Lesson 20

(formerly Lesson 21)

AGENDA:
MOLECULES AND BONDS – PART 1: Single Bond Types

• Videos on Chemistry Applications in Colour and Art

• molecules
• chemical bonding
• types of bonds: pure covalent, polar covalent, ionic

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Course Map: Cross-Disciplinary Examination of Colour

History
Colour classification systems
evolved with improved Chemistry
understanding of colour
Surface colours:
pigments, paints
Physics and dyes
Light as source
of all colours Colour
Art
Physiology
The 7 types of
Human vision system: colour contrasts
eyes detect light,
brain creates
perception of colour 2
 SUMMARY MAP:

CHEMISTRY OF SURFACE COLOURS

1. MOLECULES 2. APPLICATIONS
• types of bonds • pigments
• combination of bonds • paints
• acids and bases • dyes

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 VIDEOS (required):
The Chemistry of Color (11 minutes)
Michelangelo & The Science of Fresco Painting
(Chemistry Meets Art) (7 minutes)

OPTIONAL Video:

The Magic of Chemistry - with Andrew Szydlo (The Royal Institution)

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 Video 21.1:

Bonds Between Atoms

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 Colour and Chemistry of Surface Materials
We have looked at the causes of colour of light generated by intrinsic light
sources such as stars (i.e. blackbodies).

However, colours of many surface materials we see in everyday life have a

different cause and explanation: molecules in that material. How the molecules
are ‘put together’, and how energy states of these molecules can change,
determines the causes of colours of particular surfaces.

Recall that a molecule is a grouping of two or more atoms together in a specific

arrangement, held by chemical bonds.
Example: water molecule (H2O)
Supplement:
The Molecule of the Month:
http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/motm.htm
Virtual Museum of Minerals and Molecules:
https://virtual-museum.soils.wisc.edu/
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 Properties of Molecules

MOLECULES:

2. Combinations of 3. Acids and Bases

1. Types of Bonds* Bonds
• covalent • double bonds
• ionic • conjugated bonds
• porphyrins

* These are NOT the only types

of bonds possible in molecules

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 Why do atoms bond?
Depending on the complexity of atoms involved in the bonding, various
models in chemistry are used to explain formation of these bonds. The simpler
atomic bonds are best described by the Valence Theory.

A chemical bond is a relationship (or ‘link’) between atoms, achieved by

valence electrons of atoms interacting witch each other, to keep the atoms
together as a molecule.

Valence electrons: electrons in the outer shell of an atom which can

participate in bonding with other atoms, because that shell is not ‘filled up’.

In general, atoms will bond together because they ‘want’ to achieve their
optimal valence configuration of stability: all shells to be ‘filled up’ by electrons.

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 Maximum Electron Capacity of Each Shell
There are certain ‘rules’ that determine atomic structures: Shell Maximum
Number Electron
• electrons in atoms will exist in certain, discrete orbitals, N Capacity
or ‘shells’ per Shell
1 2
• each shell has a ‘maximum electron capacity’ 2 8
• Note: starting with the 2nd shell, each main ‘shell’ of 3 8

electrons has ‘sub-shells’ within it, with further broken- 4 18

5 18
down rules for ‘filling up’ subshells and shells.

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 Rules for Filling Up Shells with Electrons
There are certain ‘rules’ that determine atomic structures:

• as atomic element increases, electrons will ‘fill out’ these shells starting
from the first (innermost) shell (note: this ‘rule’ gets more
complicated/erratic for higher elements)

• the optimal, or most stable, configuration of an atom is one where there

are no ‘electrons missing’ in the outer-most shell → each shell is ‘filled up’
to its maximum capacity
Shell Maximum
Number Electron
N Capacity
per Shell
1 2
2 8
3 8
4 18
5 18 10
Filling Out Electron Shells

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 The Periodic Table of Elements
The Periodic Table of Elements has been organized to quickly show patterns in
atomic structures, such as the number of valence electrons. In fact, each
column (or ‘group’) represents elements with same number of valence
electrons, for quick reference.

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 Supplemental – Periodic Table of Elements

Additional interactive Periodic Table of Elements websites are available:

Web Elements: http://www.webelements.com/

‘Sortable’ - Israel Science and Technology Homepage

http://www.science.co.il/PTelements.asp

Extended – Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table_%28extended%29

Database of Periodic Table Formulations

http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/pt_database.php

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 OPTIONAL – Periodic Table of Elements
Video: We Are Star Stuff (Space Time - PBS Digital Studios) (13 minutes)
Video: Investigating the Periodic Table with Experiments –
with Peter Wothers (The Royal Institution) (1 hour 25 minutes)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kqe9tEcZkno&t=2s
Video: Hunting the Elements (NOVA-PBS 2-hour special)
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/physics/hunting-elements.html
(Scroll down for additional resources (interactives, etc.))

Trace the history and development of the very first

Periodic Table of Elements, created by the Russian
chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in the 1860s, in Part 3 of the
excellent PBS documentary: Stephen Hawking’s Universe

Timeline of Element Discovery – The About Guide

http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/aa030303a.htm

Video: Here’s how the periodic table gets new elements

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/physics-chemistry-how-periodic-table-gets-new-elements 14
 Video 21.2:

Electronegativity

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 Metals vs Non-Metals
Most of the elements in the periodic table can be categorized either as a metal
or a non-metal, with different chemical properties. Metals are elements which
tend to easily give up electrons to make an ionic bond (with a non-metal);
while non-metals tend to take electrons to make an ionic bond.

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 Electronegativity
To help understand the specific type of bond that will form (covalent or ionic),
we first need to define electronegativity: a measure of the tendency of an
atom to attract electrons, to fill up its outer valence shell.

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Electronegativity varies within different elements. The above chart is a

schematic representation of the ‘strength’ of electronegativity of each element.
 Electronegativity Scale
One common scale of units for electronegativity (EN) is the Pauling Scale:

lowest electronegativity value: EN = 0.7 (Francium, or Fr, atomic # 87)

highest electronegativity value: EN = 4.0 (Flourine, or F, atomic # 9)

The rest of the elements have electronegativity values between 0.7 and 4.0

Fr

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 Electronegativity Trends
Looking at the period table, electronegativity
values increase from left to right (across the
‘groups’), and decrease from top to bottom
(down the ‘periods’). Or, electronegativity
increases along a bottom left to top right
diagonal trend line (see right).

The top right and

lower left ‘corners’ of
the period table
show the most
‘reactive’ elements.
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Difference in Electronegativity = TYPE of Bond
The most important distinguishing feature of the three types of bonds –
non-polar covalent, polar covalent, ionic – is the
DIFFERENCE in their electronegativities (or EN)

Covalent bonds are made when atoms share electrons (to achieve a full outer
valence shell).

Ionic bonds are made when one atom ‘steals’ electron(s) from another (to
achieve a full outer valence shell). 20
 Video 21.3:

Covalent (non-polar, polar)

and Ionic Bonds
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 Non-polar Covalent Bond
If we have a bond between two atoms of (nearly) equal electronegativity, with
a difference between these electronegativities between 0 to 0.4, then this will
form a non-polar covalent bond.

Note that if EN is exactly 0, this is also called a pure covalent bond.

Example: H2

Each hydrogen atom has electronegativity of EN=2.20, so the difference

between them is ΔEN=2.20-2.20=0

→ Electrons are shared equally between these two atoms.

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 Polar Covalent Bond
If we have a bond between two atoms of somewhat different electronegativities,
with a difference in electronegativities between 0.4 to 1.7, then this will form a
polar covalent bond.

Atoms still share their electrons, but not equally, such that one atom tends to
pull electrons slightly more toward it (becoming slightly negative in charge) than
the other atom (which becomes slightly positive). There is a slight separation of
overall electric charge between them.
Oxygen has a higher
electronegativity than
Hydrogen, so it will ‘pull’
the electrons from the
hydrogen closer toward
it, giving it a slightly more
‘negative’ charge.
Example: H2O
One oxygen atom bonds with two hydrogen atoms. ENo=3.44, and ENH=2.2.
The difference between their electronegativies is
ΔEN=ENo-ENH=3.44-2.20=1.24, giving each O-H bond a ‘polar’ nature. 23
 Ionic Bond
If two atoms with very different electronegativities bond together, with
differences of electronegativities between 1.7 and 3.3, they will form an
ionic bond: a bond where the more electronegative atom will ‘steal’ the
bonding electron(s) from the less electronegative atom, creating ‘ions’ that are
now ‘bonded’ together.
Example: NaCl (salt)
Consider a single atom of Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl):
ΔEN=3.16-0.93=2.23 → large ΔEN!

Cl (# 17) Na (# 11)
EN=3.16 EN=0.93

Because chlorine (Cl) is so much more electronegative than sodium (Na), it

will ‘steal’ the lone electron in the valence shell of Cl to complete its own
outer valence shell. The result bond will be ‘ionic’. 24
 Example: NaCl (salt) as an Ionic Bond

Ions of the two bonding

atoms create a salt
‘crystal’ network, where
oppositely-charged ions
line up together.
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Difference in Electronegativity = TYPE of Bond

Review again:

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 Dipole Moment
Dipole moment (of a molecule) is the amount of separation of electrical charge
between one end of the molecule and another. The dipole moment exists
usually in polar covalent bonds, since electrons are not shared equally between
individual atoms. The atom with the higher electronegativity will pull the
electron(s) from the other atom closer toward it, making that end of the
molecule more negative (in overall electric charge).

For example: the water molecule

has a slight dipole moment,
- because the Oxygen atom pulls the
electrons from the Hydrogen atoms
slightly closer to it, making the
+ Oxygen-end more negative, and
the Hydrogen-end more positive (of
the molecule as a whole).

Optional Video: The Snowflake Mystery 27

 Isomers
Isomers are molecules that have the same chemical formula (meaning they are
made of the same individual elements), but a different structural arrangement of
these elements, resulting in different chemical properties, including which
wavelengths of light will be absorbed and reflected → leads to a colour change!

Example 1: propanol, with chemical formula C3H8O, or C3H7OH. The following

three isomers of propanol all have the same number of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen atoms, but they are arranged different in the structure of the molecule.

Example 2: recall that in the photoactivation sequence inside the photopigment

molecule in our photoreceptors, the chromaphore part of the photopigment
changed from one shape to another (11-cis retinal to all-trans retinal) in
response to absorbing a photon → isomer!
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