil/magnet faster
o Increasing strength of magnet
o Increasing # turns of wire in coil
 Total amount of mag field passing through conducting loop changes, elec current induced
 Mag flux:
ϕ =BA
 Size of induced emf directly proportional to rate at which conductor cuts mag field lines
 Singling straight wire moves across mag field, pot diff produced => wire have properties of
battery
 Amount of pot diff dependent on strength of mag field, length of wire and speed wire
moving
ε =vBl
 Faraday's law:
∆ϕ
ε =−N
∆t
o Total emf generated in conducting loop = -ive rate of change
 Induced current in conducting loop proportional to rate of change of flux
∆ϕ
I∝
∆t

Lenz’s Law and Induced Current:

 Lenz's Law: Induced current act in direction to oppose the change producing it
o If bar magnet pushed towards solenoid, induced current must be in opposite
direction => set up mag field that opposes motion of bar mag
 Any induced current in loop be in direction so flux created will oppose change in flux that
caused it
 If induced flux was in same direction as original flux, would add to change & greater emf
induced => energy created from nowhere => not possible (law of conserv of energy)
 E.g. Bar magnet moved towards loop of wire w/ N pole facing loop induced anticlockwise
current => mag field produced = N to oppose
 Problem solving process To determine the direction of an induced current:
o Identify whether the magnetic flux is increasing or decreasing.
o Identify the direction of the original magnetic field (‘up’, ‘right’, ‘into the page’ etc.).
o Identify the direction of the induced magnetic field:
  If the flux is increasing (found in step 1) then the magnetic field is in the
opposite direction to the original field (found in step 2).
 If the flux is decreasing (found in step 1) then the magnetic field is in the
same direction as the original field (found in step 2).
o Apply the right-hand coil rule, with thumb pointing in the direction of the induced
magnetic field identified in step 3, to determine the direction of the induced
current.
Movement of Mag Mag Pole (induced) facing magnet

N pole closer to loop Oppose: Closer => Like poles generated => N pole

S pole closer to loop Oppose: Closer => Like poles generated => S pole

N pole further from loop Oppose: Further => Opposite poles generated => S pole

S pole further from loop Oppose: Further => Opposite poles generated => N pole

Electric Power:
 Relative motion betw coil & mag field induces emf & hence current in coil
 Amount of flux cutting through loop varies as rotates => induces current
o Induced current change direction every time flux reaches max
 Alternator (AC)/generator (DC) converts mechanical to electrical energy
o Has coil => rotated in mag field
 DC generators:
o Induced current always in 1 direction when coil rotates in single direction
o Magnitude of induced current fluctuates due to position of coil
 This current different from steady DC current of battery
 AC alternators:
o Current changes direction constantly
o Commutator of DC replaced by 2 slip rings = alternator
o Current generated by AC alt changes direction constantly
 Into the page = clockwise
 Out of the page = anticlockwise
 In alt/gen, emf freq = rotation freq
1
F=
T

AC Voltage:
 AC voltage:
V =V P sinθ , V P=V peak
 Current in simple resistive device during cycle:
VP
I =I P sinθ or I =
R
 Power in AC:
V P❑2
P=V P I P= =I P❑2 R
R
 Average power determined using RMS voltage
 VP
V RMS
√2
P RMS/ Av=V RMS I RMS
 RMS I/V = value of DC I/V needed to provide same av power

Transformers:
 Transformer = device makes use of mutual induction to vary voltage
o Mutual induc = inducing emf in 1 circuit by change of current of another
 Changing current in prim coil produces changing mag field in iron core => propagated though
iron core to seco coil
o Changing mag field induced changing emf in in seco coil
 Can only operate on varying V (AC) due to Faraday's Law
 If no loss in energy:
N S V S IP
= =
NP VP IS
 Input power = output power => V P I P =V S I S
 Output V may be larger than input V, output power never be greater than input power
o In practice, output power always smaller than input power due to energy loss
 Step up => seco big
 Step down => prim big
 Transf used to provide any AC voltage by adjusting ratios
 In any transmission line, power lost due to resistance in wire
Ploss=V drop I line or Ploss=I line 2 Rline
o I is sqrd => in order to reduce Ploss, need to reduce I by increasing V
 Part of input energy lost owing to heat energy displaced by currents in iron core
 Efficiency:
Pout
%= ×100
P¿
P¿ =V P I P
Pout =V S I S
 Constant DC power supply => V=0V, I=0A, P=0W in transf
Psupply =V supply I line

Electricity Basics:
 Current:
Q
I=
t
o Measured w/ ammeter in series
 Voltage:
E
V=
Q
 Resistance:
V
R=
I
 In series:
 V T =V 1 +V 2
I T =I 1=I 2
RT =R1 + R2

 In parallel:
V T =V 1=V 2
I T =I 1 + I 2
1 1 1
= +
R T R 1 R2

Electrical Energy:
 Current passes through power line, power lost due to heating effect of current
 Power loss proportional to sq of current
2
Ploss=I R
 For same amount of power delivered by power line, current can be smaller w/ higher V
(P=VI) => high V reduce Ploss
 Reduce power loss:
o Reduce resist: Ploss ∝ Rwires
 Use wires w/ thicker cross-sectional area
 Use shorter distance
 Use more wires
 Use materials w/ smaller internal resistance
2
o Reduce current: Ploss ∝ I wires
 Reduce input power (same V, less I (i))
 Same power (more V, less I (i))
 Due to need to vary V, power transmitted by AC so transf can be used efficiently
 High V in power line = extr dangerous
o Safety purposes = > elec received by consumers should be at lower V
U4AOS1
Nature of Waves:
 All waves transfer energy
 Wave does not involve single body carrying energy w/ it from origin to final location
 Wave pulses: Each particle involved in carrying energy is displaced for short time only before
returning to original/mean position
 Continuous waves:
o Repetitive motion/oscillation at wave source
o Energy carried away from source in form of continuous waves
 Transverse waves: Vibrate/oscillate about mean/rising position
 Longitudinal waves: Vibration is parallel to direction of travel
 Compression-rarefaction process continually repeats while prong vibrations continue

Wave Features:
 Wave speed (v) in ms-1
o Dist travelled/sec in directions of wave travel
o In vacuum no particles/no medium => sound cannot travel
d λ
v= = ⇒ v=fλ
t t
 Wavelength ( λ ) in m
o Distance between 2 adjacent points in same phrase of vibration
o λ=distance of 1 wavelength
o Point w/ same letter = 'in phase' & adjacent, similar letters = 1 λ apart
 Frequency (f) in Hz
o # waves generated by source/sec or # waves passing certain point/sec
 Period (t or T) in sec
o Time for 1 complete cycle to pass certain
1
Period = =T ∨t
f
 Amplitude
o Max displacement from rising position
o Larger amplitude => more energy wave carries

Doppler Effect:
 Shorter frequency, longer wavelength
 Longer frequency, shorter wavelength
 f=change
 λ =change
 v=same

Superposition:
 Transverse waves move along string, each part of string travels across successively displaced
up/down & returned to original position
 2 situations affect transverse waves as reaches end of string
 o Fixed end: End of string anchored/fixed in position
o Free end: End of string free to move up/down
 When wave reaches fixed end, string attempts to lift wall up/down => by reaction, wall pulls
on pulse down/up
o Wave reflecting from fixed end undergoes phase reversal
o Inverts pulse
λ
o Phase shift:
2
o Length & height of pulse not changed
o Leading part of pulse/1st part reflected => still leading part after reflection
 Wave reaches free end/yielding boundary => crests reflect as crests, troughs reflect as
troughs
o No phase reversal
 Superposition:
o Displacement of 2 waves combining w/ each other calc by vector add of 2
components
 Displacement combined pulse = sum of separate displacements
o 2 pulses pass through each other w/out being changed
o To find total wave disturbance at any time, indiv displacements of each wave add at
each point
o When diff waves pass through same region of space indiv waves add together to
produce resultant wave

Standing Waves:
 Standing wave pattern contains nodes (0 displace) & antinodes (max displace)
 Standing wave pattern had 1 loop, fundamental note produced
 
Fixed at both ends
Harmonic # Tone λ f Overtone

n=1 (1st harm) f1 λ=2 L v  

f1 =
2L
n=2 (2nd harm) f2 = 2f1 λ=L v 1st
f2 =
L
n=3 (3rd harm) f3 = 3f1 2L 3v 2nd
λ f3 =
3 2L
n (nth harm) fn 2L nv (n-1)th
λ= fn =
n 2L
 
Fixed at 1 end, free at other
Harmonic # Tone λ f Overtone

n=1 (1st harm) f1 λ=4 L v  

f1 =
4L
 n=3 (3rd harm) f3 = 3f1 4L 3v 1st
λ= f3 =
3 4L
n=5 (5th harm) f5 = 5f1 4L 5v 2nd
λ= f5 =
5 4L
n=7 (7th harm) f7 =7f1 4L 7v 3rd
λ= f7 =
7 4L
n (nth harm) - fn 4L nv nth
λ= fn =
odd n 4L
 
 Standing wave frequencies=harmonics
o Simplest mode of vibration has 1 antinode = fundamental
o Higher level harmonics = overtones
o Fundamental & overtones form harmonic series
o Fundamental usually has largest amplitude
 Free waves:
o At fixed end no change phase for reflected sound wave
 Reflected waves interfere constructively w/ incoming waves & antinode
always occur at free end

Interference:
 Waves pass through each other, can add together so reinforce/cancel each other out
 Wave add together = constructive interference = larger wave/sound/intensity
 Waves cancel each other out = destructive interference = smaller wave/quieter
sound/intensity
 Lines used to determine region where destr interference takes place = nodal lines (along
these lines 0 displ)
 Between nodal lines = areas of max displ = antinodal lines = areas of constr interference
 Difference between lengths of path = path diff (pd)
 Conditions in terms of pd valid only when waves leaving source start in phase
 When sources have shorter λ , produce more nodal lines

Resonance:
 All objects have natural freq of vibr
o Vibr can be started & increased by another object vibrating at same freq
 Resonance incr loudness of sounds produced
 Resonance in object occurs when forcing freq equals natural freq of object

Diffraction:
 Series of straight waves pass through narrow opening
o Waves appear curved & spread out
o Speed & λ don't change
 Diffraction = bending waves
 How much waves spreads depends on its λ in relation to size of obstacle/opening
  Diffraction most noticeable when opening width≤ λ of wave
 Sound waves passing through aperture that is larger than wavelength will not be extensively
diffracted
 Always diffractions
 Amount of diffr depend on ratio of λ to width of opening (w)/obstance
λ
≥1=> significant diffr
w
 Higher freq sounds have shorter λ & hence diffr less
o Are more directional => easier to clear them from particular direction & not so easy
from other directions
 Lower freq sounds have larger λ => diffr to greater extent
o Source may often be difficult to locate by sounds direction only

Reflection of Light:
 Basic light properties:
o Travels in straight lines
o Requires no medium for transmission
o Travels at approx 3 ×108 m s−1
 Set of light rays = light beams
 Light obeys law of reflection: When light reflected in same medium => no change in freq, λ
or speed
 Law of refl states i=r
 Luminous: Objects that emit light
 Non-luminous: Objects that reflect light
 Light reflecting from page = scattered as page not smooth

Refraction of Light:
 Refraction: Bending of light path as passes from 1 transparent material to another
o Occurs as light travels at diff speeds in diff media
 Measure from normal
 Refraction only noticeable if i≠ 0
o If incident ray perp to boundary, direction of travel transmitted ray will not deviate
even though speed of light has changed
 Behaviour light undergoing refr:
o Light ray passes into medium in which travels slower (more optically dense medium)
is refr more towards normal
 Low to high => more towards normal
 High to low => away from normal
 Apparent depth appears less than actual depth due to refr
 Laws of refr:
o Angle of incidence changed, angle of refr changes too
o Snell's Law:
sin ⁡( i)
=constant
sin ⁡(r )
 Refr occurs as light travels at slightly diff speeds in diff media
o Angle of refr depends on speed of light in 2 media & angle of incidence
 o Relative refr index of 2 media is ratio of speeds on light in 2 media
 Denser medium = more refr
 Ray of light travelling from 1 medium to another
sin ⁡( i) v 1 n2 ¿
= = =n
sin ⁡(r ) v 2 n1
 RI of vacuum & air = 1
n1 v 1=n2 v 2
n1 sin ( θ1 ) =n2 sin ( θ 2 )
 Material optically denser if as higher RI

Applications of Refraction:
 When ray of light travels from medium of high RI to low RI, refr doesn't occur at every angle
of incidence
 As angle of incidence increases, angle of refraction also increases
 Critical angle of medium is angle of incidence that will give angle of refraction of 90° for ray
going from high to low RI
o When i exceeds i c , no refr beam, incidence ray totally internally reflected
 Critical angle:
n2
sin ( i c )= , n sin ( θc ) =n2
n1 1
ONLY HIGH TO LOW FOR CRIT ANGLE
 Right angle prism can be used to reflect light through 90° or 180°
 Optical fibres transmit using laser light
 Electrical impulses converted into light => transmitted along optical fibre to be reconverted
into electrical impulses at its destination
o Optical fibre has high absolute RI as cladding around it has lower absolute RI
 Allows total internal reflection to happen everywhere inside fibre => light
can be made to bend

Polarisation:
o Transverse wave in horizontal plane unable to pass through vert slit

 If transverse waves in many planes wee to approach slit, only waves in vert plane
would pass through

 Observations of polarisation of light show light is transverse wave rather than longitudinal
wave as LW cannot be polarised

 Polarisation of light is observed when it passes through some materials

o These materials which allow light waves in 1 place to pass while blocking light in all
other planes => polarising

Dispersion:
 When white light passes through prism => split up into visible spectrum => phenomenon =
dispersion
  Occurs because different colours of light refracted (due to change in speed) diff amounts by
prism
o Violet refr most
o Red refr least
 White light made up of all colours visible spectrum
 Refr occurs as light energy being momentarily absorbed & then re-radiated by atoms which
make up medium
o Diff colours of light interact differently w/ these atoms => travel at diff speeds
through medium

Young’s Double Slit Experiment:

 2 illuminated slits, very close together, produced bright & dark fringes in screen due to
interference
 Measuring fringes, distance between slits, screen & separation of slits, calculated λ for
yellow light & showed diff colours had diff λ
o Important for estb wave theory
 Superposition principle: Resultant wave = sum of indiv waves
o Shape of resultant disturbance found by applying superpos
 Possible for part/whole of pulse to be cancelled out by another pulse => produce node
 Destr interference occurs when pd is whole # plus 1/2
Pd=(n+0.5), where n=0, 1, 2
 When 2 pulses superimpose to give max disturbance of medium => produce antinode
o Bright spot occurs when in spite of pd, waves are in phase
 Crests reinforcing crests, troughs & troughs
 Constr interference occurs when pd is whole # multiple of wavelength
Pd=n λ , where n=0, 1, 2
 When monochromatic light directed through pair of thin slits able to measure fringe spacing
pd=S1 X−S2 X
pd=dsin ( θ )
λL
x=
d

Visible Light Spectrum:

Colour λ (nm) F (1014 Hz) Energy (eV)

Red (limit) 700 4.29 1.77

Red 650 4.62 1.91

Orange 600 5.00 2.06

Yellow 580 5.16 2.14

Green 550 5.45 2.25

Cyan 500 5.99 2.48

Blue 450 6.66 2.75

Violet (limit) 400 7.50 3.10

Colour λ (nm) F (1014 Hz) Energy (eV)

Red (limit) 700 4.29 1.77
Red 650 4.62 1.91
Orange 600 5.00 2.06
Yellow 580 5.16 2.14
Green 550 5.45 2.25
Cyan 500 5.99 2.48
Blue 450 6.66 2.75
Violet (limit) 400 7.50 3.10

U4AOS2
Dual Nature of Light:
 E ∝ f ⇒ E=h f
hc
 c=fλ ⇒ E=
λ
 Photon: Quantum of electromag radiation
o Incr λ ⇒ decr E per photon
 Ejection of electrons by light = photoelec effect
 Higher intensity light => greater values of max photocurr
 Max photocurr ∝ light intensity
 V 0 = min V cause even most energetic electrons to turn back
o Depends on both freq of light & material of electrode
o Each material => min freq required for electron to be ejected
 Below cut-off freq, no electrons ever ejected, no matter intensity of light/how long electrode
exposed to light
 Above freq, photocurr always detected
 Photoelec effect: Emission of electrons by substance when illuminated by electromag
radiation
 Electrons emitted only if freq of light exceed certain critical value => threshold freq
o Diff for diff materials
 Max KE of ejected electrons depends on freq of incident light & NOT on its intensity
 Incr intensity cause more electrons emitted but NOT INCR IN THEIR ENERGY
 Smallest amount of energy that atom at surface of material can absorb at 1 time = quantum
 When photon absorbed in material, quantum energy, hf, transferred to single electron w/in
surface
o Cause electron to be ejected
 When electron ejected from surface, must give up certain energy ( φ work func of material)
to allow escape from surface of metal
  φ=h f 0
 Max KE possessed by photoelectrons as ejected from surface => illuminated by light of freq
given by Einstein's photoelec eq
1 2
KE max = m v =e V 0 =hf −φ
2
1 2
In Joules: KE max = m v =q e V 0
2

In eV: KE max =V 0
v max=
√ 2 qe V 0
m

 KE of photoelectrons emitted from any surface can be incr only by incr freq of incident light
 In 'compton collision', photon not absorbed completely, but appears after collision w/
reduced energy & p, & longer λ
 Emax =hf −φ
hf hf h
 m= 2 , c=f λ , p=mc => p= ∧ p=
c c λ
 Light has dual character (waves & particles)
 Light interacting w/ light => wave behaviour dominates
 Light interacting w/ matter (photon) => particle behaviour dominates

Matter Waves:
 All particles exhibit both wave & particle behaviour
 Waves associated w/ electrons & other particles = matter/de Broglie waves
 Electrons must have λ which related to p of particle & h
h h h
p= ⇒ λ= ⇒ λ= Note: Only use h=6.63 ×10−34 Js
λ p mv
λ
 Diffraction ≥
w
 Single electron/photon leaves source w/ particle-like discreteness & creates single spot on
screen
o Interference, occurs over time, is wave property
 Thompson sent beams of electrons through thin films of metal resulting in diffraction
patterns showing interference patterns
 Electrons & photons produce same diffr pattern for given gap width => energy of each
photon will be different to KE of each electron
 If diffr paterns are same => λ∧ p of electrons are same as that of photons
 
Photons Both Matter/Electrons 

hc h p=mv
E p h =h f = p=
λ λ
E p h =pc h h
λ= = p= √2 mKE
p mv
 hf   1 p2
p= 2
KE= m v =
c 2 2m
 
 All matter has dual nature
 Weirdness in nature (dual nature of light & matter) = wave/particle duality

Emission and Absorption Spectra:

 Colours in spectrum produced by atoms in this way = spectral lines due to sharp lines
produce on photographic plate on spectrometer
 Key is sharp line nature of spectra
o Sharp lines have precise λ 's & photon model for light indicates precise photon
energy
 Line spectra => particular type of atom emits light energy in specific fixed amounts
 Atoms absorb light
o Absorb particular λ 's that they would emit if excited
 Absorption spectra prod by placing sample of cool gas in front of continuous source
 Continuous spectrum has dark bands in it after passing through gas => gas is removing freq
 Rely on same energy level structure, , emission & absorption spectra appear to be -ive's of
each other
 Absorption spectra showed H atom only able to absorb small # diff freq & hence energies of
very specific values
o Absorbed energy quantised (quantities cannot be broken/divided into smaller parts)
 # allowable orbits of diff radii exist for each atom labelled n=1, 2, 3
o Electrons may only occupy these orbits
 Electromag radiation absorbed by atom when photon energy is EXACTLY = TO DIFF IN
ENERGIES BETW AN OCCUPIED ORBIT & HIGHER ORBIT
 Photon absorption results in excited atom
 Electromag radiation emitted by excited atom when electron falls from higher energy level
to lower one
o Photon energy exactly equal to energy diff betw electron's initial & final level
 Freq (& hence energy) of incident light below certain value for H atom, light pass through
w/out any absorption
 All light w/ shorter λ 's, & hence greater photon energy, can be absorbed & remove electron
from atom completely
 Diff in energy states not equal to photons energy, photon scattered w/ no reduction in
energy
 No restriction on energy of free electron, all photons having energy above ionisation energy
can be absorbed so all light w/ λ 's below limit may be absorbed (effect of photoelec effect
=> min photon energy must be reached before electrons ejected)
 Electron in atom moves betw energy levels 'm' & 'n', energy of photon either
emitted/absorbed
−34
E ph=hf =Em −En , h=6.626 × 10 Js , f =freq of photon
 Ground state (n=1) state of electron where has least possible amount of energy
 Excited state (n¿1) electron has more energy than needed
o Ionisation limit => n=∞ , eV=0
 Electron in H atom travelling along 1 of orbits around nucleus, together in association wave
  Circumference of each allowed orbit contained whole # of λ 's of electron-wave => form
standing wave in orbit
2 πr =nλ
 Electron wave whose λ was slightly shorter/longer wouldn't join to itself smoothly
o Collapse due to destr interference
o Only orbits corresponding to standing waves would survive
h nh
λ= & 2 πr =nλ => 2 πr=
mv mv
 Electrons viewed as standing waves can exist only in stable orbits w/ precise discrete λ 's
 Implies electrons can only have discrete quantities of momentum
 Implies electrons can only have discrete quantities of energy
 Energy transitions that made by electrons occur in jumps from 1 high energy standing wave
to another low energy
 Emission & absorption spectra understood as arising from transitions betw quantised energy
levels

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

 Explain how diff pattern produced by steam of electrons passing through narrow slit can
illustrate Heisenberg's uncertainty principle?
o Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states => more precisely particle's position is
known, less precisely momentum can be known
o Passing electron through slit reduces uncertainty in electron's position => incr
uncertainty in momentum & hence direction
o Leads to spreading out of electron paths after the slit and the resulting diff pattern

Production of Light:
 How light produced in general?
o Electrons accelerate/move from higher to lower energy state
 
Light Source Cause of Light Prod Feature of Light

Laser Electron transitions in atoms in a gas due to Coherent, polarised

stimulated emission

Synchrotron Accel (deflection) of charged particles Wide rage of λ 's, polarised,

(electrons) due to mag fields very intense (can be coherent)

LED Electron transition in semiconducting Can be monochromatic (single

material from conduction band to valence λ)
band

Incandescen Accel of charged particles due to thermal Continuous spectrum

t vibrations