What is a conceptual framework?

A conceptual framework is a written or visual representation of an expected relationship between

variables. Variables are simply the characteristics or properties that you want to study.

The conceptual framework is generally developed based on a literature review of existing studies and
theories about the topic.

Research exampleYou want to know if students who study more hours get higher exam scores. To investigate
this question, you can use methods such as an experiment or survey to test the relationship between variables.
Before you start collecting data, construct a conceptual framework to show exactly which variables you will
measure and how you expect them to relate to each other.
A conceptual framework can be designed in many different ways. The form yours takes will depend
on what kinds of relationships you expect to find.

Independent and dependent variables

If we want to test a cause-and-effect relationship, we need to identify at least two key variables: the
independent variable and the dependent variable. In our example:

 the expected cause, “hours of study,” is the independent variable (aka the predictor or
explanatory variable).
 the expected effect, “exam score,” is the dependent variable (aka the response or outcome
variable).

In other words, “exam score” depends on “hours of study.” Our hypothesis is that the more hours a
student studies, the better they will do on the exam.

Causal relationships often involve several independent variables that affect the dependent variable.
However, to keep things simple, we’ll work with just one independent variable, namely “hours of
study.”

To visualize our expected cause-and-effect relationship, we will use the basic design components of
boxes and arrows. Each variable appears in a box. To indicate a causal relationship, each arrow
should start from the independent variable (the cause) and point to the dependent variable (the
effect).
Next, we should identify other variables that might influence the relationship between our independent
and dependent variables. Some common variables to include are moderators, mediators, and control
variables.

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Moderating variables
Now we’ll expand the framework by adding a moderating variable (aka a moderator). A moderator
alters the effect that an independent variable has on a dependent variable.

The moderator thus changes the effect component of the cause-and-effect relationship. This
moderation is also referred to as the interaction effect.

In our example, we expect that the number of hours a student studies is related to their exam score:
the more you prepare, the higher your score will be.
Now we add the moderator “IQ.” A student’s IQ level changes the effect that the variable “hours of
study” has on the exam score: the higher your IQ, the fewer hours of study you must put in to do well
on the exam.

In other words, the “IQ” moderator moderates the effect that the number of study hours has on the
exam score.

Let’s take a look at how this might work. The graph shows how the number of hours spent studying
affects exam score. The more hours you study, the better your results. A student who studies for 20
hours will get a perfect score.
But the graph looks different when we add an “IQ” moderator of 120. A student with this IQ will
already achieve a perfect score after just 15 hours of study.

Below, the value of the “IQ” moderator has been increased to 150. A student with this IQ will only
need to invest five hours of studying in order to get a perfect score.

The higher the IQ, the fewer hours a student needs to study in order to achieve a score of 100%.

In short, a moderating variable is something that changes the cause-and-effect relationship between
two variables as its value increases or decreases.

Mediating variables
Now we’ll expand the framework by adding a mediating variable. In a cause-and-effect relationship, a
mediating variable is a variable that links the independent and dependent variables, allowing the
relationship between them to be better explained.

Here’s how the conceptual framework might look if a mediator variable were involved:

The mediating variable of “number of practice problems completed” comes between the independent
and dependent variables. The hours of study impacts the number of practice problems, which in turn
impacts the exam score.

In this case, the mediator helps explain why studying more hours leads to a higher exam score. The
more hours a student studies, the more practice problems they will complete; the more practice
problems completed, the higher the student’s exam score will be.

By adding the mediating variable of “number of practice problems completed,” we help explain the
cause-and-effect relationship between the two main variables.

Keep in mind that mediating variables can be difficult to interpret, and care must be taken when
conclusions are drawn from them.

Moderator vs mediator
It’s important not to confuse a moderators and mediators. To remember the difference, you can think
of them in relation to the independent variable.

A mediating variable is affected by the independent variable, and it affects the dependent variable.
Therefore, it links the two variables and helps explain the relationship between them.

A moderating variable is not affected by the independent variable, even though affects the dependent
variable. For example, no matter how many hours you study (the independent variable), your IQ will
not get higher.

Control variables
To test a cause-and-effect relationship, we also need to consider other variables that we’re not
interested in measuring the effects of, but that could potentially impact students’ exam scores.

These are control variables—variables that are held constant so that they don’t interfere with the
results.

For example, it is likely that if a student feels ill, they will get a lower score on the exam. Therefore,
we’ll add “health” as a control variable.

That means we should keep the variable “health” constant in our study—we’ll only include
participants who are in good health on the day of the exam.

How to Build a Theoretical Framework for Your

Research
Theories are developed by researchers to explain phenomena, draw connections, and make predictions. In
the theoretical framework, you explain the theories that support your research, showing that your work is
grounded in established ideas.

The goal of a theoretical framework

Before you start your research, you have to explore what theories and models other researchers have
already developed. The goal of a theoretical framework is to present and explain this information.

There may be many different theories about your topic, so the theoretical framework also involves
evaluating, comparing, and selecting the most relevant ones.

By “framing” your research within a clearly defined field, you make the reader aware of the
assumptions that inform your approach, showing the rationale behind your choices.
This part of your dissertation lays the foundations that will support your analysis, helping you interpret
your results and make broader generalizations.

Examples of theoretical frameworks in researchThe same research topic can be approached very differently
within different theoretical frameworks:

 In literature, a scholar using postmodernist literary theory would analyze The Great Gatsby  differently
than a scholar using Marxist literary theory.
 In psychology, a behaviorist approach to depression would involve different methods and assumptions
than a psychoanalytical approach.
 In economics, wealth inequality would be explained and interpreted differently within classical
economics and Keynesian economics frameworks.

In each of these cases, you would explain the theory you’re using in order to support your interpretations and
explanations of the data.

How to create a theoretical framework

To build your theoretical framework, follow these three steps.

1. Identify your key concepts

The first step is to pick out the key terms from your problem statement and research questions.
Concepts often have multiple definitions, so the theoretical framework involves clearly defining what
you mean by each term.

Example: Problem statement and research questionsCompany X is struggling with the problem that many online
customers do not return to make subsequent purchases. Management wants to increase customer loyalty and
believes that improved customer satisfaction will play a major role in achieving this goal. To investigate this
problem, you have identified and plan to focus on the following problem statement, objective, and research
questions:
Problem: Many online customers do not return to make subsequent purchases.

Objective: To increase customer loyalty.

Research question: How can the satisfaction of company X’s online customers be improved in order to
increase customer loyalty?
The concepts of “customer loyalty” and “customer satisfaction” are clearly central to this study. The
theoretical framework will define these concepts and discuss theories about the relationship between
them.

2. Evaluate and explain relevant theories

By conducting a thorough literature review, you can determine how other researchers have defined
and drawn connections between these key concepts. As you write the theoretical framework, aim to
compare and critically evaluate the approaches that different authors have proposed.

After discussing different models and theories, you establish the definitions that best fit your research
and justify why this is the case. In more complex research projects, you might combine theories from
different fields to build your own unique framework.
Make sure to mention the most important theories related to your key concepts. If there is a well-
established theory or model that you don’t want to apply to your own research, explain why it isn’t
suitable for your purposes.

3. Show how your research fits in

Apart from discussing other people’s theories, the theoretical framework should show how your own
project will make use of these ideas.

You might aim to do one or more of the following:

 Test whether a theory holds in a specific context

 Use theory as a basis for interpreting your results
 Critique or challenge a theory
 Combine different theories in a new or unique way

If relevant, you can also use the theoretical framework to develop hypotheses for your research.

The structure of the theoretical framework

In a thesis or dissertation, the theoretical framework is sometimes integrated into a literature
review chapter, but it can also be included as its own chapter or section. If your research involves
dealing with a lot of complex theories, it’s a good idea to include a separate theoretical framework
chapter.

There are no fixed rules for structuring a theoretical framework. The important thing is to create a
clear, logical structure. One option is to draw on your research questions, structuring each section
around a question or key concept.

As in all other parts of your thesis, make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism.

Example of a theoretical framework

To get a sense of what this part of your thesis or dissertation might look like, take a look at our
example.

Sample Theoretical Framework of a

Dissertation or Thesis
The theoretical framework defines the key concepts in your research, proposes relations between them, and
discusses relevant theories based on a literature review.

A strong theoretical framework gives your research direction, allowing you to convincingly interpret, explain
and generalize from your findings.

Sample problem statement and research questions

Your problem statement, research questions and literature review will serve as the basis for preparing
your theoretical framework.
Company X is struggling with the problem that many online customers do not return to make
subsequent purchases. Management wants to increase customer loyalty and believes that improved
customer satisfaction will play a major role in achieving this goal.

To investigate this problem, you have identified the following problem statement, objective, and
research questions:

Problem: Many online customers do not return to make subsequent purchases.

Objective: To increase customer loyalty and thereby generate more revenue.

Research question: ‘How can the satisfaction of company X’s online customers be improved in order
to increase customer loyalty?’

Sub-Questions:

1. ‘What is the relationship between customer loyalty and customer satisfaction?’

2. ‘How satisfied and loyal are company X’s online customers currently?’
3. ‘What factors affect the satisfaction and loyalty of company X’s online customers?’

As the concepts of “loyalty” and “customer satisfaction” play a major role in the investigation and will
later be measured, they are essential concepts to define within the theoretical framework.

Sample theoretical framework

Below is a (simplified) example of how you can describe and compare definitions and theories. In this
example, we focus on the concept of ‘customer satisfaction.’

2.1 Customer satisfaction

Thomassen (2003, p. 69) defines customer satisfaction as “the perception of the customer as a result
of consciously or unconsciously comparing their experiences with their expectations.” Kotler & Keller
(2008, p. 80) build on this definition, stating that customer satisfaction is determined by “the degree to
which someone is happy or disappointed with the observed performance of a product in relation to his
or her expectations.” Performance that is below expectations leads to a dissatisfied customer, while
performance that satisfies expectations produces satisfied customers. Expectations being exceeded
leads to a “very satisfied or even pleasantly surprised customer” (Kotler & Keller, 2003, p. 80).

The definition of Zeithaml and Bitner (2003, p. 86) is slightly different from that of Thomassen:
“Satisfaction is the consumer fulfillment response. It is a judgement that a product or service feature,
or the product of service itself, provides a pleasurable level of consumption-related fulfillment.”
Zeithaml and Bitner’s emphasis is thus on obtaining a certain satisfaction in relation to purchasing.

Thomassen’s definition is the most relevant to the aims of this study, given the emphasis it places on
unconscious perception. Although Zeithaml and Bitner, like Thomassen, say that customer
satisfaction is a reaction to the experience gained, there is no distinction between conscious and
unconscious comparisons in their definition. Company X claims in its mission statement that it wants
to sell not only a product, but also a feeling; as a result, unconscious comparison will play an
important role in the satisfaction of its customers. Thomassen’s definition is therefore more relevant to
the current study.

Thomassen’s Customer Satisfaction Model

According to Thomassen, both the so-called value proposition and other influences have an impact
on final customer satisfaction. In his satisfaction model (Fig. 1), Thomassen shows that word-of-
mouth, personal needs, past experiences, and marketing and public relations determine customers’
needs and expectations. These factors are compared to their experiences, and this comparison
between expectations and experiences determines a customer’s satisfaction level. Thomassen’s
model is important for this study: it allows us to determine both the extent to which company X’s
customers are satisfied and where improvements can be made.

Fig. 1: Customer satisfaction creation (Thomassen, 2007, p.30).

Of course, you could analyze the concepts more thoroughly and compare additional definitions to
each other. You could also discuss the theories and ideas of key authors in greater detail and provide
several models to illustrate different concepts.

A STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM is used in research work as a claim that outlines the
problem addressed by a study. The statement of the problem briefly addresses the
question: What is the problem that the research will address?

What are the goals of a statement of the problem?

The ultimate goal of a statement of the problem is to transform a generalized problem

(something that bothers you; a perceived lack) into a targeted, well-defined problem;
one that can be resolved through focused research and careful decision-making.
Writing a statement of the problem should help you clearly identify the purpose of the
research project you will propose. Often, the statement of the problem will also serve as
the basis for the introductory section of your final proposal, directing your reader’s
attention quickly to the issues that your proposed project will address and providing the
reader with a concise statement of the proposed project itself.

A statement of problem need not be long and elaborate: one page is more than enough
for a good statement of problem.

What are the key characteristics of a statement of the problem?

A good research problem should have the following characteristics:

1. It should address a gap in knowledge.

2. It should be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research
3. It should lead to further research
4. The problem should render itself to investigation through collection of data
5. It should be of interest to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time, and resources
6. The approach towards solving the problem should be ethical

What is the format for writing a statement of the problem?

A persuasive statement of problem is usually written in three parts:

Part A (The ideal): Describes a desired goal or ideal situation; explains how things
should be.

Part B (The reality): Describes a condition that prevents the goal, state, or value in Part
A from being achieved or realized at this time; explains how the current situation falls
short of the goal or ideal.

Part C (The consequences): Identifies the way you propose to improve the current
situation and move it closer to the goal or ideal.
Here is an example:

Statement 1

The Ministry of Youth is dedicated to allocating enterprise development funds to

both the youth and women. These funds are made available in order to start
entrepreneurial ventures that create and expand employment. (Provide relevant
statistics and quote)

Statement 2

One of the main focuses of the ministry is consistency. Unfortunately, consistency

in allocating funds to the next generation of recipients requires prior knowledge of
previous allocations and established practices. The current continuous
disbursement method does not allow for adequate analysis of previous
disbursements before a current disbursement is done.

Statement 3

Continuing with this current disbursement method prevents consistency and

causes decisions to become grossly political, which in turn inhibits the
achievement of the goals of the funds. Developing a more informed disbursement
system could help better implement the consistency focus of the ministry and at
the same time help the ministry better monitor and evaluate its funds.

This proposed research aspires to explore options for a new funds disbursement
system that would focus on consistency. To do this, the researcher will carry out a
full stakeholder analysis and use it to propose appropriate policy interventions.

Sample statement of a problem

An established trend in the small business start-up financing in Kenya is to establish
funds. Some of these funds include the youth fund and women fund. These funds have
helped improve the rate of start-ups in the country. However, after the start-up stage,
the ventures start developing problems. First, they face problems in management
which lead to a marketing problem and eventually to stagnation and early exit.

A study by the Institute of Development Studies (RoK, 2004) revealed that only 38% of
the businesses are expanding while 58% have not added workers. According to the
survey, more enterprises are likely to close in their first three years of operation. Four
years later the same institute conducted another study in Central Kenya. This study
revealed that 57% of small businesses are in stagnation with only 33% of them showing
some level of growth.

In our current project, we propose to examine factors that have an impact on small
business sustainability. We will employ both qualitative and quantitative approaches to
gather both primary and secondary data and information with the objective of
determining success factors for the growth of small business in Kenya.

Specifically, we shall employ the product life cycle (PLC) model to identify the needs of a
small business at the various stages of the PLC.

Now that you’ve learnt the basics, hone your skills and write an ideal statement of the
problem with this advanced course by our expert Prof. Henry Bwisa.

A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources
relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing,
provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in
relation to the research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are
designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while
researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your
research fits within a larger field of study.
A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a
literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis,
often within specific conceptual categories. A summary is a recap of the important information of the
source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you
are planning to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

 Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
 Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
 Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant
research, or
 Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been
researched to date.
The purpose of a literature review is to:

 Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem being studied.
 Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
 Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
 Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
 Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
 Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary
studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and
offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the primary studies. Third, there are the
perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally that become part of the lore
of field.

In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is
cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary
literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of
pertinent sources you have explored, there are a number of approaches you could adopt depending upon the
type of analysis underpinning your study.

Types of Literature Reviews

Argumentative Review
This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded
assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of
literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research
[e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a
legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when
they are used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews [see below].

Integrative Review
Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an
integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature
includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research problems. A well-done integrative
review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the
most common form of review in the social sciences.

Historical Review
Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on examining research
throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged
in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place
research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely
directions for future research.

Methodological Review
A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about saying what they
say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different
levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis
techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to
practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration,
quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This
approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own
study.

Systematic Review
This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question,
which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to
collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to deliberately
document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all of the research about a clearly defined research
problem. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form,
such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to
examining prior research studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in
the social sciences.

Theoretical Review
The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue,
concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist,
the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop
new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal
that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis
can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

I.  Thinking About Your Literature Review

The structure of a literature review should include the following :

 An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of the literature
review,
 Division of works under review into themes or categories [e.g. works that support a particular position,
those against, and those offering alternative approaches entirely],
 An explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others,
 Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions,
and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research.
The critical evaluation of each work should consider:

 Provenance -- what are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by evidence [e.g.
primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, recent scientific findings]?
 Methodology -- were the techniques used to identify, gather, and analyze the data appropriate to
addressing the research problem? Was the sample size appropriate? Were the results effectively interpreted
and reported?
 Objectivity -- is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is
certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
 Persuasiveness -- which of the author's theses are most convincing or least convincing?
 Value -- are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work ultimately contribute in
any significant way to an understanding of the subject?

II.  Development of the Literature Review

Four Stages

1.  Problem formulation -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues?
2.  Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored.
3.  Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the
topic.
4.  Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature.

Consider the following issues before writing the literature review:

Clarify

If your assignment is not very specific about what form your literature review should take, seek clarification
from your professor by asking these questions:

1.  Roughly how many sources should I include?

2.  What types of sources should I review (books, journal articles, websites; scholarly versus popular sources)?
3.  Should I summarize, synthesize, or critique sources by discussing a common theme or issue?
4.  Should I evaluate the sources?
5.  Should I provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a history?

Find Models

Use the exercise of reviewing the literature to examine how authors in your discipline or area of interest have
composed their literature review sections. Read them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to
look for in your own research or to identify ways to organize your final review. The bibliography or reference
section of sources you've already read are also excellent entry points into your own research.

Narrow the Topic

The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in order to obtain
a good survey of relevant resources. Your professor will probably not expect you to read everything that's
available about the topic, but you'll make your job easier if you first limit scope of the research problem. A
good strategy is to begin by searching the USC Libraries Catalog  for books about the topic and review the
table of contents for chapters that focuses on specific issues. You can also review the indexes of books to find
references to specific issues that can serve as the focus of your research. For example, a book surveying the
history of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict may include a chapter on the role Egypt has played in mediating the
conflict, or look in the index for the pages where Egypt is mentioned in the text.

Consider Whether Your Sources are Current

Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. This is particularly true in
disciplines in medicine and the sciences where research conducted becomes obsolete very quickly as new
discoveries are made. However, when writing a review in the social sciences, a survey of the history of the
literature may be required. In other words, a complete understanding the research problem requires you to
deliberately examine how knowledge and perspectives have changed over time. Sort through other current
bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use
this method to explore what is considered by scholars to be a "hot topic" and what is not.

III.  Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

Chronology of Events
If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials according to when they
were published. This approach should only be followed if a clear path of research building on previous research
can be identified and that these trends follow a clear chronological order of development. For example, a
literature review that focuses on continuing research about the emergence of German economic power after
the fall of the Soviet Union.

By Publication
Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more important trend.
For instance, you could order a review of literature on environmental studies of brown fields if the progression
revealed, for example, a change in the soil collection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted
the studies.

Thematic [“conceptual categories”]

Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time.
However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic review. For example, a review of
the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics could focus on the development of online political satire.
While the study focuses on one topic, the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics, it will still be
organized chronologically reflecting technological developments in media. The only difference here between a
"chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: the role of the Internet in
presidential politics. Note however that more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from
chronological order. A review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section
according to the point made.

Methodological
A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the researcher. For the Internet in American
presidential politics project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the
portrayal of American presidents on American, British, and French websites. Or the review might focus on the
fundraising impact of the Internet on a particular political party. A methodological scope will influence either
the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.

Other Sections of Your Literature Review

Once you've decided on the organizational method for your literature review, the sections you need to include
in the paper should be easy to figure out because they arise from your organizational strategy. In other words,
a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period; a thematic review would have
subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue. However, sometimes you may need to add
additional sections that are necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body.
What other sections you include in the body is up to you but include only what is necessary for the reader to
locate your study within the larger scholarship framework.

Here are examples of other sections you may need to include depending on the type of review you write:

 Current Situation: information necessary to understand the topic or focus of the literature review.
 History: the chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an idea that is necessary to
understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a chronology.
 Selection Methods: the criteria you used to select (and perhaps exclude) sources in your literature review.
For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed articles and journals.
 Standards: the way in which you present your information.
 Questions for Further Research: What questions about the field has the review sparked? How will you
further your research as a result of the review?

IV.  Writing Your Literature Review

Once you've settled on how to organize your literature review, you're ready to write each section. When
writing your review, keep in mind these issues.

Use Evidence
A literature review section is, in this sense, just like any other academic research paper. Your interpretation of
the available sources must be backed up with evidence [citations] that demonstrates that what you are saying
is valid.

Be Selective
Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of information you
choose to mention should relate directly to the research problem, whether it is thematic, methodological, or
chronological. Related items that provide additional information but that are not key to understanding the
research problem can be included in a list of further readings .

Use Quotes Sparingly

Some short quotes are okay if you want to emphasize a point, or if what an author stated cannot be easily
paraphrased. Sometimes you may need to quote certain terminology that was coined by the author, not
common knowledge, or taken directly from the study. Do not use extensive quotes as a substitute for your own
summary and interpretation of the literature.

Summarize and Synthesize

Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each thematic paragraph as well as throughout
the review. Recapitulate important features of a research study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the
study's significance and relating it to your own work.

Keep Your Own Voice

While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice [the writer's] should remain front and center. For
example, weave references to other sources into what you are writing but maintain your own voice by starting
and ending the paragraph with your own ideas and wording.
Use Caution When Paraphrasing
When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information or opinions
accurately and in your own words. Even when paraphrasing an author’s work, you still must provide a citation
to that work.

V.  Common Mistakes to Avoid

These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research literature.

 Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;
 You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevent sources to use in the literature
review related to the research problem;
 Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary research studies or
data;
 Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than examining
critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
 Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to review;
 Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or meta-analytic methods;
and,
 Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings and alternative
interpretations found in the literature.

CHAPTER III

Is composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study is related. For instance, if the present
study deals with drug addiction, literature to be reviewed or surveyed should be composed of materials that deal with
drug addiction. RELATED LITERATURE

These materials are usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines, newspapers,
and other publications. RELATED LITERATURE

RELATED LITERATURE

These materials are classified as 1. Local, if printed in the Philippines; and 2. Foreign, if printed in other lands. RELATED
LITERATURE

Studies, inquiries, or investigations already conducted to which the present proposed study is relate or has some bearing
or similarity. They are usually unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses, and dissertations. RELATED STUDIES

RELATED STUDIES

They may be classified as: 1. Local, if the inquiry was conducted in the Philippines; and 2. Foreign, if conducted in
foreign lands RELATED STUDIES

Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

A survey or review of related literature and studies is very important because such reviewed literature and studies serve
as a foundation of the proposed study. This is because related literature and studies guide the researcher in pursuing his
research venture. Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

Reviewed literature and studies help or guide the researcher in the following ways:
They help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research problem or topic. By reviewing related
materials, a replication of a similar problem may be found better than the problem already chosen. Replication is the
study of research problem already conducted but in another place. Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related
Literature and Studies

They help the investigator understand his topic for research better. Reviewing related literature and studies may clarify
vague points about his problem. Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies. There is duplication if an investigation already made is
conducted again in the same locale using practically the same respondents. This is avoided if a survey of related
literature and studies be made first. Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related information. This is because the bibliography of a
study already conducted indicate references about similar studies. Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related
Literature and Studies

They help and guide the researcher in making his research design especially in: a. the formulation of specific questions to
be researched on; b. the formulation of assumptions and hypotheses if there should be any; Importance, Purposes, and
Functions of Related Literature and Studies

the formulation of conceptual framework; Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

Conceptual Framework

the selection and application of the methods of research; e. the selection and application of sampling techniques;
Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

the selection and/or preparation and validation of research instruments for gathering data; g. the selection and
application of statistical procedures; Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

The analysis, organization, presentation, and interpretation of data; i. The making of the summary of implications for the
whole study; j. The formulation of the summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendation; and Importance,
Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

They help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his findings of other researchers on similar studies
with the end in view of formulating generalization or principles which are the contributions of the study to fund of
knowledge. Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

There are certain characteristics of related materials that make them of true value. Among these characteristics are:

The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because of the rapid social, economic, scientific,
and technological change. Findings several years ago may be of little value today because of the fast changing life style
of the people. Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

There are exception, however. Treatises that deal on universals or things of more or less permanent nature may be still
be good today. There are mathematical laws and formulas and statistical procedures that had been formulated a long,
long time ago which are being use today with very, very little improvement. This is also true with natural and physical
laws. Books on these, though written a long time ago, are still being cited today.
 Another exception is when a comparison or contrast is to be made between the conditions of today and those of a
remote past, say ten or twenty years ago. Naturally, literature and studies about that remote past have to be surveyed
and reviewed.

Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased. Some materials are extremely or subtly one sided, either political,
or religious, etc. Comparison with these materials cannot be made logically and validity. Distorted generalizations may
result. Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have some bearing or similarity to the research
problem at hand should be reviewed. Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or data to make them valid and
reliable. There are cases where fictitious data are supplied just to complete a research report (thesis or dissertation). Of
course, this kind of deception is hard to detect and to prove. Thus, this is a real problem to honest researchers.
Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

Reviewed materials must not be few or too many. They must only be sufficient enough to give insight into the research
problem or to indicate the nature of the present investigation. The may also depend upon the availability of related
materials. Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

Sometimes there is a paucity of such materials. Ordinarily, form ten to fifteen related materials re needed for a master`s
thesis and from fifteen to twenty-five for a doctoral dissertation depending their availability, as well as their depth and
length of discussions.

For an undergraduate thesis, from five to ten may do. The numbers, however, are only suggestive and not imperative
nor mandatory. These are only the average numbers observed from theses and dissertation surveyed by this author.

Sources of Related Literature and Studies

The sources of related literature and studies may include the following:

Book, encyclopedias, almanacs, and other similar references. 2. Articles published in professional journals, magazines,
periodicals, newspapers, and other publications. Sources of Related Literature and Studies

Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters, and diaries. 4. Unpublished theses and dissertations. 5. The
Constitution, and laws and statues of the land. Sources of Related Literature and Studies

Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating from government offices and departments, especially from the Office of the
President of the Philippines and the Department of Education, Culture and Sports. Sources of Related Literature and
Studies

Records from schools, public and private, especially reports of their activities. 8. Reports from seminars educational or
otherwise. Sources of Related Literature and Studies

Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic, scientific, technological, political, etc. from the government
and other entities. Sources of Related Literature and Studies

Where to Locate the Sources of Related Literature and Studies

Generally, the sources of related literature and studies are located in the following places: Where to Locate the Sources
of Related Literature and Studies
Libraries, either government, school, or private libraries. 2. Government and private offices. Where to Locate the
Sources of Related Literature and Studies

The National Library 4. The Library of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports. Where to Locate the Sources of
Related Literature and Studies

The last two are especially rich depositories of related materials, particularly unpublished master`s theses and doctoral
dissertations.