Blaster's Training Modules PDF

Blaster’s
Training
Modules
Prepared under sponsorship from
Office of Technology Transfer, Western Region

Office of Surface Mining
U.S. Department of the Interior
In Cooperation With
Sheridan District Office

Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality
Land Quality Division
Peer reviewed:
OSM Blaster Certification Team
Kenneth Eltschlager, Dennis Clark, Wendi Stephens and David Best
May 6, 2008
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ii
Table of Contents
Pages
Welcome (Overview / User Guide) 1-8
Blasting Modules 1 - 8 Slides
Module 1. Explosives 1-42
Explosives Disclaimer / Overview 1-3
Chemistry of Explosives 4-5
Classification of Explosives 6-8
Explosives Properties 9-19
Review Questions 20-21
Explosives and BA’s 22-39
Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 40-42
Module 2. Initiation Systems 1-81
Initiation Systems Introduction 1 - 16
Non-Electric Systems 17-18
Detonating Cord 19-23
Detonating Cord 26-35
Shock-Tube Systems 38-45
iii
Electric Systems 48-53
Electric Systems 57-69
Cap-and-Fuse Systems 72-78
Module 3. Surface-Blast Design 1-36
Overview 1-5
Objectives 6
Highwall Stability 7-9
Control Blasting 10-12
Hole Diameter and Depth 13
Blast Theory 14-16
Blast Design 19-33
Module 4. Blasthole Drilling 1-27
Overview 1-3
Drilling Methods 4
Drill Rigs 5-9
iv
Fugitive Dust and Dill-Cutting Controls 10-12
Hole Diameter 13-15
Drill Accuracy and Deviation 16-18
Planning and Documentation 19-25
Module 5 . Blasthole Loading 1-37
Loading 1-11
Wet Boreholes 11-13
Primers 14-17
Priming 20-24
Loading Procedures 25-26
Packaged Products 27-34
Module 6. Geology 1-28
Overview 1-5
Field Exercise 6
Rock Classification and Properties 4-26
v
Module 7. Regulations and Safe Practices 1-38
Overview 1-4
Federal Regulating Agencies 5
Agency Responsibility 6
Department of Transportation 7-8
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives 9-12
Magazine Type 13-19
Inspections 20
Location/Distances/Rating/Housekeeping 21-28
Mine Safety & Health Administration 29-31
Office of Surface Mining 32
The Institute of Makers of Explosives 32-34
Module 8. Controlling the Adverse Effects of Blasting
Overview 1-3
I Ground Vibrations, Airblast, and Flyrock 3-61
II Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement 65-77
III Performance Standards – Adverse Effects 80-110
vi
Blaster’s
Training
Modules
USER GUIDE
1
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2
Blaster’s Training Modules
The blaster-training modules were put together, under contract, with Federal
funds provided by the Office of Technology Transfer (OTT), Western Region
(WR), Office of Surface Mining (OSM), U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI),
located in Denver, Colorado.
The modules are examples of the technical assistance the Federal government
furnishes States to assist them in meeting the requirements of the Surface Mining
Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA), upon which their State surface
coal-mine regulating programs are based. In particular, the modules were
requested and will be used by the Sheridan District Office, Wyoming Department
of Environmental Quality (DEQ), Land Quality Division.
A word of caution: please note that these modules are not intended to stand
alone, nor are they self-training type modules. Rather, the information the
modules provide MUST BE SUPPLEMENTED by information given by a
certified blasting instructor.
Disclaimer
The technologies described in these modules are for information purposes only.
The mention herein, of the technologies, companies, or any brand names, does
not constitute endorsement by U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI), Office of
Surface Mining (OSM).
Acknowledgements
Portions of these blaster-training modules were developed through a contract
with Aimone-Martin and Associates, LLC, throughout 2003-2004, with the
assistance and cooperation of explosives manufacturers as well as coal-mining
and quarrying companies. Both OSM and Wyoming DEQ recognize and are
appreciative of technical and media contributions, made during the modules’
preparation, from:
Advanced Initiation Systems, Inc.

BHP Billiton
Bridger Coal Company
Buckley Powder Company
Decker Coal Company
3
Dyno Nobel, Inc.
E.I.T. Corporation
Institute of Makers of Explosives
Kennecott Energy
Lafarge North America
Martin Marietta Materials
Mining Services International
Nelson Brothers
Orica International Management, Inc.
Peabody Energy
Pete Lien & Sons, Inc.
Pittsburgh & Midway Coal Company
Powder River Coal Company
Trapper Mining, Inc.
Triton Coal Company
Viking Explosives Company
Western Energy Company – Rosebud Mine
Background
The Blaster’s Training Modules is accessible by means of a main menu, which a
user accesses in order to select from a choice of the eight modules. Again, the
information contained in these modules is intended to provide blasting
professionals with review material that should be adequate to allow them to
complete classroom instruction prior to taking a blaster’s certification test.
Operating Features
1
The Blaster Training Modules require the use of Adobe Reader ™ version 6. If
you do not have Adobe Reader™ installed on your computer, the Adobe Reader
Installer is provided to you for your convenience. Please read the instructions on
how to install the Adobe Acrobat Reader.
System Requirements
• Intel® Pentium® processor
• Any of the following operating systems: Microsoft® Windows 98 Second
Edition, Windows Millennium Edition, Windows NT® 4.0 with Service
Pack 6, Windows 2000 with Service Pack 2, Windows XP Professional or
Home Edition, Windows XP Tablet PC Edition
• Minimum 32MB of RAM (64MB recommended)
• 60MB of available hard-disk space
• Internet Explorer 5.01, 5.5, 6.0, or 6.1
• Screen Resolution: 1280 x 1024
4
Installing the Adobe Acrobat Reader™
1. Click on your CD-ROM drive to list the contents of the disk.
2. Click on the folder called SETUP.
3. Click on the file called AdbeRdr60_enu_full.exe.
4. Follow the instructions of the program. If at the end you are asked to reboot
your computer, please do so.
To manually open the publication contained on this CD

1. Click on your CD-ROM drive to list the contents of the disk.
2. Click on start.htm to get the startup page.
1
Adobe, the Adobe logo, and Reader are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Adobe
Systems Incorporated in the United States and/or other countries.
Getting Started
Begin by inserting the blaster-training modules CD into the CD drive.
If the Blaster Training Modules Main Menu does not appear, follow the
instructions under “To manually open the publication contained on this CD”
under Operating Features. On the main menu for the Blaster’s Training Modules,
click on any of the nine buttons to start the module (or to access this user’s
guide) that button describes, see Figure 1. If security warnings appear, see
section Security.
Module Organization and Topics

The training package comprises eight modules that address (and are entitled):
• Explosives
• Initiation Systems
• Surface-Blast Design
• Blasthole Drilling
• Blasthole Loading
• Geology
• Regulations and Safe Practices
• Controlling the Adverse Effects of Blasting
5
Figure 1 – Main menu of the Blaster’s Training Modules
The eight modules are supplemented by this user’s guide.
Each of the eight modules includes review questions and discussion; in addition,
certain modules contain links to videos. The playback of each of these videos
may be initiated by clicking on a still photograph, within the module to which it
relates, representing the video (in one instance, in the “Initiation Systems”
module, the video link is a black screen).
The eight modules are:
Explosives – This module presents information pertaining to the

classification and properties of explosives products used in surface coal
mines and quarries.
Initiation Systems – This module presents information pertaining to

initiation systems currently in use in blasting operations at surface coal
mines.
Surface-Blast Design – This module presents recommended blast-design

practices for surface-mine and quarry blasting.
Blasthole Drilling – This module presents aspects of surface drilling that

are important to blasting operations. The purpose of drilling into rock is
to provide a “blasthole” into which explosives can be loaded.
6
Good drilling practices include carefully monitoring drill-rig operating
parameters, taking careful notes of the changes in geology during drilling,
and effectively communicating to the blasting crew any unusual
conditions encountered during drilling that may affect blasting results or
require changes in hole-loading practices.
Regulations and Safe Practices – This module presents current blasting

and related explosive regulations and identifies the regulatory agencies
that enforce them.
Regulations in the mining-explosives industry relate to the manufacture,

transportation, storage, and use of explosives. Blasters are responsible
for knowing all applicable laws that affect the storage, transport, and use
of explosives on their job sites. The module focuses on the storage and
transport of explosives from magazines to job sites. The safety aspects of
explosive handling and use are presented in other blaster-training
modules.
Controlling the Adverse Effects of Blasting – This module addresses

the control of offsite impacts that result from blasting, namely vibrations,
airblast, and flyrock. Much of the information in the module is derived
from SMCRA, which outlines performance standards applied to all
surface coal mines. Similar standards have been adopted on some State
and local levels and applied to non-coal blasting operations such as
quarrying and construction.
Security
Viewing Videos
If the Manage Trust for Multimedia Content appears when you click on a video
(see figure 2 and figure 3), select “Play the multimedia content and add this
document to my list of trusted documents”. Otherwise, select “Play the
multimedia content this one time”. Click on Play to view the video.
7
Figure 2 – Manage Trust for Multimedia Content for Windows Media Player
Figure 3 – Manage Trust for Multimedia Content for Windows Built-In Player
Hyperlinks
If the Security Warning window appears when a hyperlink is clicked (see figure
4), select “Allow” to access the website.
Figure 4 – Security Warning Windows appears when accessing a website
8
Explosives
This blaster-training module was put together, under contract, with Federal funds
provided by the Office of Technology Transfer, Western Regional Office, Office of
Surface Mining, U.S. Department of the Interior, located in Denver, Colorado.
The module is an example of the technical assistance the Federal government

Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, upon which their State surface coal-mine
regulating programs are based. In particular, the module was requested and will
be used by the Sheridan District Office, Wyoming Department of Environmental
Quality, Land Quality Division.
A word of caution: please note that this module is not intended to stand alone,
nor is it a self-training type module. Rather, the information the module
provides MUST BE SUPPLEMENTED by information given by a certified
blasting instructor.
DISCLAIMER
The technologies described in the module are for information purposes
only. The mention herein, of the technologies, companies, or any brand
names, does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Department of the
Interior’s Office of Surface Mining.
Explosives
This module presents information pertaining to the

classification and properties of explosive products
used in surface coal mines and quarries.
Chemistry of Explosives
Explosives are chemical mixtures or compounds that, when subjected to heat, impact, or shock,
are capable of undergoing a rapid decomposition that releases heat and gases, which, in turn,
expand to form high pressures.
Detonation occurs when the rate of chemical decomposition is greater than the speed of sound;
deflagration occurs when the reaction rate is slower than the speed of sound. “High explosives”
detonate, whereas “low explosives” deflagrate or burn.
A high-explosives detonation
provides both shock, which
fractures (or breaks) the rock, and
force (in the form of gas
products), which heaves and
displaces the fractured rock.
All explosives are mixtures that

include carbon, nitrogen,
hydrogen, and oxygen, along with
other additives that affect or provide
special properties (for example,
density, viscosity, and water
resistance).
Chemistry of Explosives
Detonation forms two types of gas products:
• Harmless gases, which include:

• H2O (as water vapor),
• CO2 (carbon dioxide),
• N2 (nitrogen),
• NH4 (ammonia), and
• CH4 (methane), and
• Gases that are potentially toxic, which include:

• CO (carbon monoxide),
• NO (nitric oxide),
• N2O (nitrous oxide), and
• NO2 (nitrogen dioxide).
Oxygen Balance
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) form dark
When the explosive mixture in a blasthole contains the correct brown fumes after a coal-mine cast blast.
amount of oxygen, and the explosives’ physical properties as
designed have not been altered by anything1 that would degrade their quality, no toxic fumes are produced, and the
energy released by the reaction is a maximum. This condition is referred to as oxygen-balanced. With an oxygen-
balanced mixture, there is sufficient oxygen to oxidize all of the ingredients necessary to produce H2O, CO2, and N2.
Oxygen imbalance can occur for a variety of reasons. (See the “Blasthole Loading” module.)
____________________
1
Many factors can cause an explosive to degrade. For example, water in a borehole can corrupt an
explosive like ammonium-nitrate fuel oil, which isn’t water-resistant (ammonium nitrate is hydroscopic and will dissolve
in water). In a deep borehole, pressure in the bottom can alter an explosive’s density by causing micro-balloons to be
crushed. Shock waves from detonating boreholes can dead-press (squeeze out tiny air bubbles from or collapse glass
micro-balloons in) explosives in the holes that have not yet detonated.
Classification of Explosives
There are many ways to classify explosives.
One is to think of mixtures as part fuel or sensitizer and part oxidizer (or something that
provides oxygen to the fuel). Examples of fuels and sensitizers, as well as oxygen source,
are:
Fuels (or sensitizers) + Oxidizers (oxygen source) = Ñ EXPLOSIVES Ò
fuel oil (FO) ammonium nitrate (AN)

carbon calcium nitrate
aluminum sodium nitrate
trinitrotoluene (TNT)
cyclonite (RDX)
smokeless powder
aerating agents
micro-balloons
The Bureau of Alcohol Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) defines explosives as:
Low explosive (LE) = an explosive material that can be caused to deflagrate (burn) when
unconfined;
High explosive (HE) = an explosive material

that can be caused to detonate with a No. 8
blasting cap when unconfined; and
Blasting agent (BA) = a mixture consisting of a

fuel and oxidizer, intended for blasting but
black
otherwise not an explosive (cannot be detonated
powder
with a No. 8 blasting cap). fuse
40-45 mm
The makeup of a standard-test No. 8 cap, of the sort 1.2-gram
used as a detonator in the blasting industry, is shown secondary
to the right. explosive
0.3-gram
HE’s that can be detonated directly with a No. 8 cap primary
are called cap-sensitive. explosive
BA’s that cannot be detonated directly with a No. 8 cap

are called cap-insensitive or non-cap-sensitive.
7 mm
The following three categories comprise generic types of explosives (specific types of explosives
are addressed later on in the module):
LE’s HE’s BA’s
dynamites gelatin semi- binary ANFO

black dynamite gelatins
straight blends
powder
dynamite straight
gelatin water gels,
ammonia slurries
dynamite ammonia
gelatin emulsions
It is worth noting that water gels, slurries, and emulsion products can be formulated to produce
either (1) cap-sensitive HE’s—by adding sufficient amounts of HE sensitizers—or (2) BA’s—by
omitting such sensitizers. Note as well that BA blends are usually mixtures, in varying
percentages, of ammonium-nitrate fuel oil (ANFO) and emulsion.
Explosive Properties
Density Gassing agents
added to
Density is normally expressed in terms of explosives (V1, to
specific gravity or mass divided by volume, the left) can
as follows: selectively
decrease the
grams/cubic centimeter = g/cm3 = g/cc. density of
emulsion-blend
(Note that the convention here is typically products (V2,
to use the metric [g/cc] rather than the below) in the
imperial [g/cm3] measurement system. blasthole. (Note,
This is because the density of water in as well, that the
metric units is 1.0 g/cc; by using the volume of V2 is
metric unit, a comparison can be made also increased as
between the explosive and water.) compared with
that of V1.)
Explosives with bulk densities less than 1.0
V1
g/cc may not readily sink in water, whereas
explosives with densities greater than 1.0
g/cc should sink in water, including standing
blasthole water.
V2
Two types of density are important:
• package and
• free-running product.
The Two Types of Density
Package Density
The density of an explosive as packaged in a cartridge or

tube at the mixing plant (1) is set by formulation and does
not change (unless the package is broken during loading)
and (2) must be greater than the density of that same
explosive in the blasthole. If air gaps are introduced around
the explosive when loading its cartridge or tube into a
blasthole, its charges may decouple.
Bulk Density
The bulk density of a free-running explosive poured

from a bag or bulk-loading truck is improved with
good coupling along the side of the blasthole. The
density is somewhat modified by the particle sizes
and fall height of the mix.
Loading Density
An explosive’s loading density (LD) is defined

as the weight of explosive per unit length of
borehole at a specified hole diameter.
Expressed in pounds per foot, LD is computed
as:
LD (lbs/ft) = 0.3405 ρ D2
where D is the borehole drilled diameter in

inches and ρ is the explosive density in g/cm3. L
W
The LD value may also be computed by
dividing the total explosives charge weight
loaded into a hole (W) by the length of the
loaded hole (L), thus:
LD = W/L.
Knowing the LD of an explosive is typically of

greatest use in the field.
Water Resistance
The ability of an explosive product to withstand exposure to

water without either losing power or becoming desensitized is
termed that explosive’s water resistance. Water resistance is
generally expressed as the number of hours a product may
remain submerged under water and still reliably detonate.
Manufacturers rate resistance to water as good to poor. Many
commercial explosives are mixed with the prospect of their
potential exposure to water in mind.
The detonation energy of ANFO mixtures that have been

exposed to water in blastholes is far less than that of such
mixtures placed in dry holes.
On the other hand, blasting agents manufactured with

water as part of their ingredients may have excellent
water-resistance properties. The same is true for
explosives packaged to protect the ingredients from water
intrusion.
Water-resistance ratings are available from

manufacturers of explosives and should be used as a
guideline when selecting explosives for rock blasting.
Fume Class
Fume class is a measure of the amount of toxic gases, primarily CO and NOx, produced by the
detonation of an explosive. Most commercial blasting products are oxygen-balanced to minimize the
fumes and optimize the energy they release. Fumes are an important consideration in confined
spaces—for example, tunnels and shafts—and should be considered under surface-blasting scenarios
where fumes could travel offsite and impact nearby residential areas.
Any factor that may change the chemistry of an explosive during detonation (such as the balance of
fuel to oxidizer) has the chance to upset the oxygen balance designed for the mixture. Such factors
can include:
• Insufficient charge diameter,

• Inadequate priming,
• Improper delay timing,
• Water deterioration, and
• Plastic borehole liners or paper wrappers.
MSHA, the Institute of Makers of Explosives (IME), and the former U.S. Bureau of Mines have
developed fume-classification or rating tests, in laboratory settings, for explosives used in underground
metal and coal mines. Many of these tests do not necessarily scale to surface-blasting situations. In
surface mines, blasting may produce a variety of fumes that include NOx (which is orange in color) and
CO (which is colorless).
If gases are of concern at any surface-blasting operation, samples may be taken and tested by trained
specialists.
Flammability
As a Measure of an Explosive’s Fire or Blast Hazard When Subjected to Flame
The ease with which an explosive or BA can be ignited and/or detonated when subjected to heat either confined or
unconfined is termed that explosive’s flammability. For purposes of classification, the Department of Transportation,
explosives manufacturers, and the military have developed many ignition, burn-rate, and detonation tests.
Some commercial explosives with high fuel content may readily ignite and burn. In confined spaces, burning may
lead to detonation. ANFO and water-based explosives such as water gels and emulsions are more difficult to ignite
in the open. A blaster who has any explosives-flammability concerns MUST discuss them with the
explosives’ manufacturer(s).
As a Measure of an Explosive’s Capacity to Create Fire

from an Open Flame Carried by Its Detonation
Years ago, permissible explosives were developed for use in

underground coal and other gassy mines. Permissibles were
formulated with salt to lower their flame temperatures and
prevent gas explosions. Today, in surface coal mines,
detonating cord and other devices that carry an open flame are
still used to fragment thick coal. As a consequence, because
coal is a fuel source, detonation flames may lead to localized
combustion within detonated coal seams. However, because
such resultant fires are typically small, this situation presents
merely as a nuisance in that time must be taken to extinguish
the fires if they occur. Detonating cord
used to fragment coal.
Temperature
Extremely low temperatures can affect the performance of water-based explosives, the
ingredients of which can solidify and aggregate, thereby reducing the particle surface area
available for reaction. A lower performance results. At higher temperatures, the crystal
structure of AN can be affected, and a reduction of particle size can occur with crystal changes
(breakdown). Often, this change in crystal structure is progressive within a mix and over time.
Temperature fluctuations under this scenario can result in high density states at which the
explosive may no longer detonate.
Other temperature effects may include the burning (or deflagration) of mixtures that have been
subjected to the intense heating of pyrite oxidation, which is often associated with sulfur-
bearing metals and coal mines.
Shelf Life
The chemical stability and performance of explosives change with age. The extent of
instabilities and the rate of aging will depend upon the formulation and storage conditions of
the explosive; accordingly, modern explosive materials contain inhibitors and/or stabilizers
that lengthen their shelf lives. For example, certain military-type explosives are extremely
stable over a wide range of conditions for long periods amounting to virtually unlimited shelf
life. It is always best practice to store explosive materials so that common brands, sizes,
grades, and "Date-Plant-Shift" codes remain together and stocks can be rotated so that the
oldest materials are used first.
Sensitivity
The term sensitivity, as it pertains to explosives, has two

meanings that may seem, on first consideration, to
contradict each other. The contradiction is resolved,
however, as follows:
The first meaning of the sensitivity as it relates to

explosives refers to various safety aspects and describes
the ease with which an explosive may be detonated or its
sensitivity to accidental detonation from shock, impact,
friction, electrostatic discharge, and heat. Numerous
laboratory and field tests (such as the pendulum test, which
uses the device to the right) have been developed over the
years to test shock, heat, and friction sensitivity.
The second meaning has to do with sensitiveness or an explosive’s ability to propagate. In this
sense, the amount of energy (usually from heat and shock) required to reliably produce a detonation
determines an explosive’s sensitivity. Sensitivity under this definition can be measured in a number
of ways. Two tests that are most applicable to commercial explosives are:
• Cap sensitivity, which measures the ability of an explosive to be detonated with a

standard No. 8 cap; and
• Gap sensitivity, which measures the ability of a detonation to propagate across a space—
termed a “separation gap”—between two charges that have been placed adjacent to each
other.
Strength
The measure of an explosive’s energy, on both a weight and a volume basis and calculated or measured
using field tests, is termed that explosive’s strength. Strength is related to density and detonating velocity, as
well as the heat and gas volume the explosive liberates upon detonation; this value can be calculated, or it
can be measured using a variety of tests (for example, the ballistic-mortar, underwater-bubble, the cratering,
and the strain-pulse tests). These tests can identify relative measures of blasting performance for trial
explosive mixes. However, they do not provide accurate measures of the total energy available in any given
borehole to do the work intended (i.e., to fragment and displace rock).
The total energy released from the detonation of explosives includes both useful energy (the energy that
actually fragments and displaces rock) and wasted energy (heat, light, ground vibrations, and airblast). The
efficiency of an explosive to do useful work varies from application to application and is dependent on
formulation, borehole diameter, environmental loading conditions, and confinement.
Based on tests or computer calculations, explosives manufacturers rate explosives energy in either
kilocalories (Kcal) per unit weight or Kcal per unit volume, as follows:
• Absolute Weight Strength = the heat of reaction available in each gram (weight) of explosive,
whereas
• Absolute Bulk Strength = the heat of reaction available in each cubic centimeter (volume) of
explosive.
Data are also available—for heat of reaction for explosives relative to ANFO—as the standard of comparison:
• Relative Weight Strength = the heat of reaction per unit weight of an explosive as compared with
ANFO; or
• Relative Bulk Strength = the heat of reaction per unit volume of an explosive as compared with
ANFO.
Detonation Velocity
emulsions
CS slurries
The detonation velocity of 20,000
Detonation velocity (confined) ft/sec

an explosive is the speed
at which the detonation,
once it achieves a steady
15,000
state, travels through the
explosive.
This value is a function of 10,000

emulsion
formulation, density, CS slurries
borehole diameter, primer semigelatin
size, and confinement. 5,000 dynamites
non-CS slurry
ANFO prills
The figure to the right ANFO HD
shows generalized 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
relationships between
borehole diameter and Borehole diameter (in.)
detonation velocity for
various explosive types. CS = cap-sensitive.
Detonation Pressure
The pressure associated with a detonation moving through an explosive, measured in kilobars (kbar) or
pounds/in2 (psi), is defined as detonation pressure. Detonation pressure is a function of detonation velocity
and density, computed using computer models. Approximating formulas, like the one that follows, are
available:
P = 0.2322 x ῤ x V2 x 10-6,
where V = detonation velocity (ft/sec),

ῤ = specific gravity (g/cm3),
P = detonation pressure (kbars), and
1 kbar = 14,504 psi.
Detonation pressure is chiefly responsible for the intense rock shearing near a borehole; such pressure for
commercial explosives ranges from 25 to over 240 kbar (that is, from 0.36 x 106 to 3.48 x 106 psi).
Borehole Pressure
The pressure exerted on borehole walls by the expanding gases of a detonation, after the chemical reaction
has been completed, is defined as borehole pressure. Borehole pressure is a function of confinement and
the quantity and temperature of the gases of detonation; it is generally considered to play the dominant role
in displacing rock during blasting.
Borehole pressures of the gas products expanding in the borehole roughly equal 45 to 50 percent of the
detonation pressure.
Review Question
1. Compute the detonation pressure for a product with a detonation velocity

of 16,000 ft/s and a density of 1.2 g/cm3.
Answer
1. An approximation formula for detonation pressure tells us that:
P = 0.2322 x V2 x ῤ x 10-6
Calculating using the values in our question,
0.2322 x (16,000)2 x (1.2 g/cm3) x 10-6 = 71.33 kbars.
Converting to psi, 71.33 kbar x 14,504 psi/kbar = 1.03 x 106 psi.

Explosives and BA’s
black dynamites gelatin semi- binary ANFO

powder dynamite gelatins
straight blends
dynamite straight
gelatin water gels,
ammonia slurries
dynamite ammonia
gelatin emulsions
Nitroglycerine-Based Explosives
Nitroglycerin-Based HE’s
Nitroglycerin-based (NG-based) HE’s are classified according to grade or

weight strength in terms of the relative percentage of NG and other fuels they
contain. NG-based explosives are very sensitive.
The oldest of the HE’s to be classified as NG-based is dynamite, which was

developed by Alfred Nobel over 130 years ago. Over the years, NG has been
replaced with increasing quantities of AN.
Today, there are three basic types of dynamite: granular, gelatin, and semi-
gelatin. Densities among these types can range from 0.8 to 1.7 g/cm3,
detonation velocity from 6,500 to 25,000 ft/s, and detonation pressure from 9.7
to 190 kbar.
Weight strength (as a percentage of NG)
Straight1 dynamite 50
Extra2 (or ammonia) dynamite (AN replaces NG) 40-60
Straight gelatin 20-90

Extra (or ammonia) gelatin 40-60
Semi-gelatin, extra only (this is a combination of ammonium
Variable.3
dynamite and ammonium gelatin)
1
“Straight” in this context refers to the absence of ammonia formulation.
2
“Extra” means that AN is added to replace part or all of the NG.
3
The weight strength of semi-gelatins typically varies. Semi-gelatins cost less than gelatins, provide
moderately high detonation pressures, and demonstrate adequate water-resistance for most conditions.
black dynamites gelatin semi-gelatins binary ANFO

powder dynamite
straight blends
dynamite straight
gelatin water gels,
ammonia slurries
dynamite ammonia
gelatin emulsions
Classification of BA’s
BA’s are either dry (free-

running; shown to the left) or
wet (pourable; shown to the
right). Wet BA’s are formulated
with water to achieve a density
greater than 1.0.
Dry BA’s are not formulated with water.

Dry BA’s: ANFO
ANFO
Dry BA’s comprise blasting-grade prilled AN (as the oxidizer), of grain sizes between
1 to 2 millimeters in diameter and porosity between 8 to 12 percent, onto which is
absorbed diesel oil (FO, as a fuel).
Ammonium Nitrate + Fuel Oil = ANFO
To achieve oxygen balance, the ANFO

mixture should have:
• 94-percent AN and
• 6-percent FO.
Today, ANFO is the most widely used

1–2 mm
explosive in the blasting industry,
because it is relatively inexpensive and
safe to handle.
Dry BA’s: ANFO
Explosive-grade prills are made in a prill tower in

Prill tower ~ 200 feet tall which a hot, supersaturate AN liquid (4-percent
water)—along with other additives to achieve
spray nozzles porosity—is dropped from spray nozzles at a
height of 100 to 200 feet against an updraft of
warm air.
droplets of
supersaturated Droplets of the AN solution crystallize as they fall;
AN solution the longer the droplets are suspended, the larger
the prill diameters.
crystallized
The crystallized AN particles are then completely
AN
dried and coated with surfactants and clay to
minimize porosity and protect the surface from
updraft of absorbing water in preparation for fuel absorption.
warm air
Porosities range from 8 to 12 percent, whereas
solid-grain densities range from 1.3 to 1.5 g/cm3.
Particle sizes range from 0.83 to 2.3 mm in
diameter. By comparison to explosive-grade
prills, agricultural-grade prills are less porous (3-
to 5-percent porosity) and far more dense.
Dry BA’s: ANFO
Packaged in 50-pound bags or bulk-loaded from trucks, ANFO has

properties as follows:
• Bulk density = 0.82 - 0.95 g/cm3,

• Detonation velocity = 10,000 - 14,500 ft/sec, and
• Detonation pressure = 20 - 25 kbar.
Advantages of ANFO
The advantages of ANFO are:
• It is cheap;
• It is easy and safe to manufacture; and
• It may be handled in bulk to save costs.
Disadvantages of ANFO
The disadvantages of ANFO are:
• It is not water-resistant;
• Its density is low;
• It is non-ideal reacting; and
• It is not cap-sensitive and must be initiated with a primer.
Wet BA’s: Water Gels and Slurries
A water-gel or slurry explosive is a gelatinous aqueous solution that consists of an oxidizer, such as AN, and a fuel.
Typically, the fuel will contain additional dispersed solid oxidizers, fuels, and sensitizers such as aluminum or other
explosives. Wet-BA fuel may also contain micro-balloons (hollow bubbles of glass). The difference between a
slurry and water gel is that water gel is made water-resistant by the addition of a cross-linking or chemical-bonding
agent; a slurry, on the other hand, is water-resistant (formulated to be miscible in water) by nature.
Packaged in plastic tubes or bulk loaded from trucks, solid AN oxidizer

wet BA’s exhibit properties as follows:
1 - 2 mm solid fuel*
3
• Bulk density = 1.0 - 1.35 g/cm ,
• Detonation velocity = 13,000 - 19,000
ft/sec, and
gel ring
Advantages of Water Gels
Water gels exceed slurry explosives in that (1) they

are an excellent product for wet holes and (2) the
density of a water gel can be controlled.
Disadvantages of Water Gels
Water gels are less effective than slurry explosives Liquid phase of oxidizer,
(1) at low ambient temperatures and (2) if the water, fuels (air bubbles)
supersaturated solution of AN crystallizes, causing an
imbalance of oxidizers and fuels in their two phases
(that is, in their solid and liquid forms). *An example of a cap-sensitive solid fuel is TNT; an
example of non-cap-sensitive solid fuel is aluminum.
Wet BA’s: Emulsions
Emulsions
Emulsions are “water-in-oil” mixes that were developed in the early 1960’s to improve the
performance of water gels. They amount to hot solutions of oxidizer salts (consisting of
ammonium, AN, calcium, CN or sodium, SN, and nitrates) mixed with oil and an emulsifying
agent. The oil phase usually consists of diesel fuel and/or mineral oil that include micro-
balloons as sensitizers.
The oxidizer solution is broken up into small, micron-

sized droplets, which form a discontinuous phase
within the continuous oil phase.
5μ
The small size of the liquid-nitrated salt particles
provides a large surface areas-to-volume ratio that
amounts to more fuel being placed in intimate contact
with the oxidizer. This, in turn, allows for a very fast
detonation rate and a powerful explosive.
=
Packaged in plastic tube or bulk-loaded from trucks,
emulsions exhibit properties as follows: liquid oxidizer (AN)
surrounded by liquid fuels
and sensitizers
• Detonation velocity = 14,500 - 18,500
ft/sec, and
Emulsions
Advantages of Emulsions
• Owing to their very small particle

size, emulsion ingredients can achieve
a very uniform mix.
• Emulsions are extremely water-

resistant.
Disadvantages of Emulsions
• Over time (with long shelf life), salt

crystals may grow and/or oil migrate in
an emulsion, allowing the AN liquid-
phase droplets to join and create larger
droplet sizes whose bulk surface areas
are smaller. Under such a scenario,
less oxidizer would be in contact with
the fuel and the sensitivity of the
emulsion would decrease.
• Emulsions are expensive.

ANFO/Emulsion Blends
Blends (or heavy ANFO’s) are mixtures of emulsions and ANFO
that are typically non-cap-sensitive. As a rule, the ratio of emulsion
(or other water-based explosive or oxidizer matrix) to ANFO in such
blends ranges as follows:
Percentage
Emulsion ANFO -
20 80
Water-
40 60
resistance
50 50
60 40
80 20
+
Packaged in plastic tube or bulk-loaded from trucks, ANFO/emulsion blends exhibit properties as follows:
• Detonation velocity = 16,700 - 17,500 ft/sec, and
Advantages of Blends
Blends increase the density of ANFO, which increases the energy in the borehole; they also provide
water-resistance to ANFO.
Disadvantages of Blends
Over time, fuels may migrate and salt crystals may grow increasingly insensitive.
black dynamites gelatin semi-gelatins binary

ANFO
powder dynamite
straight
blends
dynamite straight
gelatin
ammonia water gels,
dynamite ammonia slurries
gelatin
emulsions
Binary Explosives
Binary, or two-component, explosives are formed by mixing or combining two commercially

manufactured prepackaged chemical ingredients that consist of oxidizers and flammable
liquid or solid fuel. Individually, neither component is classified as an explosive; however,
when mixed together, the two components constitute a cap-sensitive HE.
The unmixed ingredients for binary explosives are not subject to transportation
requirements applicable to Class-1 hazardous materials, and they do not need to be stored
in an approved, licensed (or
permitted) explosive-storage
magazine. Binary explosives
are popular with blasters who
only occasionally need to use
explosives and who do not
have available magazine
storage.
A typical binary explosive is
considered to be equivalent in
strength to a 60-percent
dynamite containing no NG.
Binary explosive are normally
packaged in rigid plastic
cartridges and plastic-coated
aluminum foil pouches.
Boosters and Primers
Boosters and primers are used to initiate non-

cap-sensitive BA’s that are not HE’s.
However, it is critical to remember that these
agents are themselves HE’s: boosters and
primers can be initiated by a No. 8 blasting
cap, as well as with detonating cord and
other initiating devices.
Cast pentolite boosters, shown above,

contain a mixture of pentaerythritol
tetranitrate (PETN) and TNT. The typical
formulation contains 50-percent PETN
and 50-percent TNT, but some
manufacturers’ brands may contain as
high as 60-percent PETN.
Primers shown to the right are blasting-
gelatin HE’s.
What is the difference
between a booster and a
primer?
A primer is a booster (cast or

packaged HE) in which a
detonator has been inserted.
A booster, on the other hand,

does not contain a detonator;
rather, as its name suggests,
it “boosts” the explosive
energy in a column.
Boosters are generally cap-
sensitive HE’s that are
initiated by adjacent primers
or detonating BA’s.
Primers contain a A booster has no
blasting cap or cord. cap or cord.
Boosters may be used (1) in
blastholes that are wet at the
bottom, (2) when excess toe NOTE THAT THESE DIAGRAMS do not necessarily show
burden exists, or (3) within a correct methods to secure caps or cord; the diagrams are
hard geological strata. for definition purposes only!
Non-cap-sensitive
explosive
Booster
Blasting cap
Cap-sensitive primer
The Safe Handling of Boosters
Boosters are HE’s, and, as such, they need to be handled with care:
• ALWAYS read and follow the warnings and instructions of

explosives’ manufacturers and suppliers.
• ALWAYS retire to a safe place and WARN OTHERS before
initiation of explosives.
• ALWAYS rotate stocks. Use the oldest units in your inventory
first. Age affects the integrity of detonators and other explosives
devices.
• ALWAYS transport, store, and use cast boosters and all other
explosives in accordance with all Federal, State, and local laws.
• ALWAYS dispose of or destroy cast boosters and all other

explosives in accordance with approved methods. Consult the
manufacturer or follow the IME statement of policy publications.
• ALWAYS evacuate personnel to a safe location away from possible

detonation or explosion, in the event of a lighting storm during surface
use of these products.
• ALWAYS keep explosive materials away from unauthorized persons.
• ALWAYS look for misfires and handle suspected misfires as you are
directed by applicable local, State, and Federal laws and under the
standards provided by the IME.
The Safe Handling of Boosters—continued
• ALWAYS ensure that the detonator or detonating cord is properly inserted into the booster and secured in
such a manner to prevent it from falling out as the primer is being loaded into the blasthole.
• ALWAYS use the proper core-

loading detonating cord to
ensure reliable initiation of the • NEVER use a cast primer or
booster selected. Consult the booster if the hole for the
manufacturer for proper detonator or detonating cord is
product selection. too small.
• NEVER enlarge a hole in a cast

primer or booster to accept a
detonator or detonating cord.
• NEVER prepare more primers

than are immediately needed.
• NEVER prepare primers in a

magazine or near large
quantities of explosives.
• NEVER slit, drop, twist, or tamp

a primer.
• NEVER force or attempt to force a detonator into a cast booster.
• NEVER use detonating cord for priming with any booster marked “USE DETONATOR
ONLY.” Misfires could result.
Review Questions and Discussion
1. Cap-sensitive explosives are classified as:
a. Wet blasting agents
b. High explosives
c. Low explosives
d. Ammonium nitrate
2. Reddish-orange smoke after a blast signifies the presence of:

a. Carbon monoxide
b. Water vapor
c. A good blast
d. Oxides of nitrogen
3. What is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and diesel fuel oil called?
4. Ammonium nitrate is:

a. An oxidizer
b. A sensitizer
c. A fuel
d. Poisonous gas
5. True or false: the detonation energy of ANFO will not be lowered when it is loaded into wet
blastholes.
Review Questions and Discussion—continued
6. The optimum mixture of ANFO contains what percentage of “AN” and what percentage
of “FO”?
7. If you encounter blastholes that are wet, which product(s) should you use (list all that
apply)?
a. Blast powder
b. 20-percent emulsion/80-percent ANFO blend
c. 100-percent ANFO
d. Emulsion
8. The detonation velocity of ANFO in large-diameter holes is:

a. 5,000 ft/s
b. 500 ft/s
c. 14,500 ft/s
d. 21,000 ft/s
9. The causes of reddish orange smoke include (list all that apply):
a. Wet holes
b. Lack of confinement
c. Insufficient amount of fuel
d. A shock compression of explosives that changes their densities
Answers
1. b. is correct.
2. d. is correct.
3. ANFO
4. a. is correct.
5. False.
6. 94-percent AN and 6-percent FO.
7. d. is correct.
8. c. is correct.
9. All apply.
Initiation Systems

regulating programs are based. In particular, the module was requested and will be
used by the Sheridan District Office, Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality,
Land Quality Division.
provides MUST BE SUPPLEMENTED by information given by a certified blasting
instructor.
DISCLAIMER
The technologies described in the module are for information purposes only.
The mention herein, of the technologies, companies, or any brand names, does
not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Department of the Interior’s Office of
Surface Mining.
Initiation Systems
This module presents information pertaining to initiation

systems currently used in blasting operations at surface
coal mines.
Initiation Systems
The discussions of various initiation

systems that follow concentrate primarily
on common practice and safety.
Good results at any blasting operation

can be achieved only when the initiating
devices used to detonate explosive
charges are of the highest possible
quality, carefully chosen, and properly
used to meet the task at hand.
Unfortunately, initiating devices cannot

differentiate between energy supplied
purposely and energy supplied
accidentally.
For this reason, users of such devices

have the responsibility to maintain strict
control of them over the course of their
storage, transportation, and use.
Introduction
Initiation devices have evolved into a variety of systems offering more flexibility and increased
safety over their earlier counterparts.
The use of non-electric systems eliminates the danger of premature detonation owing to radio-
frequency energy or stray electricity in areas where stray current is a concern.
Modern, high-
energy blasting
machines are
designed to
provide a surplus
of firing energy
and reduce the
possibility of
misfires.
Introduction
In order to choose the right initiation system for a blasting operation, certain considerations,
ensuring safe and effective blasts, must be taken into account.
The discussion of initiation systems that follows concentrates on common practice and the
various “tricks of the trade” that are associated with each individual system. It is highly
recommended that you confer with the manufacturer before finalizing your initiation program,
so that you have a full understanding of the individual system at your operation.
Introduction
As a general rule, before you choose an initiation system, you should familiarize
yourself with numerous site-specific factors at your operation. Consider the following
topics and use them with manufacturer recommendations to evaluate:
• Geology (rock properties and structure);

• Geometry (typical pattern dimensions);
• Vibration (recommended criteria, including regulations), in particular,
▪ Peak particle velocity and
▪ Frequency;
• Airblast (recommended criteria, including regulations);
• Fragmentation (with respect to blasting goals);
• Explosive performance (know your explosive!); and
• Borehole conditions (water, voids, weak walls, etc.).
Introduction
An initiation system provides the initial energy required to detonate an explosive used for rock
blasting. Initiation systems require:
• An initial energy source,

• A distribution network to deliver the energy to each blasthole, and
• An in-hole component to initiate a detonator-sensitive explosive.
The systems are broadly classified as either

electric or non-electric and may contain various
combinations of cord and initiators either as
separate components or integrated.
Introduction: Initiators
Initiator is a term used in the explosive industry to describe any device that may be used to
start a detonation or a deflagration. There are four general classifications of initiators
currently being used in surface coal-mine blasting:
• Non-electric systems,
• Electric systems,
• Electronic systems, and
• Blasting-cap and safety-fuse systems.
Introduction: Detonators
Detonators are devices used to initiate high explosives.
A detonator is a complete explosive initiation device that includes the active part of the
assembly (usually enclosed in a metal shell) and the attached initiation signal transmitter
(for example, leg wires, a shock tube, or other signal-transmitting material).
Detonators are either instantaneous (no time-delay element), millisecond (ms) delay,
or long-period delay. Ms delays are commonly used for surface-mine blasting and are
manufactured with delay times up to 500 ms. Long-period delays are available for
periods up to several seconds.
Introduction: Types of Delays
Fuse Shock-tube Electric Shock-tube Wired

Shock
tube
Safety
Anti-static
fuse
Anti-static cup
(delay)
cup
Igniter Delay
(bridge) module
Delay Capacitor
element(s)
Igniter
Primer Primer
Primer
charge charge
charge
Base Base
charge Base
charge
charge
Pyrotechnic delay Electronic delay

Introduction: Shock-Tube Systems
Choose a shock-tube initiation system for

operations with:
• Stray current hazards,

• Static-electricity hazards (including
wind, low humidity, plastic liners,
etc.),
• Small-diameter holes (resulting in
explosive densensitization,
• Sequential precision desired,
• Timing flexibility, and/or
• A need to reduce inventory.
Avoid using a shock-tube initiation system
for operations with extreme loading
conditions. Also, a mechanical or electrical
check is a MUST for matting shots and
burying shots undertaken using shock-tube
initiation.
Introduction: Shock-Tube Systems
Assuming you decide to initiate your blast using a shock-tube system, you should take into
account several considerations:
• Loading conditions: • Level of accuracy:
• Cord or shock tube downline • Lot-to-lot
• Borehole size
• Type of shock tube • Dual-delay v. down-hole and surface
systems:
• Sleep times of shock tube • Pattern
• Flexibility
• Explosive’s sensitivity: • Safety
• Cord/shock tube
• Dead-pressing potential
• Level of reliability:
• Redundancy on surface
• Redundancy in the hole
• Level of precision:
• Common in-hole delay v.
variable in-hole delay
• Twin-path
Introduction: Detonating Cord
Choose detonating cord for operations with:

• Extreme loading conditions
• Multiple priming requirements
Avoid using detonating cord in

small-diameter boreholes, where
explosive damage or disruption
might result. Also, a detonating
cord used with an explosive that is
too sensitive may trigger a
premature initiation. Detonating
cord can desensitize an explosive.
And, finally, because uncovered
detonating cord on the surface is
very loud when fired, it may not be
appropriate for use in a noise-
sensitive environment.
Introduction: Electrical Blasting Systems
You might choose an electrical blasting
system if you are undertaking matting
shots or if your operation requires circuit
testing. However, these situations are
unlikely, and, currently, because of their
susceptibility to extraneous electrical
hazards, electrical blasting systems are
not recommended or acceptable for use in
Western coal-mine States. Specifically,
electrical circuits are vulnerable to stray
current potential, static hazards, and
radio-frequency hazards.
Instead, detonating cord, shock-tube

systems, or electronic systems are the
preferred safe means for initiating blasts
at surface coal mines in the West.
Electric detonators are used frequently in

surface coal mines to initiate detonating-
cord trunk lines. Accordingly, their safe
use will be discussed in this module.
Introduction: Electronic Systems
Choosing an electronic blast-initiation system is a large step for any surface coal mine. With
the possibilities of increased productivity improvements, increased security, design flexibility,
and system control also comes an increased level of product complexity. Each electronic
system requires a unique understanding of its standard-operation and hook-up procedures.
The advantages of an electronic blast-initiation system include its:
• Precision and accuracy,

• Blast-management capability, and
• Increased security.
The disadvantages of an electronic blast-

initiation system are that:
• It requires increased training,

• It is more complex, and
• It is more expensive.
Non-Electric Systems
Typical non-electric systems used today consist of detonating cord, shock-tube
detonators, or a combination of the two. These systems are extremely popular in
Western coal mines and are sold by all the major explosive manufacturers in the
United States.
Non-electric initiation systems have safety advantages, principal among them an

immunity to stray electrical currents and radio frequencies. However, these
systems are susceptible to accidental initiation by a lightning strike. Non-electric
detonators contain sensitive ignition charges and base charges and can be
accidentally detonated by heat or impact.
Non-electric systems require an orderly hookup, and careful visual inspection is

necessary to verify the continuity of the system.
Non-Electric Systems
The Institute of Makers of Explosives’ (IME’s) recommendations with respect to non-electric
detonation systems are:
• ALWAYS use a detonating cord matched to the blasting methods and type of
explosive materials being used;
• NEVER make loops, kinks, or sharp angles in the cord, all of which might direct the
cord back toward the oncoming line of detonation;
• ALWAYS handle detonating cord as carefully as other explosive materials;
• NEVER damage detonating cord prior to firing;
• ALWAYS cut the detonating cord from the spool before loading the rest of the
explosive material;
• NEVER attach detonators for initiating a blast to detonating cord until the blast area
has been cleared and secured for the blast;
• ALWAYS make tight connections, following manufacturer's directions;
• NEVER use damaged detonating cord;
• ALWAYS attach detonators to detonating cord with tape or by means of a method
recommended by the manufacturer;
• ALWAYS point detonators toward the direction of detonation;
• ALWAYS attach detonators at least 6 inches from the cut end of the detonating
cord; and
• ALWAYS use a suitable booster to initiate wet detonating cord.
Detonating Cord
Detonating cord is round, flexible cord containing a core of pentaerythritol tetranitrate
(PETN) high explosive. The exterior sheathing is waterproof material surrounded by a
reinforcing textile/plastic wrapper.
The purpose of detonating
cord is to:
• Detonate other high

explosives with which it
comes in contact and
• Transmit a detonation
wave from one detonating
cord to another or to a non-
electric detonator.
Detonating Cord
Detonating cord is available for a wide range of core loads, and many variables must be
considered when determining the proper core-load detonating cord to use. These
variables include:
• The detonation
velocity of detonating
cord is 22,000 feet per
second;
• Core loads are
typically 2 to 400 grains
per foot; and
• There are 7,000
grains in 1 pound of
PETN.
Detonating Cord
A general rule when selecting detonating cord is to use the lowest cord load possible
consistent with conditions at hand.
Low cord loads will carry the same signal with much less air blast and disruption of the
explosive column. If the detonating cord is in contact with ANFO or ammonium nitrate-
based products, a lower core load will have less disruptive effects on the explosive
column and will result in greater blast efficiency.
When determining the core load to use at

your blasting operation, consider:
• What will initiate the cord?;
• What will the cord initiate?;
• The weather;
• The explosives used for the

main blasting charge;
• The use of detonator-sensitive

or nitroglycerin-based
explosives; and
• The diameter of the hole.

Detonating Cord
Detonating cord can be used as downlines or trunklines. As downline,
detonating cord is used to initiate cord-sensitive boosters or ms-delay detonators.
When selecting
downline detonating
Block connector
cord, check with the
manufacturer of your
booster to determine
To next hole
the minimum
recommended core- From previous hole
load detonating cord for Clip connector
reliable detonation. In
addition, check with
the manufacturer to Detonating cord
determine the correct downline
Downhole
detonating cord for
your borehole
conditions.
Short length in hole detonator
Detonating Cord
Initiating Detonating Cord
Even though modern detonators are very dependable, it is a good idea to use two
detonators at the point of initiation, especially when delay detonators are used for
surface initiation of multiple hole shots.
For maximum reliability, detonators should be attached to a short length of detonating

cord or pigtail, which in turn is tied into the system with a recommended knot just before
the blast. Most detonating cord is designed to be initiated with an electric detonator, a
non-electric detonator, or two cap-and-fuse assemblies.
Advantages of Using Detonating Cord
Detonating cord is easy to use, rugged, and insensitive; it is not susceptible to electric
hazards; and it is reasonably accurate.
Disadvantages of Using Detonating Cord
Detonating-cord misfires and cut-offs can occur from flyrock or sub-surface rock
shifting; downward initiation through the charge column can both cause low-order
deflagration and render the charge more dense, even to the point of “dead press;” and
detonating cord can disrupt stemming material.
1. Identify the advantage(s) of initiating a blast using a totally non-electric shock-tube
system.
a. Such a system will not disturb the explosive column
b. Such a system is insensitive to lightning
c. Such a system is insensitive to static electricity
d. All of the above
2. The numbers identifying various sizes of detonating cord refer to the number of
grains of __ that are contained within a single linear __ of cord.
a. Cord; inch
b. Explosive; foot
c. Explosive; pound
d. Black powder; foot
3. True or false: detonating-cord downlines can decrease the efficiency of the blasting
agent the detonating cord is intended to set off?
Answers
1. d. correct.
2. b. is correct.
3. True. A detonating-cord downline does tend to

decrease the efficiency of the blasting agent the
detonating cord is intended to set off. This is
because, when detonating cord shoots, it can
burn and deadpress part of the explosive around
it, thereby destroying part of the explosive
column.
Detonating Cord
When attaching the detonator, be sure that its loaded tip is pointed in the direction
you want the detonating cord to detonate (initiation can only be ensured in the
direction the detonator is pointing). If you are using an electric detonator, wrap the
cord and detonator securely together with electrician’s tape at the desired point of
initiation, at least 8 inches from the cut end of the cord.
If you are using a non-electric lead-in line, place the detonating cord pigtail in the
bunch block parallel to the detonator, wrap the detonating cord around the bottom
of the bunch block, back in the bunch block parallel to the detonator, and snap the
lid firmly closed.
To use a cap-and-fuse assembly, place the detonators of the two assemblies side
by side and attach them securely to the detonating cord. Tie a pigtail assembly to
the detonating cord downline at the intended point of initiation using one of the
recommended knot connections.
A recommended practice is to end-prime a wet detonating cord. Detonating cords

are much less sensitive when they are wet. A straight length of cord will continue to
detonate reliably, wet or dry. Side priming is not reliable for wet cord.
The only recommended methods of wet-end initiation are end priming with a No. 8
strength (or higher) detonator or using a high-velocity booster such as a cast
booster or an 80-percent gelatin dynamite.
Detonating Cord
One downline is usually adequate for small-, medium-, or large-diameter holes. However, two
downlines are recommended in deep, large-diameter blastholes loaded with multiple boosters
that are separated by blasting agents or other non-detonator-sensitive explosives. In addition,
two downlines are recommended when blastholes are decked. To help prevent cut-offs when
using multiple downlines, keep them separated in the borehole and free of slack.
Detonating cord should be spliced together with a conventional square knot.
DO NOT SPLICE DOWNLINES.

Splices are never recommended in
the downlines inside a borehole,
because failures can result from:
• The damaging of the splice

during loading or stemming
operations,
• Penetration of water through
the exposed cord ends, or
• Cracks in the cord’s
covering around the knot.
Detonating Cord
As a trunkline, detonating cord is used to initiate surface-delay units such as ms-
delay connector detonators, trunkline delays, and downlines.
When selecting trunkline detonating

cord:
• Check with the

manufacturer to determine
what core load detonating
cord will initiate surface
connections and
recommended knots and
• Determine the correct

trunkline detonating cord
to use with your surface
delays for a delayed
pattern.
The manufacturer will recommend a

core load and proper hook-up
methods.
Detonating Cord
Knots, Connections, and Layouts
Detonating cord is easy to connect for a blast. Most detonating cords will transmit a detonation
reaction between sections spliced or joined together securely and tightly with the proper knots.
Proper knots will reliably initiate most cords used in surface-mining applications. (The exception
here would be that some light-grain cords may not initiate reliably through knots or splices.
Consult the manufacturer of your detonating cord when splicing or connecting unusually large- or
small-grain detonating cord.)
When connecting detonating cord sections together:
• Make sure the cut ends are free of water, oil, or other contaminants. Place all
connections or detonators at least 12 inches (0.3 meters) from the exposed (cut) end to
be sure of positive initiation. This includes all knots, ms-connector blocks, and
short-lead detonators.
• Make sure all the connections are at right angles. Avoid sharp angles, which can
cause the cord to cut itself off. Angle cut-off failures are caused when detonating cord
branchlines or downlines slant back at an acute angle toward the main detonating cord
trunkline. Explosive energy or fragments can sever a branchline or downline before the
detonation wave reaches it through the knotted connection.
• Do not kink, bend, scrape, or leave slack in the detonating-cord trunklines or

borehole downlines or uplines. The extra line extending out of the hole allows for
slumping and is not confined as slack.
Detonating Cord
Knots, Connections, and Layouts—continued
• Make all detonating cord knots tight and in contact so they cannot work
loose. Loose knots may fail to transmit the detonation wave. Avoid having knots in
any downline cord.
• Make sure every borehole has (1) two paths by which the detonation can
reach it and (2) cross-ties between the trunklines at regular intervals frequent
enough to provide positive detonation of the trunkline. Cross-ties should be
placed more frequently when the spacing and burden are small. Cross-ties are
recommended insurance against trunkline cut-offs from ground movement or flying
debris from holes that fire earlier in the shot’s sequence.
• Always cut off the excess cord or “tails” after tying in to prevent the initiation
signal from crossing over the trunkline and cutting it off.
• Always keep the shot pattern as clear as possible of debris, boxes, box liners,
explosives, etc., so that the trunkline layout is readily visible, distinctive, and
neat.
• When several detonating cord downlines, uplines, or trunklines are used,

make sure they do not cross over each other.
Detonating Cord
Knots, Connections, and Layouts—continued
• In locations that are close to residential or commercial sites, the noise from
detonating cord trunkline may cause complaints. This can be solved in a
number of ways, including:
• Eliminating the trunkline and initiate each downline at the surface with an
electric or non-electric detonator,
• Initiating a detonating cord upline from the bottom of a hole with an electric
or non-electric detonator, or
• Covering the trunkline with at least 12 inches of fine drill cuttings or dirt.
Detonating Cord
Right-Angle Connections
Connections between (1) downlines or uplines and a detonating cord trunkline, (2) cross-ties
between trunklines, or (3) other right-angle hookups should be made with a double-wrap half-
hitch (sometimes called a double-wrap clove-hitch).
The most satisfactory connection between a stiff detonating-cord downline and a flexible
trunkline is made by clove-hitching the trunkline around the downline or using a plastic
detonating-cord connector.
If there is no slumping or subsidence of the charge, the single-wrap clove-hitch is sufficient;
however, single-wrap clove-hitches can be pulled out by slumping charges. This is prevented by
clove-hitching the trunkline over a loop in the downline (instead of the single cord) and tucking
the loose end through the loop at the top.
Detonating Cord
Instantaneous and Surface-Delay Systems
Instantaneous firing may still be done where vibration

or airblast problems are not a concern. However,
most blasts using detonating cord are delayed either
on the surface or in the borehole by means of ms-
delay techniques.
Surface-delay initiation, used without in-hole delays,

is more vulnerable to failures or partial failures from
ground movement than is surface-delay initiation
used with instantaneous methods or in-hole delays.
The most common ways of surface-delaying a blast

with detonating cord are:
• Using ms-delay connectors in the

detonating-cord trunkline,
• Using ms-delay electric or non-electric

detonators attached to the cord downline,
and
• Using surface shock-tube delay detonators.

Detonating Cord
Instantaneous and Surface-Delay Systems: Ms-Connectors
Ms-connectors allow an easy method of firing detonating-cord blasts by short-interval delays on the
surface. These connectors come in a variety of delay intervals and are tied into a trunkline between
the boreholes or between groups of boreholes to sequence the blast.
The rule of thumb is to allow 1 foot (0.3 meters) between holes for each ms of delay and
always to locate ms-connectors either midway between holes or closer to the hole being
delayed.
Although both the delay element and a high-explosive base

charge are enclosed within a plastic block in an ms-connector,
the connector should be protected from abusive shock, heat,
impact, or friction (ms-connectors have an impact sensitivity
equivalent to that of regular delay detonators). Be sure to clear
unnecessary personnel and equipment from the shot area
before ms-connectors are tied in.
Non-electric shock-tube detonators can be used in surface

operations to reduce noise levels where the use of electric
detonators is not an option. The J hook on the shock tube is
connected to the first detonating cord in the sequence. The shock tube transfers the detonation
between the boreholes to the delay detonator at the other end of the tube, which is connected to
the next detonating cord downline.
Detonating Cord
Firing Surface-Delay Systems
Trunklines should be initiated with electric or non-

electric detonators to maintain optimum control of
the instant of firing. Use two detonators if the cord
is wet.
The detonators are attached side by side along the

detonating cord with the exploding ends pointing in
the direction that the detonating cord will fire.
Securely fasten the detonators with tape to ensure
direct contact with the detonating cord. Care
should be taken to prevent the end of the
detonating cord from becoming wet where the
detonators will be attached. A booster must be
used if the core is wet and cannot be cut back to a
dry core.
A recommended precaution is to first attach the

Click on the image above to play
detonators to a length of detonating cord about 18
inches long; such a cord is sometimes called a a clip showing detonation
“pigtail.” The pigtail can be placed several feet initiated by a coal-shot cord.
away from the main detonating cord until after
unnecessary personnel have been cleared from the
blast area and just before the scheduled blast time.
For hookup, the pigtail can be tied onto the main
trunkline by means of a square knot.
1. Which, if any, of the cord sizes in this list will consistently initiate primers?
a. 4.5-grain
b. 7.5-grain
c. 40-grain
d. 50-grain
e. None of the above
f. All of the above
2. True or false: detonating cord on the surface of the ground can produce significant
air blast?
3. What type of knot should be used to connect a detonating-cord downline to a

detonating-cord trunkline?
a. Half-hitch or clove-hitch
b. Square knot
c. Overhand knot
d. Fisherman’s knot
Answers
1. c. and d. are correct.
2. True.
3. a. is correct.
Shock-Tube Systems
Shock-tube systems use a small detonation in an almost empty plastic tube to transmit the
initiation signal at approximately 6,500 to 7,000 feet/second (1,980 to 2,130 meters/second)
throughout the blast pattern.
The plastic shock tube is composed of one or more layers of plastic, which are designed to
enhance the tensile strength and abrasive resistance of the tubing. The inside of the shock
tube is made of Surlyn™, which binds the thin interior coating of explosive dust (HMX and
aluminum) to itself. A shock-tube system is highly insensitive to initiation by heat or impact
and requires an intense, high-impulse shock to initiate the reaction.
Hand-held mechanical devices that use a shot-shell primer activated by a firing pin are
frequently used, as well as devices that use a piezoelectric crystal to generate energy.
Shock-Tube Systems
Safety Considerations
The tubing in a shock-tube system remains intact after

activation, unlike detonating cord, which is consumed in
detonation. Shock-tubing may rupture during its initiation, and
it is never advisable to hold the tubing in the hand during the
initiation process.
Owing to the wide variety of shock-tube systems available, it is

essential that the blaster (1) be knowledgeable about the
system he or she is using and (2) follow the manufacturer’s
recommendations. Components from different types of
systems should never be mixed in a single blast, unless
specifically approved by the manufacturers.
Care must be exercised during the hook-up procedures.

Omitting a charge or failing to make a connection will result in
a misfire. Many surface-delay components produce a metal
and plastic shrapnel when detonated. Most systems
recommend covering the connections with dirt or drill cuttings
to confine the shrapnel.
Vehicles such as bulk trucks must not drive over the tubing,
connectors, or any surface components. No tools should be
used to pry on any component containing a detonator, nor
should any tool be used to open, close, fasten, or clean out
any connector containing a detonator or detonating device.
Shock-Tube Systems
Many shock-tube system configurations are available from most explosive manufacturers. Ms
trunkline delay assemblies are used for surface blasting. Many varieties of shock-tube delay
detonators are available with a delay unit attached to one end of the tubing. Such a
configuration can be used to generate individual-hole delays in a modified-series hookup.
Detonator timing includes the burn time of the shock tube.
Hole-to-hole and row-to-row timing can be introduced by using a combination of surface and in-
hole units or a combination of dual-delay detonators with both an in-hole delay and a surface
delay on the same unit.
Shock-Tube Systems
Shock-Tube Lead-in Line Detonators
A shock-tube lead-in line detonator allows for initiation of non-electric patterns from a safe
distance. Factory assembled, spooled units with a detonator typically come in lengths of 75 to
1,000 feet (25 to 300 meters) or longer.
Ms and Long-Period Shock-Tube Detonators
Ms and long-period shock-tube detonators are used as in-hole detonating units or as delay units
between holes in a row or rows in a blast. NEVER cut factory-assembled shock-tube detonators
to attempt a splice or a surface connection.
Shock-Tube Systems
Shock-Tube Downlines with Shock-Tube Trunkline Delay Units
Shock-tube downlines can be used with surface trunkline delay units. Shock-tube surface-delay
trunkline units use a plastic connector attached to a non-electric detonator with ms-delay timing.
To make the connection, crimp the detonator to a factory-assembled shock-tube of a certain length
and charge all boreholes with the desired delay. To connect the boreholes, place the shock-tube
downline and the shock-tube trunkline to the next hole in the plastic connector block or bunch
block on the surface trunkline delay unit.
Close the hinged flap on the surface delay block, making sure that the tubes extend straight from
the plastic block for at least 6 inches before they turn in any direction. Cover the connections with
dirt or stemming material to reduce the possibility of shrapnel cut-offs.
Shock-Tube Systems
Shock-Tube In-Hole Delays with Detonating-Cord
Trunklines
Under this application, the boreholes are charged with

the desired delays for the application and the main
explosive charge is introduced. Then, the detonating-
cord trunkline and the surface connectors are placed as
needed for the blast. The detonating cord snaps onto
the shock-tube in-hole unit via a J-connector. This
connection replaces the knot a detonating-cord downline
would have employed. The shock-tube must remain
perpendicular to the detonating-cord trunkline.
Shock-Tube In-hole Delays with Detonating-Cord

Downlines
Short-lead units are the most common type of in-hole

delay used with detonating-cord downline. Typical short-
lead units have 30 inches (76 centimeters) or more of
shock-tube crimped to a delay detonator. The other end
of the tube is looped to facilitate tying it to the detonating-
cord downline.
Short-lead units ensure bottom-hole initiation and have

the added advantage of downhole delays. They may
also be used to make sliding primers for double priming
and/or decking applications. In this instance, the shock-
tube is in contact with the detonating cord in the slider
well of the cast-booster.
Shock-Tube Systems
Detonating-Cord Downlines with Shock-Tube
Trunklines
When detonating-cord downlines are used with

short-lead units, it is sometimes necessary to
initiate detonating cord on the surface with
shock-tube trunkline delays. Shock-tube is
noiseless and allows for the design of many easy
surface-delay patterns.
One end of a trunkline delay has a J-connector;

J-connectors allow fast and easy connection to a
detonating cord. The other end contains the
bunch-block connection into which the
detonating-cord downline is inserted. The end of
the detonating cord should be knotted so the
cord does not pull away from the bunch block.
The trunkline unit going to the next borehole or row is connected to the downline via the J-connector
(make sure that adequate distance is maintained between the J-connector and the outgoing trunkline
delay unit).
The detonating cord should extend straight from the bunch block. Trunkline delays should be covered
with drill cuttings to prevent shrapnel cut-offs.
Shock-tube and detonating cord should never be placed in the same bunch block. The different
propagation velocities of shock-tube and detonating cord will cause the shock-tube to cut off.
Shock-Tube Systems
Dual-Delay Detonators
The newest type of shock-tube detonator is

rapidly replacing other shock-tube systems
in many surface applications, especially
where detonating cord is not used. Dual-
delay detonators combine non-electric in-
hole and surface initiation in one product.
The in-hole detonator is a standard ms- or
long-period-delay detonator, and the
surface end contains a low-strength ms-
delay initiator. The surface delay is housed
in a plastic block clip that can be clipped to
the shock-tube of the next hole in the blast
pattern. All holes are loaded with the same
in-hole delay detonators, and the surface
units will also have the same delay. The
desired timing is acquired by tying the
holes together in the sequence that is
needed for detonation. Rows can be tied
together using a trunkline delay with bunch
blocks or surface connectors.
1. True or false: connections between blastholes using surface-delay detonators should
not be made until immediately prior to clearing the blastsite?
2. The detonation velocity of a Nonel™ flash tube (which is a brand-name shock tube) is:
a. 18,000 feet/second
b. 1,800 feet/second
c. 6,500 feet/second
d. 65,000 feet/second
3. A shock-tube and a detonating-cord initiation system should NEVER be tied in

together using this type of surface connection:
a. Square knot
b. J-hook
c. Bunch block
d. All of the above
4. True or false: a Nonel™ delay connector, which itself incorporates a detonator, must
be stored with other detonators?
Answers
1. False. The blastsite should be cleared before initiating any
tie-in of the pattern.
2. c. is correct.
3. a. is correct.
4. True.
Electric Systems
Typical electric systems used today consist of electric
detonators connected in series, in parallel, or in a
combination of the two.
leg wires
The use of initiation systems that employ all-electric
detonators is becoming very rare in surface coal
rubber plug
mines and will not be covered in depth in this module.
bridge wire
This drop-off is use is largely owing to the
ignition charge
vulnerability electric detonators have to stray current
and radio frequencies.
delay element
The selection of the type of circuit to use with an
electric-detonation system will depend upon the
number of detonators to be fired and the type of
operation. A simple series circuit is used on small
primary charge
blasts, consisting of less than 50 electric detonators.
A series-in-parallel circuit is used when a large
number of detonators is involved. base charge
In almost every application, capacitor-discharge

blasting machines offer the safest, most dependable,
and most economical source of electrical energy for
blasting.
Electric Systems
Four Principals
Successful electrical blasting depends upon four general principles:
• Proper selection and layout of the blasting circuit,

• Adequate energy source compatible with the type of
blasting circuit selected,
• Recognition and elimination of all electrical hazards,
and
• Circuit balancing, good electrical connections, and
careful circuit testing.
Step-by-Step Field Procedures
The step-by-step procedures for checking a blasting circuit in

the field are:
• Determine the type of blast, the number of detonators to be fired, the type of leg
wires, the type of detonators, the length and gauge of the leading wire, and the
connecting wires (if they are used);
• Calculate the equivalent number of 2.0-ohm copper-wire detonators that will be
used in the blast, and determine the number of (1) balanced series and (2)
detonators per series;
• Make certain the connecting wire in an individual series does not cause an
imbalance in resistance that exceeds 10 percent;
• Calculate the resistance of the lead line and compare it to the acceptable limits;
and
• Check the circuit with a blaster’s multimeter to determine the resistance.
Electric Systems
The blasting circuit in an electric-blasting system consists of electric detonators that are wired by
connecting wires to the lead or firing line, which in turn is connected to the blasting machine.
Some of the components of an electric-blasting system are:
• An electric detonator, which is a metal shell containing a

high-explosive base charge designed to initiate other leg wires
explosives;
• Leg wires, which are insulated solid copper, iron, or rubber plug
copper-clad iron wires that protrude from electric bridge wire
detonators, allowing them to be connected to a blasting ignition charge
circuit;
• A lead line, which is an insulated copper wire (gauge 10
delay element
to 14) used to connect detonators to the blasting machine;
• Connecting wires, which are expendable insulated
copper wires (gauge 16 to 20) used to connect (1)
boreholes or (2) individual series to the lead line;
primary charge
• A blasting machine, which is a capacitor-discharge
machine capable of delivering the necessary current to
base charge
detonate a series of electric detonators; and
• Some means to test circuits (a blaster’s multimeter, a
blasting ohmmeter, or a blasting galvanometer all can be
used to test blasting circuits for continuity and resistance).
Electric Systems
In any blasting operation, the blasting machine should be directly under the control of the
blaster in charge. It should be kept locked while not in use with the key in the blaster’s
possession.
The lead (firing) line should not be laid out until the blast
circuit is completely wired and all unnecessary personnel
have been cleared to a safe location. After the lead line is
laid out, it should be tested with a blaster’s multimeter for
continuity.
Always inspect the lead line for cuts and abrasions to the
insulation BEFORE every blast.
The lead line must be shunted at the blasting machine

before connecting the other end to the blasting circuit.
NEVER connect an unshunted lead line to the blasting
circuit.
After the final connections have been made, the resistance

of the entire circuit should be tested once again and the
readings should match the calculated resistance. If proper
readings are not obtained, reshunt the lead line before
returning to the blast area to locate and correct the
problem. DO NOT allow the bare ends of the circuit or the
lead line to come in contact with the ground or with any
metallic object.
Electric Systems
Testing Blasting Circuits
A blaster’s multimeter, blasting ohmmeter, or blasting

galvanometer can be used to test blasting circuits for continuity
and resistance.
Individual detonators should be tested before making the primer

and then again before stemming is placed in the borehole. Each
circuit should be tested prior to hooking up the lead line. The
circuit plus the lead line should be tested prior to firing the shot.
NEVER USE ANY TEST INSTRUMENTS NOT SPECIFICALLY

DESIGNED FOR BLASTING CIRCUITS. The reason for this is
that most standard electrician’s AC-DC voltmeters and VAO
meters are capable of supplying sufficient current to detonate an
electric detonator; accordingly, they should never be used near
blasting circuits.
Before using the test instrument, make certain the needle can be
adjusted to “zero” when the terminals are shunted. Digital meters
should read “zero” in the display. Replace the batteries with the
same type of battery specified by the manufacturer for use in the
blasting instrument. NEVER change batteries in the presence of
electric detonators.
Electric Systems
Current and Extraneous Electricity
Sufficient current must be delivered within ms’s, to a large number of detonators simultaneously,
in order to successfully detonate the blasting circuit.
The accepted “safe” level of extraneous electricity for electrical blasting is derived from the
current required to detonate the most sensitive commercial electric detonators plus a safety
factor. The minimum firing current for electric detonators currently manufactured in the United
States is approximately 0.25 amps.
The IME has established the maximum “safe” current permitted to flow through an electric
detonator without hazard of initiation as one-fifth of the minimum firing current, or 0.05 amps,
which provides a current safety factor of five.
ELECTRIC BLASTING MUST NOT BE CONDUCTED IN AREAS WHERE EXTRANEOUS

CURRENTS GREATER THAN 0.05 AMPS EXIST.
Click on the image to the left to
view a chart describing sources of
extraneous electricity.
1. When the switch on a blasting machine is thrown, the __ is closed, or completed, and
the detonators wired to it __.
a. Circuit; detonate
b. Loop; misfire
c. Shunt; are checked
2. In an electric detonator, the leg wires are connected to lead wires, which in turn are
connected to an electrical blasting __.
a. Tester
b. Multimeter
c. Machine
3. What instrument is used to measure resistance in a blasting circuit?

a. Ohmmeter
b. Battery charger
c. Blaster’s galvanometer
d. Blaster’s multimeter
4. Why aren’t electric detonators used much at surface coal mines in Wyoming?
a. Because of danger posed to them by overhead powerlines in the State
b. Because of cellular-phone use in the State
c. Because of lightening storms in the State
d. Because of snow in the State
5. Lightning, static electricity, and radio-frequency energy are forms of __ that are very
hazardous to any electric-blasting enterprise.
a. Flyrock
b. Extraneous electricity
c. Airblast
d. Blasting waves
6. True or false: a flashlight battery could detonate an electric blasting cap?
7. In an electrical-blasting system, primers are detonated by:

a. Detonators set off by electrical charges
b. Detonating cord
c. Heat generated by the fuel oil or other chemical in the blasting agent
d. All of the above
8. A single electric detonator may detonate when:

a. No voltage flows through the wires
b. A current of 0.25 amps flows through the wires
c. The leg wires are joined
d. b. and c. above
Answers
1. a. is correct.
2. c. is correct.
3. d. is correct.
4. a., c., and d. are correct.
5. b. is correct.
6. True.
7. a. is correct.
8. b. is correct.
Electronic Systems
Electronic-initiation systems are the latest trend in modern surface-mine blasting. These
systems are numerous, and many of the larger explosive manufacturers have developed their
own systems.
Unlike electric and non-electric systems, electronic
blasting machines and accessories are designed
specifically for each manufacturer.
Tie-in protocol and connectors are very specific to

each manufacturer’s system, and each user must
become familiar with the specific detonators,
operational limits, applications, and guidelines for his
or her system.
Electronic Systems
Simple systems use factory-programmed electronic detonators that are initiated from shock tubes
in the same way that ordinary shock tubes detonate. Each of these electronic detonators contains
a piezoceramic device and a timing oscillator.
Some electronic systems are very complex and require custom blasting machines or computers to
fire their detonators. Such detonators are field programmable and offer increased flexibility in
operations that do a variety of blasting.
Electronic Systems
Blast-Management Capability
Electronic systems offer many computer-

aided capabilities that are unavailable for
electric and non-electric systems.
Electronic systems offer automatic safety

checks for short circuits and non-
connected firing lines, as well as systems
checks for missing and extra detonators.
They also map one-to-one among
blasting plans stored in the blasting
machine, and each detonator is checked
online before firing.
Detonators can be programmed

individually, or the entire blast plan can
be programmed using a data card.
Security Level
The blasting machines used in electronic blasting systems will not activate unless the blaster
unlocks the unit with either a key, a pass code, or both. Most electronic detonators are
unable to be detonated with a conventional blasting machine.
Electronic Systems
Factory-Programmed Systems and Field-Programmed Systems
Factory-programmed systems have “fixed” delay periods, and holes to be shot with such
systems are loaded in the same manner as are standard electric or shock-tube systems.
Some manufacturers of factory-programmed systems include surface connectors for
efficient tie-in or to maintain electrical polarity.
Field-programmed systems,
on the other hand, are
programmed on the bench.
There are no fixed delay times
associated with these
detonators. In addition, most
field-programmed systems have
an electronic memory that
allows them to be programmed
either prior to loading or any
time prior to firing by a direct
communication between the
blasting machine and the
detonator.
Click on the image above to play a clip showing the

operation of a field-programmable detonator.
Electronic Systems
Factory-Programmed, Fixed Delay-Period
Systems
A typical* factory-programmed, fixed delay-

period electronic system features:
• Typically, two wires;

• Electric tie-in principles;
• Coded security;
• Multiple delay periods;
• A blast machine; and
• Sequential capability.
________________
*As we have noted, there are several
different electronic systems on the market today,
and many of the larger explosive manufacturers
have developed their own systems, each of them
slightly different from the next. Hence, this and
the descriptions on the following pages
summarize only what might be considered a
“typical” example of the subtype of system to
which they pertain, not any system in particular.
Electronic Systems
Factory-Programmed, Shock-Tube-Initiated Systems
A typical factory-programmed, shock-tube-initiated

electronic system features:
• Shock-tube leads;
• Energy transition;
17ms 17ms 17ms
• Electronic delay; and
• Standard tie-ins.
Electronic Systems
Field-Programmed, Variable-Delay-Period
Systems
A typical field-programmed, variable-delay-period

electronic system features:
• Two or more wires;

• Digital/coded security;
• 1-ms interval delays;
• Blast-machine programming;
• Hand-held programmers; and
• Blast-design software options.
Electronic Systems
In–Hole, Fixed-Delay-Interval Control Systems
A typical in-hole, fixed-delay-interval control

system features:
• 5-wire ribbon wire;

• A blast machine and controllers;
• Series tie-in;
• Plug-in connectors;
• 32-second in-hole delay; and
• Pre-programmed surface controllers.
Electronic Systems
Passively Programmed, Field-Programmed
Systems
A typical passively programmed, field-

programmed system features:
• Two wires;
• A blast machine, a computer, and
scanners;
• Network tie-in;
• Plug-in connectors; and
• A bar-code reader that is sequenced
and programmed.
Electronic Systems
Precise timing control is the main advantage of electronic detonators. Detonator firing errors are
on the order of microseconds, as distinguished from the ms errors associated with pyrotechnic-
delay detonators. Electronic detonators use circuit boards and programmable application-
specific integrated circuit (ASIC) processors
to add very precise delays that are more reliable
than traditional pyrotechnic delays.
detonating wire
leg wires
rubber plug
bridge wire CIRCUIT BOARD:
ignition charge logic capacitor
ASIC processor
delay element
firing capacitor
fuse head
primary charge
base charge
Electric Electronic Click the black screen above to see a test

detonator. detonator. example of the accurate timing effects of
electronic detonators, which, unlike 8-ms
pyrotechnic delays, fire simultaneously.
Electronic Systems
IME “always” recommendations with respect to electronic detonation systems are:
• ALWAYS follow manufacturer’s warning and instructions, especially hook-up procedures and safety
precautions;
• ALWAYS fire electronic detonators with the equipment and procedures recommended by the manufacturer;
• ALWAYS verify the integrity of the detonator system prior to initiation of a blast;
• ALWAYS follow the manufacturer’s instructions when aborting a blast (wait a minimum of 30 minutes before
returning to a blastsite after aborting a blast, unless the manufacturer provides other specific instructions);
• ALWAYS keep detonator leads, coupling devices, and connectors protected until ready to test or fire the
blast;
• ALWAYS keep wire ends, connectors, and fittings clean and free from dirt or contamination prior to
connection;
• ALWAYS follow manufacturer’s recommended practices to protect electronic detonators from

electromagnetic, radio-frequency, or other electrical interference sources;
• ALWAYS protect electronic detonator wires, connectors, coupling devices, and shock-tube or other
components from mechanical abuse and damage;
• ALWAYS ensure that the blaster in charge has control over the blastsite throughout the programming,
system charging, firing, and detonation of the blast; and
• ALWAYS use extreme care when programming delay times in the field, to ensure correct blast designs;
incorrect programming can result in misfires, flyrock, excessive airblast, and vibration.
Electronic Systems
Likewise, IME “never” recommendations with respect to electronic detonation systems are:
• NEVER mix electronic detonators and electric detonators in the same blast, even if they are made by
the same manufacturer, unless such use is approved by the manufacturer;
• NEVER mix electronic detonators of different types and/or versions in the same blast, even if they are
made by the same manufacturer, unless such use is approved by the manufacturer;
• NEVER mix or use electronic detonators

and equipment made by different
manufacturers;
• NEVER use test equipment and blasting

machines designed for electric detonators
with electronic detonators;
• NEVER use equipment or electronic

detonators that appear to be damaged or
poorly maintained; and
• NEVER attempt to use blasting

machines, testers, or instruments with
electronic detonators that are not
specifically designed for the particular
electronic-detonation system you are using.
Electronic Systems
In addition, IME recommends that you:
• NEVER attempt to cut and splice leads unless specifically recommended by the manufacturer;
• NEVER make final hook-up to the firing device or blast controller until all personnel are clear of the
blast area;
• NEVER load boreholes in open work areas near electric powerlines unless the firing lines and
detonator wires are anchored or are too short to reach the powerlines;
• NEVER handle or use electronic

detonators during the approach and
progress of an electrical storm (personnel
must be withdrawn from the blast area to a
safe location under such conditions);
• NEVER use electronic detonator systems

outside the manufacturer’s specified
operational temperature and pressure
ranges;
• NEVER test or program an electronic

detonator in a booster, cartridge, or other
explosive component (primer assembly)
before it has been deployed in the borehole
or otherwise loaded for final use; and Click the image above to play a video
clip showing an electronic-detonation
• NEVER hold an electronic detonator
system in use.
while it is being tested or programmed.
1. Some electronic blasting systems are very complex and require either custom blasting
machines or __ to fire their detonators.
a. CD blasting machines
b. Guns
c. Loggers
d. Computers
2. Factory-programmed detonators are available for some electronic blasting systems,

whereas other systems use smart detonators that can be programmed on the:
a. Shelf
b. Bench
c. Truck
d. All of the above
3. True or false: field-programmed detonators usually have fixed delay times?
4. Pyrotechnic delays typically show timing ranges of ± 5 milliseconds. Electronic-delay

timing ranges have been tested to ± 1:
a. Nanosecond
b. Millisecond
c. Macrosecond
d. Microsecond
5. True or false: incorrect detonator programming can result in misfires, flyrock,

excessive airblast, and vibration?
Answers
1. d. is correct.
2. b. is correct.
3. False.
4. d. is correct.
5. True.
Cap-and-Fuse Systems
A cap-and-fuse system, also called a fuse-detonator system, consists of blasting caps and
fuse detonators that are crimped to a length of safety fuse.
In a safety-fuse system, the fuse is typically ignited with either a hot-wire fuse lighter, a pull-
wire fuse lighter, or an igniter cord and igniter-cord connectors.
Cap-and-fuse systems should be used only by supervised, trained, experienced, and skilled
blasters who are completely familiar with the use of explosives on a day-to-day basis.
In addition, cap-and-fuse blasting should only be used where a long delay time between the
detonating of individual holes will not create a problem.
A safety fuse is a medium through which flame is continuously
conveyed at a relatively uniform speed to initiate the heat-sensitive
charge in an ordinary blasting cap. Cap-and-fuse assemblies are
able to fire single charges or multiple charges designed to initiate in
rotation.
Charges that must be shot instantaneously, as in pre-shear

(perimeter control, presplitting, etc.) work, or those that require
short delay intervals cannot use a safety-fuse initiation method,
because blast timing with a fuse is not sufficiently precise.
IME recommendations with respect to cap-and-fuse detonation

systems are:
• ALWAYS handle a fuse carefully to avoid damaging the

covering;
• In cold weather, ALWAYS warm the fuse slightly before

using it, to avoid cracking the waterproofing;
• ALWAYS know the burning speed of a safety fuse

(burning speed can be determined by conducting a test burn
of the fuse in use, to make sure you have time to reach
safety after lighting it);
• NEVER use lengths of safety fuse less than 3 feet; and
• NEVER insert anything but a fuse into the open end of a

detonator.
In addition, IME recommends that you:
• ALWAYS cut 1 or 2 inches off a fuse, to ensure a dry end (cut the fuse squarely across with
the proper tool designed for this purpose; DO NOT use a knife);
• ALWAYS seat the fuse lightly against the detonator charge and avoid twisting after it is in
place;
• ALWAYS ensure that the detonator is securely crimped to the fuse;
• ALWAYS use a waterproof crimp or waterproof the fuse-to-detonator joint in wet work;
• ALWAYS use cap crimpers to crimp the detonator to the safety fuse;
• NEVER twist the fuse inside the detonator;
• NEVER use a knife or teeth for crimping;
• NEVER use an open-fuse detonator for a booster;
• NEVER cut a fuse until you are ready to insert it into the detonator;
• NEVER crimp detonators by any means except a cap crimper designed for the purpose;
and
• NEVER attempt to remove a detonator from the fuse to which it is crimped.

The steps for assembling a fuse detonator and a safety fuse are:
Step 1.—Wait until you are ready to insert the fuse into the fuse detonator before
cutting it.
Step 2.—Cut off 1 or 2 inches of the fuse to ensure a dry end.
Step 3.—Measure the correct length of the fuse from the roll, and cut squarely
across with a fuse cutter designed for this purpose. Do not use a knife.
Step 4.—Visually inspect the inside of the detonator for foreign material or moisture;
if the detonator is wet or if foreign matter cannot be removed by pouring,
do not use the detonator. Instead, dispose of it in an approved manner.
Step 5.—Put the safety fuse gently against the powder charge.
Step 6.—Crimp the end of the fuse detonator where the fuse enters, using a cap
crimper.
The crimp is an indentation on the cap
shell that joins the cap and fuse
together. Crimps should be tight
enough both to hold the cap securely in
place and to provide a watertight seal.
If the crimp is loose, the fuse may pull
away from the cap charge or out of the
cap, allowing moisture to come in
contact with the ignition powder.
All crimps must be made near—not

more than 3/8 inch (9.5 millimeters)
from—the open end of a cap shell.
Crimping more than 3/8 inch (9.5
millimeters) from the open end of the
shell can prematurely initiate the cap.
NEVER ATTEMPT TO CRIMP THE

CAP WITH THE FUSE CUTTER, AS
THE CAP MAY DETONATE.
Recommended steps for lighting a safety fuse are:
Step 1.—Make sure you can reach a safe location after lighting, with sufficient time
before initiation.
Step 2.—Place sufficient stemming over the explosive material to protect it from
fuse-generated heat and sparks.
Step 3.—Have a partner before lighting the fuse. One person should light the fuse,
and the other should time and monitor the burn.
Step 4.—Light the safety fuse using a specially designed lighter: a single-fuse
ignition requires a hot-wire lighter, a pull-wire lighter, or thermalite
connectors; a multiple-fuse ignition requires an igniter cord with
thermalite connectors.
Igniter cord. Igniter-cord

connectors.
With respect to cap-and-fuse systems, remember that:
• The fuse burns at its core, not at its cover;
• You should have two persons present when lighting the fuse;
• The explosive charge must in place before the fuse is lit; and
• If the charge does not detonate or you do not hear the

detonation at the calculated time, you should not return to the
blast area for at least 1 hour.
1. __ is a permissible means of lighting a safety fuse.
a. A cigarette lighter
b. A hot-wire lighter
c. Matches
d. All of the above
2. When a safety fuse or blasting caps appear to have misfired, persons shall not
enter the blast area for __ minutes.
a. 20
b. 30
c. 45
d. 60
3. Which of the following are sources of extraneous electricity?

a. Lightning storms
b. Stray AC current
c. Radio frequency
d. All of the above
4. Why would you choose a shock tube over a detonating cord to detonate your
blast?
a. Airblast concerns
b. Storage concerns
c. The desire for greater control over timing
d. All of the above
5. In locations that are close to residential or commercial sites, the noise that a
detonating-cord trunkline generates during a blast may cause complaints.
Which, if any, of the following approaches might be used to address this
prospective problem?
a. Eliminate the trunkline by replacing it with either an electric, a flash-tube,
or an electronic detonator
b. Initiate a detonating cord upline, from the bottom of the hole, using either
an electric or a non-electric detonator
c. Cover the trunkline with at least 12 inches of fine drill cuttings or dirt
d. Any of the above
Answers
1. b. is correct.
2. d. is correct.
3. d. is correct.
4. d. is correct.
5. a. is correct.
Surface-Blast
Design
B
1 1 1 1
B S
2 2 2
3 3 3 3

DISCLAIMER
Surface-Blast Design
This module presents

recommended blast-
design practices for
surface-mine and quarry
blasting.
Blast-Design Overview
Objectives in blasting:
• Fragmentation
• Highwall stability
• Movement:
• Buffer blasting
• Cast blasting Blast theory:
• Stress waves
• Crack propagation
Timing:
• Millisecond delay blasting:
• “V” (chevron) pattern
• Echelon pattern
• Row-by-row pattern
Types of blast patterns:
• Square
• Rectangular
• Staggered
Blast-Design Overview
Blast parameters:
• Burden
• Spacing
• Bench height
Controlled blasting techniques: • Powder column:
• Line drilling • Hole diameter
• Presplitting • Hole depth
• Smooth blasting • Powder factor
• Cushion blasting • Subdrilling
• Stemming
Measurements and calculations:

• Loading density
• Face profiling
• High-speed photography
• Fragmentation distribution
• Velocity of detonation
Objectives in Blasting
The primary objectives in rock blasting are to optimize blast performance and ensure the
safety of everyone by implementing safe practices in and around the blast site.
Secondary objectives include:
• Maintaining the stability of highwalls, so that men and equipment working on and under
them are safe;
• Fragmenting rock masses to reduce their downstream hauling and crushing costs; and
• Moving rock masses to facilitate their load-out by site-specific equipment.
Safety
Weekly or monthly safety meetings that include the blast crew, drill
crew, and production crew keep employees posted as to (1) all site-
specific safety procedures and (2) what is expected of them daily.
Fragmentation and Moving
A proper blast design will yield adequate

fragmentation, which will lower
downstream costs related to hauling,
equipment maintenance, and crushing.
Highwall Stability
A safe and stable highwall is critical to virtually all aspects of a blasting operation. Equipment—drills,
draglines, and dozers—relies on highwall stability, as do blasting crews loading interburden (parting shots)
and shovel operators loading trucks in the pit. Maintaining a stable highwall at your operation requires a
good understanding of geology and water conditions, as well as slope and blast design. In addition, you
must maintain quality control over the blast design. The strength of a rock mass under shear, tensile, and
compressional loading will dictate the overall stability of a highwall.
Rock Failure
Compression failure is caused

immediately around a charge when the
rock is crushed by extremely high
borehole pressures.
Tensile failure occurs when reflecting

stress waves rip the rock apart. The
damage from such failure is much
greater, because rocks are much
weaker in their tensile strengths than in
their compressive strengths.
Shear failure is controlled by the shear

strength of the rock mass, the duration
of the blast, and blast-induced vibration
levels. Repeated blasting can reduce
the shear strength of adjacent rock
masses.
Highwall Stability
Blast design will influence the
stability of highwalls, in that it
affects:
• Horizontal relief away

from the wall,
• Energy concentration
adjacent to the
wall, and
• Blast size and
duration.
Modified production blasts are

blasts that use reduced charge
loads in the rows nearest to the
proposed crestline of the new
highwall. This reduces the
explosive energy adjacent to
the highwall and may reduce
overbreak beyond the crestline.
Some controlled blasting methods used to reduce overbreak and backbreak beyond the
crestline are discussed in this module.
Movement
The shape and location of the muckpile is an important element of shot design. Requirements
range from a need for extreme throw—for example, to cast overburden under a coal-stripping
scenario—to buffer shooting, where the muckpile is confined to a certain area by rock that has
been previously blasted. The confined muckpile provides a high bank of shot material that will
increase shovel productivity. Mines with a high face that use front-end loaders will often blast for
a low muckpile for the sake of safety considerations on the ground. Bench height, powder
factor, burden, timing, and buffers all must be considered when movement modifications are
made.
Click on the image above to Click on the image above to

play a buffer-shot blasting clip. play a cast-blast blasting clip.
Controlled Blasting
Controlled blasting techniques are used to efficiently
distribute explosive charges in a rock mass, thereby
minimizing the fracturing of rock beyond the crestline of
the highwall or designed boundary of main excavation
areas. Such over-fracturing, commonly called
overbreak, is typically more of a problem in soft or
unconsolidated, incompetent overburden formations.
There are several

techniques that a blaster
can use to minimize
overbreak, but trials
should be conducted to
determine whether any
given technique can be
applied successfully, as
well as to determine the proper hole spacing for the given
geology. Modern blasting professionals group controlled
blasting techniques into four categories:
• Presplitting,
• Smooth blasting,
• Line drilling, and
• Cushion blasting.
Presplitting
Presplitting is a technique that involves loading a single row of holes that have been drilled along a desired highwall
crest or excavation line with small decoupled charges. Such charges reduce the crushing effect around the borehole
and are shot before the main production shot. The idea is to minimize or eliminate overbreak from the primary blast
and to produce a smooth rock wall. Presplitting will add a large drilling cost to an operation.
Borehole Diameters
Normally, the diameter of a borehole is limited by the capabilities of the drill used to create it. As a rule, open-pit and
coal strip mines using large drills will drill presplit holes that range from 9 to 12-¼ inches in diameter. Quarry and
construction presplits are much smaller, generally ranging from 2 to 4 inches in diameter. Presplit holes may be drilled
on an angle if the geology and drill allow for it.
Spacing
Presplit spacing will vary, depending upon rock characteristics, size of the operation, and bench height. Trials should
be conducted to determine the optimal borehole spacing. On average, Western coal strip-mine operations use presplit
spacings of from 10 to 12-½ feet, whereas soft-weathered formations at small projects may require presplit spacings of
15 inches or less.
Explosive Charge
Depending upon the rock characteristics and spacing used for the presplit, charge loads will vary; however, powder
factors will normally range from 0.1 to 0.3 lbs/ft3. Many times, detonating cord (25 to 400 grains/foot) is used either as
the primary charge in a presplit hole or in conjunction with a small primer. This decoupled charge reduces the amount
of explosive energy that is transferred to the rock mass.
Limitations
Results of presplitting cannot be determined until after the excavation has been removed to the presplit line.
Controlled Blasting
The term “smooth blasting” refers to lightly loaded holes that have been drilled along
excavation limits and are shot after the main excavation is removed. Typically, such holes are
shot instantaneously or with little delay, leaving a smooth wall with minimum overbreak.
Smooth blasting is the most widely accepted method for controlling overbreak in underground
headings and stopes; however, it is is not widely preferred over presplitting in surface mining.
“Line drilling” provides a plane of weakness to which a primary blast may break; it may also
protect a highwall by reflecting some of the shock wave created by a blast. This plane of
weakness is created by drilling a line of closely spaced (3- to 12-inch), small-diameter (1.5- to
3-inch) holes along the excavation line. The distance from the back row to the line drill is
normally 50 to 75 percent of the production burden. Line drilling is normally limited to
construction projects, dimension stone quarries, and rock sculpting where any overbreak at all
can be considered detrimental.
“Cushion blasting,” or trim blasting, is similar to

smooth blasting in that the holes are shot after
the main production shot. Cushion blasting
involves backfilling the entire borehole with
crushed stone to cushion the shock from the
finished wall. This technique is rarely used
today, because air decking with good quality
gas bags or hole plugs can achieve the same
results will less loading time.
Hole Diameter and Depth
The choice of the hole diameter depends upon the geology of the blastsite, primarily the jointing
and bedding of the formation. The desired fragmentation, the face height, and economics must
also be considered.
The geology is the only factor in the blast design that cannot be changed. Accordingly, given the
geology, the method of operation and the cost of equipment are determined based upon the
desired fragmentation, which in turn is a function of hole diameter and the explosive being used.
The bench height is usually designed around the safety of the workers and equipment that will be
on top of and under the highwall. Proper blast design will optimize use of the inherent stability of
the geological formation in question.
Blast Theory
When explosives detonate in a blasthole, a stress wave moving at 10,000 to 20,000 ft/s
(depending upon the rock type) propagates out from the hole. These stress waves cause radial
fracturing of the rock mass at 1.5 to 8 feet per millisecond.
Reflected compression waves

become tension waves
Detonation Spalling
fractures
When using burdens from 8 to 20 feet,

initial face movement will occur within 15
Compression waves
milliseconds. The crack network will
establish and rock movement will begin
after 1 millisecond per foot of burden on
the hole.
Blasting Measurements
The fundamental principle of blast design is most often the distribution of an explosive in the rock, where
“distribution” is considered to be a combination of blast pattern and explosive density.
Powder factor is the relationship between a rock mass and the explosive used to fragment it; the term
“powder factor” can be used to describe either the weight of explosive per unit volume (lb/yd3) or the weight
of material blasted per weight of explosive (tons/lb). The weight of explosive can be determined using the
column-rise formula, as follows:
Loading density = K x explosive density x (column diameter)2,
where
• loading density is measured in pounds of explosive per foot of borehole,
• K = 0.3405,
• explosive density is measured in grams per cubic centimeter, and
• explosive column diameter is measured in inches.
The total weight of explosive per hole is determined by multiplying the loading density (calculated using the
column-rise formula) by the length of the powder column. The volume of material to be blasted is calculated
by the rock-volume formula, as follows:
Volume = burden dimension x spacing dimension x (hole depth – subdrill length)/27,
where
• hole depth – subdrill length = bench height∗ and
• burden dimension, spacing dimension, and bench height all are measured in
feet.
_______________
∗
Technically, the equation “hole depth – subdrill length = bench height” is correct. However,
often, bench height alone equals hole depth, especially at surface coal mines, where subdrilling is not a
common practice (subdrilling is more prevalent at quarry operations).
Blast Design
The powder factor for a single borehole is calculated as:
PC x (0.34 ρ ) x d 2
PF =
B x S x H/27
where PF = powder factor, pounds of explosives per bank cubic yard of rock;
PC = Powder column, feet of explosive charge♦;
ρ = density, in g/cm3, of the explosive;
d = charge diameter‡ in inches;
B = burden dimension in feet;
S = spacing dimension in feet;
H = bench height (or hole depth) in feet∗.
Typically, blasters will round the powder factor to the nearest tenth or hundredth.
_______________
♦Powder column = hole depth (or bench height, H) – stemming – backfill.
‡Charge diameter = hole diameter, when using bulk ANFO or other pumped
explosives.
∗Again,
note that, especially at surface coal mines (as distinguished from
quarry operations), not all benches are subdrilled. In cases where subdrilling is used, “H =
bench height in feet,” where “bench height = hole depth – subdrill length.”
Review Question
1. A surface coal mine currently in operation plans to undertake additional
blasting loading ANFO with a density of 0.8 g/cm3. Additional relevant
parameters with respect to this proposed shot are:
• Burden = 28 feet,
• Spacing = 33 feet,
• Bench height (or hole depth) = 135 feet,
• Hole diameter = 11 inches,
• Stemming = 30 feet, and
• No. of holes = 200.
In pounds of explosives per bank cubic yard of rock, what will the powder
factor for a single one of these boreholes?
a. 0.25
b. 0.5
c. 0.75
Answer
1. c. is correct. Powder factor for a single borehole is calculated as:
PC x (0.34 ρ ) x d 2
PF =
B x S x H/27
where PF = powder factor, pounds of explosives per bank cubic yard of rock;
PC = length, in feet, of the explosive charge;
ρ = density, in g/cm3, of the explosive;
d = charge or hole diameter in inches;
B = burden dimension in feet;
S = spacing dimension in feet; and
H = bench height or hole depth in feet.
Remembering that PC = bench height – stemming, and using the parameters in our
example,
105 x (0.34 x 0.8) x 112

PF =
28 x 33 x 135/27
or 0.7491 (rounded to 0.75) pounds of explosive per bank cubic yard of rock at our surface
coal-mine shot.
Blast Measurements
It is important for the blaster to know the face height and
toe burden of a shot. In cast blasting, knowing the face
burden can allow you to accurately calculate the
placement and angle of the face holes and to set any
remaining rows of holes. These parameters can be
determined by surveying the face in one of many ways.
Modern laser transits are available for detailed 2D and 3D
face profiling.
High-speed photography can be used to evaluate the
movement or flexing of the face and top of the shot and to
determine the velocity of rock moving away from a
highwall.
Fragmentation distribution can be

calculated by running a particle distribution
on the muckpile. Computer software exists
to aid in making distribution calculations.
Velocity of detonation in any borehole can

be calculated by placing a gage inside the
borehole. This gage is wired to an
oscilloscope that logs the speed of the
detonation wave in the borehole.
Blast-Pattern Parameters
Spacing
Face
burden Hole
Crest diameter
Burden
Stemming
Face height
Toe Hole depth

Explosive column
Pit floor
Subdrill
Blast Design
Burden
The proper burden dimension to use in any given individual blast can be calculated by taking into account hole
diameter, relative rock density, and the explosive that will be used in the blast. Too small a burden can result in
excessive airblast and flyrock; on the other hand, too large a burden can result in improper fragmentation, toe
problems, and excessive ground vibrations. The burden, in turn, is the basis for calculating spacing, stemming, and
subdriling.
Field testing gives a better idea of the exact burden to use in an operation; however, lower burden-to-charge diameter
ratios should be used as a first approximation when the blasthole diameter is large in comparison to the bench height.
The assumption of 25 times the charge diameter is a good starting point for determining the burden dimension to use
when shooting with ANFO (0.85 g/cm3) in rock with a density of near 2.7 g/cm3. When shooting with a denser emulsion
or blend product (1.2 g/cm3), the burden can be increased to from 30 to 35 times the charge diameter. Thus, if an
operation plans to shoot ANFO in 9-inch holes in a 50-foot bench, a good starting point would be a 19-foot burden. In a
hole with a 12-¼-inch diameter, the burden can be increased to 25 feet.∗
Charge diameter = Charge diameter =
12-¼ inches 9 inches
Bench height = 50 feet

Burden Burden
= 25 feet = 19
feet
ANFO shot.
_______________
∗
Note that both these assumptions with respect to charge diameter are first approximations. A blaster can
modify the charge diameter:burden ratio based upon his or her experience and knowledge of the explosive being used,
the rock type, and the specifics of the operation.
Blast Design
Spacing
Spacing is the distance between adjacent blastholes in a row, measured perpendicular to the burden. In
row-to-row shooting, spacing is measured between holes in a row; when the shot progresses at an angle
to the free face, the spacing is measured at that angle.
Spacing may be somewhat dependent on the timing, but is most often a function of the burden. Close
spacings cause crushing and cratering between holes, boulders, and toe problems. Holes spaced too far
apart will result in inadequate fragmentation.
The assumption of from 1.8 to 2 times the burden is a good starting point for determining the spacing of a
blast to be initiated simultaneously in holes in the same row. When shooting sequentially down the row in
a box cut or “V” pattern, spacing should be from 1 to 1.2 times the burden (or close to a square pattern).
Movement Movement
1 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 3
S
2 2 S 2 4 3 2 3 4
3 3 3 3 5 4 3 4 5
Spacing ≈ 2 x burden Spacing ≈ burden

Blast Design
Stemming
Stemming contains explosive energy within a blasthole, so that it will break and move the rock
without generating flyrock. Sized crushed stone or drill cuttings should be used as stemming.
Inadequate stemming = Adequate stemming =

possible flyrock well-contained explosive energy
Stemming columns are generally 0.5 to 1.3 times the burden. A good first approximation for
stemming column height is 0.7 x burden.
Blast Design
Subdrilling
“Subdrilling” is the distance drilled below the floor level (or actual required blast depth), in order to
ensure that the full face of the rock is capable of being removed to the desired excavation limit.
Subdrilling may be required to achieve a smooth pit floor. The subdrill portion of a borehole is
generally backfilled with drill cuttings or other stemming material. DO NOT LOAD EXPLOSIVES
INTO THE SUBDRILL! Excessive confinement will lead to high peak particle velocity ground
vibrations.
Desired grade
Blast Design
Decking
A process called “decking” is often used to reduce

either the charge load per hole, the amount of
explosives detonated per delay, or both. Decking
is also used to get explosives into harder rock
zones or to keep them out of weak zones such as
mud seams.
Using the decking process, the top deck in a Top deck

blasthole is normally shot one delay period after
the bottom deck in the hole. The idea is to keep Inert deck
the explosives in the bottom deck from
propagating through and detonating the top deck.
To achieve this, an air deck or deck of inert Bottom
stemming is inserted between the top and bottom deck
decks. The length of the inert deck will vary
depending upon borehole conditions. Increase the
deck length in wet holes to reduce the chances of
propagation between decks.∗
There are many types of hole plugs commercially

available for creating decked charges.
________________
∗The minimum stemming between explosive decks should be six times the borehole
diameter, and, in wet holes, this amount should be doubled.
Blast Patterns
A square blast pattern has drilled spacings that are
equal to drilled burdens. B
A rectangular blast pattern has drilled spacings that are B

larger than drilled burdens.
In a staggered blast pattern, the drilled spacings

of each row are offset such that the holes in one B
row are positioned in the middle of the spacings S
of the holes in the preceding row. In addition, the
drilled spacings are larger than the drilled
burdens.
A staggered blast pattern is used for row firing, where the holes in one row are fired before
the holes in the row immediately behind them. The square and rectangular blast patterns
are used for firing “V” (chevron) or echelon rounds.
Millisecond Delay Blasting
The timing between holes in a row and between rows in a shot both (1) dictates the movement and fragmentation of
the shot and (2) helps prevent cut-offs in the explosive column that are owing to shifting rock. Larger diameter holes
on large burdens and spacings require greater delay time to ensure correct movement and to reduce the “dead-
pressing” effects of adjacent boreholes (dead-pressing can lead to the emission of nitrogen dioxides).
Rock fragmentation occurs within 5 to 15 milliseconds after detonation. The gas pressure created by a blast moves
the rock out from the blast face at velocities of from 50 to 100 feet per second. This broken rock is only moving 0.5 to
1 foot in 10 milliseconds. The movement of rock is important with respect to designing a blast that obtains optimal
fragmentation.
The general (conservative) rule of thumb is “2 milliseconds per foot of burden” for designing delay times required for
maximum fragmentation.
As the number of rows increases, the low velocity of the moving rock causes a reduction in relief toward the free face,
leading to more vertical rock movement.
Possible flyrock
Decreasing relief in
later rows
60
Pit floor
12 12 12 12 12 12 12
Unit of measurement = feet

Blast Design
High-Energy Bottom Charges
The rock at the bottom of a vertical hole

requires more energy to break than does the
rock at the top of the same hole. This is the
primary reason why most blastholes are
bottom-primed. High-density explosive
charges may be added to the bottom of a hole
to increase fragmentation at the toe or to
improve the final pit-floor grade.
Click on the image above to play

a quarry-shot blasting clip.
Blast Timing
A “V”-pattern, or chevron, firing round is appropriate for most square or rectangular blast patterns; it is not as
practical for staggered-pattern loading.
Under any square or rectangular blast scenario that uses a “V”-pattern, actual burden and spacing (both of them
dependent upon the timing of the shot) will be different from drilled, or apparent, burden and spacing.* When a “V”-
pattern firing round is used under a square-pattern loading scenario, the rock movement is 45 degrees to the open
face. “V”-pattern firing rounds are quite common at surface coal mines that use larger diameter blastholes.
Free face
B B2
3 21 1 2 3
S B2
4 3 1 2 3 4
S2
5 4 3 4 5
Numbers indicate firing sequence (B1 = true burden;

B2 = apparent burden; S1 = true spacing; S2 = apparent spacing).
_______________
*
Under any “V”-pattern blast scenario, a distinction is made between “apparent burden” and “true
burden,” such that apparent burden is defined as both the distance between the shot’s first row and the highwall or
free face and the distance between all subsequent rows running parallel to the face. True burden, on the other hand,
is defined as the distance between rows as these are delineated by the drill pattern and the delay timing associated
with it. (Note as well that, as the example here shows, a comparable distinction is also made between “apparent
spacing” and “true spacing.”)
Blast Design
B
1 1 1 1
B S
2 2 2
3 3 3 3
QUARRY, ROW-BY-ROW.
Numbers indicate firing sequence (S = true spacing; B = true burden).*
_______________
*Note that a quarry, row-by-row blast pattern is shot row by row, the rows shooting parallel to the
highwall or free face; that is, the timing of the blast is not defined by a delay pattern (whether a “V,” a chevron,
or an echelon). Accordingly, there is no distinction in this type of shot between the “apparent burden” of the
shot and its “true burden.” There is only the “burden” of the shot, which is defined as both the distance
between the shot’s first row and the highwall or free face and the distance between all subsequent rows
running parallel to the face.
Blast Timing
Echelon patterns are normally designed to take advantage of two free faces; they are typically
used in large overburden shots (that is, in blastholes with diameters greater than 8 inches),
casting operations, and interburden shooting.
Free face
B2 B
5 4 3 2 1
1
S Free face
6 5 4 3 2
7 6 5 4 3
Numbers indicate firing sequence (B1 = true burden; B2 = apparent burden).*

_______________
*Underany echelon-pattern blast scenario, a distinction is made between
“apparent burden” and “true burden.” (See footnote regarding “V-”pattern blast scenarios.)
Blast Design
3
B2
4 2 1 Direction of
rock movement
B2 S
4 3 2 1
4 3 2
B 1B
1
1
CORNER CUT, STAGGERED PATTERN, ECHELON.
Numbers indicate firing sequence

(S = true spacing; B1 = true burden; B2 = apparent burden).
Blast Design
B
1 1 1 1
B
2 2 S 2 2
B
3 3 3 3 3
CORNER CUT, ROW-BY-ROW.
Numbers indicate firing sequence

(S = true spacing; B = true burden).
1. Why should you avoid loading explosives into a subdrill?
a. Excessive confinement will lead to high peak particle velocity ground vibrations
b. Over-confinement could generate toxic fumes
c. Loading the subdrill could result in poor highwall stability
d. All of the above
2. How does increasing the fragmentation of blasted rock decrease downstream costs
related to it?
a. Increased fragmentation reduces shovel digging time
b. Increased fragmentation reduces the wear on haul equipment
c. Increased fragmentation increases the crushed throughput
d. All of the above
3. What is a way to reduce the explosive energy adjacent to a highwall on a production blast
to ensure the integrity of the highwall?
a. Reduce the total shot time, thereby reducing the amount of time the highwall is
subjected to vibrations
b. Use a controlled blasting technique (for example, pre-splitting)
c. Drill on an angle to keep the explosive energy away from the toe
4. What is the purpose of using a decked charge?

a. To lower the powder factor
b. To reduce the amount of explosives detonated per delay
c. To avoid loading a weak seam or to bypass a void in the rock
d. All of the above
5. What are some general rules for designing the stemming for blastholes?
a. Use crushed stone or drill cuttings as the stemming material
b. Stem at a ratio of from 0.5 to 1.3 times the amount of burden
c. Design stemming so that it contains explosive energy without generating flyrock
d. All of the above
6. What is the most important objective(s) of any blasting program?

a. Fragmentation
b. Lowering costs
c. Ensuring the safety of all workers in and around the blast site
d. a and c
Answers
1. a. is correct.
2. d. is correct.
3. b. is correct.
4. d. is correct.
5. d. is correct.
6. d. is correct.
Blasthole
Drilling

used by the Sheridan District Office, Wyoming Department of Environmental
instructor.
DISCLAIMER
The mention herein, of the technologies, companies, or any brand names,
does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Department of the Interior’s
Office of Surface Mining.
Blasthole Drilling
This module presents aspects of surface drilling

that are important to blasting operations. The
purpose of drilling into rock is to provide a
“blasthole” into which explosives can be loaded.
Good drilling practices include carefully

monitoring drill-rig operating parameters, taking
careful notes of the changes in geology during
drilling, and effectively communicating to the
blasting crew any unusual conditions
encountered during drilling that may affect
blasting results or require changes in hole-
loading practices.
Drilling Methods
The components of a drill rig are (1) the rig itself, which supplies the power to mobilize, drill rock, and
remove the drill cuttings from the hole; (2) the mounting; (3) the drill steels or drill string; and (4) the
drill bit.
air cham ber
There are two basic drilling methods—percussion and rotary—classified in
accordance with the way in which mechanical energy transfers from the rig to the piston
rock.
steel
Percussion Drilling
In percussion drilling, the rock is made to fail by means of a piston that delivers
rapid impacts to the drill steel, thereby transferring energy to the drill bit. The
bit
“blows” to the rock downhole are delivered by the bit, while a rotational device
ensures that the bit impacts a new rock surface with each blow. A feed force is
applied to maintain rock/bit contact. Compressed air is used to remove or “flush”
the drill cutting from the hole, thereby advancing the hole depth at an efficient rate.
The piston can either be mounted out of the hole (OTH) or down the hole (DTH) for
quiet and efficient drilling.
Rotary Drilling
In rotary drilling, the rock is made to fail by
means of a combination of "pull-down”
pressure on the bit and rotation power.
Compressed air is used in sufficient volume to
ensure a minimum velocity of upward airflow
that both flushes drill cuttings and keeps the
hole bottom cleaned.
Percussion Drill Rigs
“Drifter” OTH percussion drills can be air- or

hydraulic-operated and are generally limited
to hole diameters of 5 inches or less.
Percussion drills use button or cross (X-type) drill bits in which

the cutting tool is made of hard tungsten carbide. Wing angles
and button configurations are designed to accommodate soft
to hard formations and come in a variety of configurations.
Percussion Drill Rigs
DTH hammers, with the piston in the hole, tend to drill straighter holes at
greater depth as compared to OTH drifters. The air-driven piston hammer
causes the bit to rapidly impact the rock while the bit is slowly turned. DTH
hammers are efficient in hard-rock types. With the hammer in the hole, drill-
pipe vibrations are eliminated.
Rotary Drill Rigs
Rotary drills cut the rock by a rotating bit. The
overall performance of rotary drills is most
effective when bit load, bit rotation, bit selection,
and operator performance all are optimized.
Rotary drills work best in holes sized from 6 to 22

inches in diameter. Optimal hole depths range from
15 to 150 feet (typical) and average from 30 to 60
feet.
Rotary Drill Rigs
Roller-cone or tricone bits are the most common bit used for rotary blasthole drilling. Bits have
three or more cones ("rollers" or "cutters")—made with hardened steel teeth or tungsten carbide
inserts of varied shape, length, and spacing—on spindles and bearings set at an angle to the
axis of the bit.
Bearings within the roller-cone bit must be kept clean and cool by flushing with compressed air.
Roller bits exert a crushing and

chipping action, making it
possible to cut hard-rock
formations. They are designed
so that each tooth applies
pressure at a different point on
the bottom of the hole as the
cones rotate. The teeth of
adjacent cones intermesh so that
self-cleaning occurs.
As a general rule, hard-rock roller

bits should be used at much
slower speeds and higher bit
weight than should bits used for
drilling soft formations.
Rotary Drill Rigs
Many rotary rig masts have pinning capabilities that permit drilling at angles as much as 30
degrees out of the vertical. Drilling in this manner is necessary at large surface coal mines
where overburden will be cast. Typically, angles range from 10 to 15 degrees on the back row
and 20 to 23 degrees along the front row.
Fugitive Dust and Drill-Cutting Controls
Dust-suppression and crushed-rock-cutting collection
systems are available on many drill-rig models to help
control fugitive dust. Rubber skirts and water-misting
controls contain rock fines and dust around the
blasthole collar.
Cyclone mechanical dust collectors remove drill cutting

from the hole collar and place them alongside the drill
rig. Cyclone systems reduce the dust in the air and
minimize the chance for drill cuttings to fall back into
the hole from the collar region, thereby keeping the
hole open for maximum explosives loading.
Drill Mountings
Rigs are either truck- or track-mounted. Rubber-

tired rigs can travel quickly between job sites.
However, they are not able to move on rough terrain.
On the other hand, track or crawler mounts can

easily traverse rugged terrain.
Drill-Rig Performance
Recent technical advances in drill-rig

performance include (1) improved operator-
cab comfort; (2) automatic control and
adjustment of optimum feed force and
rotation speed for geologic conditions and
bit type and diameter; and (3) incorporation
of the latest technology in electric and
hydraulic drive systems.
Optimizing drilling parameters requires

careful adjustments among rotary speed,
thrust on the bit, percussion blow count and
energy, and sufficient volume of
compressed air at an adequate pressure to
remove drilled rock cuttings.
The performance of the drill rig is optimized

when the rate of penetration and flushing
of drill cutting from the hole are
maximized (or are at their highest) and
drilling cost per foot and wear on the bit
and drill string are minimized.
Selection of Hole Diameter
Who selects the type of drill rig and the hole diameter used in blasthole operations?
In some cases, a rig for one operation will be “inherited” from another or will be purchased without
consideration of the many different demands that are imposed on drill rigs. In other cases, drilling
requirements are weighed carefully before selecting an appropriate drill rig to meet all the needs at
one operation.
Considerations include:
• Total drill-hole depth anticipated,
• Geology and surface terrain condition,
• Production requirements,
• Type of explosives and explosive products to be used,
• Fragmentation size requirements matched with removal equipment bucket capacities, and
• Operating and ownership costs.
How is hole diameter determined?
Hole diameters are matched to blasting bench heights. In general, the higher the bench height or cut
to be blasted, the larger the blasthole diameter. Large blasthole diameters can accommodate more
explosives, allowing for a hole pattern to be designed with wide spacing between the blastholes. This
generally means lower drilling costs with fewer holes to be drilled for a given production.
On the other hand, large-diameter holes and wide spacings may generate coarse fragmentation. For
operations that use large bucket draglines or shovels, this many not be a problem. However, some
quarries, as well as construction blasting applications that use small-bucket front-end loaders, require
hole diameters that remain small, thereby generating finer fragments. Fine fragments, in turn, allow for
efficient removal and low equipment maintenance.
There are many “rules of thumb” for matching hole diameter to bench height, including charts such
as the one shown below. The shaded area in this chart shows the appropriate range of blasthole
diameters, d, in inches, matched to bench height, H, in feet.
Bench Hole Diameter in Inches
Height
feet 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.25 6.5 6.75 7 7.88 9 9.88 10.6 12.3 13 15 16
3
7
10
13
16
20
23
26
30
33
36
39
43
46
49
52
56
59
62
66
69
72
75
79
82
A common method for calculating this relationship is:
d (inches) < H/5 (in feet).
Thus, for example, the maximum recommended drill-hole diameter for a mine that plans to develop
a 60-foot bench would be 60/5 or up to 12 inches. From the chart, the range will be 4.5 to 12.3
inches depending on site conditions.
A coal mine may encounter problems if it attempts to use the same diameter drill to blast
overburden that is significantly deeper than the parting layer. Fragmentation in the parting
layer will be compromised, and flyrock may occur if blast holes are overloaded.
The size of the mast and drill steels carried by the rig are important considerations in drilling
efficiency. If a quarry plans to use 30-foot bench heights with 7 feet of sub-drill, a drill rig
with 25-foot-long steels may not be a good choice, because two steels will be required to
complete one hole. Metal mines generally use 50-foot bench heights, for which steels of
30-foot length make sense.
Drill Accuracy
Mud seams and weathered

joints may cause serious
borehole deviations. Deviated
boreholes, in turn, often result
in poorly distributed explosive
energy, leading either to poor
fragmentation of the rock
mass, highwall stability
problems, or both.
Can you identify the deviated

borehole in the rock face to
the right?
Drill Deviation
The hole collared to the left of the joint (the

hole shown with yellow dashes and the
joint shown with red-brown staining) in this
rock face deviated as it intersected the
rock-joint region, turning in an alignment
nearly perpendicular to the joint. When the
hole intersected the joint, the hole turned
nearly parallel with it.
Once across the joint, the hole continued

on the same trajectory, ending precisely at
the bottom of an adjacent hole.
A consequence of detonating two primers

together in two adjoining holes that
terminate at the same location is to
undercut the rock.
Look closely at the rock face to the right to

see where undercutting of the rock has
occurred.
Drill Deviation
Common sources of drillhole misalignments are:
• Collaring deviations, or the lateral displacement of a hole from its planned starting
point: this can be caused by (1) the topography of the drill site, (2) poor drill set-up,
and/or (3) the inability of the drill to hold the boom and feed beam in a rigid position
(worn pins and bushings).
• Alignment deviations, or inaccuracies in setting the feed on which a drill is mounted

in a planned direction: this can be caused by (1) instabilities of the drill rig, (2) lack of
precision in positioning equipment, (3) misaligning the feed beam, (4) topography at
the collaring point, and/or (5) structural geology.
• Trajectory deviations, or deviations from the designed drill path during drilling of the
hole: factors contributing to this include (1) hole design (inclination, diameter, length),
(2) drill parameters (thrust, percussion, rotation, flushing velocities), (3) equipment
(bits, rods, stabilizers, couplings, etc.), and/or (4) rock properties (structures,
hardness, variations in the rock mass).
• Driller inexperience.
Planning and Documentation
Drilling and blasting safety and

economics dictate that each blast be
carried out with a high level of planning,
documentation, and communication
among all personnel—including
planning engineers and supervisors,
geologists, drillers, members of the
blasting crew, and surveyors—involved
with it.
Drilling plans are an important aspect of

this process. Drillers must :
• Understand the technology involved in planning the blasthole pattern and

explosives loading;
• Communicate effectively and in a timely manner to supervisors and the blasting

crew, informing them of the final blasthole pattern, conditions, and any changes in
the hole drilling from the planned layout; and
• Prepare drilling logs and other reports that document time, materials, and drill
operating parameters.
Planning and Drilling the Blast Pattern
Good drilling and blasting practices start with the accurate
layout and drilling of blastholes in planned and, sometimes,
unplanned locations. The location of blastholes to be drilled
for a single blast rarely form a uniform, rectangular grid.
Based on the performance of previous blasts nearby,
geology, or production requirements, each blast layout will
present new and challenging design elements.
Large mining operations,

which may shoot several
times a day with high-
capacity drilling rigs like
the one shown to the
left, may use global positioning satellite (GPS) technology and on-
board computers to precisely position their rigs in each planned
blasthole location. A planning engineer is often responsible for laying
out and entering into a computer coordinates for the locations of
planned drill holes. This information, in turn, is transferred to the drill
rig’s computer, and the drill is guided by the GPS to each drill-hole
position.
For smaller blasting operations with less frequency in blasting, drill

holes may be visually laid out by the blaster and driller together, with
stakes or colored rocks comparable to those shown above for the
pre-split holes along a highway cut. No computer technology is
involved in this case.
Remote Laser Profiling
The use of lasers and computer-imaging software as planning

tools have advanced safe and economical drilling and blasting
since the late 1980’s. 3-D laser profiling allows the driller and
blaster to both visualize the rock face and determine the face
profile on the computer, thereby assisting them in the planning
of blasthole patterns, optimum burden dimensions, and
explosives loading.
Equipment is used to transmit a laser beam and receive

accurate position information (in x-y-z coordinates) from beam
reflections for millions of points on the highwall face between the
crest and toe of the bench within the bounds of the planned
blast. These data are collected in some form of logger and
downloaded to the computer.
In 2-D profiling, the proposed drill angle and hole

offset from the crest are entered into the software,
and profiles of the rock face and planned borehole
are created graphically. 3-D profiling includes a
survey of the actual drilled blastholes over the hole
length from the hole collar, allowing for both
calculation of the effect of hole deviations and
computation of the explosive loading required from
actual burden dimensions.
Profiles of a bench, similar to the one shown below, may be
interpolated by the software and printed out on a thermal printer
in the field. The burdens in front of each blasthole (shown below
for three rows) can be computed over the length of the hole and
adjustments readily made—in explosive quantities and location
or delay timing—to accommodate various considerations. The
illustration below shows such considerations as A, a region of
critical minimum burden distances that may result in flyrock; B,
excessive toe burdens that may inhibit movement and
fragmentation; C, hole deviations that may result in explosive
overloading; or D, excessive burdens between rows.
crest 1 2 3
toe B D
C
Blasthole Documentation and Communications
Communication between the drilling and blasting crews is
essential for all good blasting operations. In operations where
the drilling and blasting are performed by separate crews, the
supervisors should work together closely to ensure that
boreholes are drilled and loaded to design specifications and that
crews work together to identify problem boreholes.
Operations where drilling and blasting are performed under the
same supervisor or by the same crews are highly recommended,
in that this allows both crews to work closely to maintain efficient
borehole drilling and loading.
Drilling information can be

conveyed from the drilling crew to
the blasting crew by means of
stakes placed at each blasthole.
Such stakes can record useful
information such as hole-
identification number, total hole
depth, water level in the hole,
backfill depth, depth of soft/hard
layers, location of voids, depth of
cracks, etc. that the driller observes
during drilling operations.
Drill logs
Drilling allows the blaster to “see” what is behind the

highwall face. A drill log provides a means for the drilling
information to be conveyed from the drilling crew to the
blasting crew. In particular, where multiple drills are used on
the same bench, drill logs promoted consistent reporting
back to the blaster.
Good drill log will:
• Be on printed log sheets

• Be written
• Illustrate the blast pattern drilled
• Identify the drill holes and locations
• Show the angle of drilling
• Document the completed hole depth
• Document the depth to cracks, voids, and water
• Describe changes in geology
• Document the driller responsible for the hole
Once the true nature of the overburden is revealed,

the blast can be designed or modified as appropriate.
Communicating this information to the blaster is
critical.
Other Summary Reports
The driller is also responsible for producing a number of daily
reports that summarize the activities associated with the drill rig
for that day’s shift. These reports may be company-specific
and of different types. For example:
Drill operator’s report.—This type of report documents the

activities associated with a given drill rig for a specific shift;
typically, it includes information regarding the hole number
drilled and drilled depths, as well as downtime intervals and the
reasons for downtime. From such a report, drill rig availability
(the actual up-time available for the rig) and use (the
percentage of available time that drilling actually occurred
during the shift) can be computed. In addition, the total
yardage drilled, based on known hole spacing, or tons shot,
based on rock density, can be computed.
Drill operating parameters report.—For drill rigs with on-board computers, operating parameters such
as rotational speed, bit weight, percussion energy blow count, and so forth can be monitored. The rate of
penetration in feet/hour or feet/minute can be computed and used to evaluate drilling costs per foot, per
ton, or per cubic yards shot. Monitoring operating parameters can help control wear on the drill bit to
extend bit life in hours or feet.
The driller may not be directly responsible for the assessment of this information, which is automatically
stored and then later evaluated, but he or she must always be mindful of the impact that adjustments to
these parameters have on the overall productivity and economics of the drilling and blasting operations.
1. Your goal is to load blastholes as safely and efficiently as you possibly can. List as many
things as you can think of that you would want a driller to convey to you, after completing
the drilling of the blasting pattern, to help you achieve this goal.
2. Drill-hole deviations can be caused by all of the following except:

a. Geology
b. An inexperienced driller
c. The elevation of the drilling bench
d. Misalignment of the drill mast from vertical or the intended angle
3. List what you need to know about drill-rig performance in order to help you evaluate the
efficiency of your drilling program.
Answers
1. The information regarding blastholes that would be of use to you would be: (a)
the total drilled depth of each hole; (b) whether or not there was water present in
the holes; (c) whether or not any holes had collapsed; (d) whether any hole
contained voids, soft seams, and/or a mixture of hard and soft layers; and (e)
whether or not there had been any backfilling in holes.
2. c. is correct.
3. The information regarding drill-rig performance that you need to know is: (a) total
hours drilling and total hours of downtime during each shift; (b) total number of
holes drilled; (c) total footage drilled; (d) calculated penetration rate; and (e) bits
used or bits replaced. With respect to rotary drilling, you need to know the weight
on the bit, the rotational speed, and/or the air pressure for flushing; with respect
to percussive drilling, you need to know blow count and blow energy.
Blasthole Loading

instructor.
DISCLAIMER
Blasthole Loading
This module presents proper and

safe blasthole loading practices.
Precautions Before Loading
Before any loading activities are started, a blast area must be clearly marked with flags, cones,
or other readily identifiable markers. All unnecessary equipment must be removed from the
area. All persons not essential to the powder-loading operation should leave. Observers should
be under the control of a responsible person who will ensure that they do not create a hazard by
wandering about the area. Any electrical power that might create a hazard should be
disconnected. Where electric blasting or electric detonators are being employed, appropriate
checks should be made with a blaster’s multi-meter. Two-way radios must be turned off in areas
where electric blasting or electric detonators are being employed.
Loading Overview
Blasthole loading involves placing all of the ingredients necessary for a blast—the main
explosive charge, deck charges, initiation systems, primers, and stemming—into the borehole.
Borehole loading requires various techniques depending on hole diameter, type of explosive,
and the size of the blast. Possible considerations include:
• Checking the borehole (drill

communication),
• Addressing problems (water,

cave-ins, voids, etc.),
• Making the primer,
• Loading the primer,
• Addressing the need for

multiple priming/decks,
• Loading explosives,
• Addressing the need for bulk

equipment, and
• Stemming the blasthole.

Checking the Borehole
Before loading begins, the boreholes should be checked. Never load a borehole without
confirming that it has been drilled to the proper depth. A weighted tape should be used to
check the holes. If the hole is deeper than the designed depth, fill it with drill cuttings or other
stemming until the bottom of the hole is at the proper depth. Loading an excessively deep borehole
is a waste of explosives (which translates as unnecessary expense) and may increase vibrations.
Boreholes that are shallower than the designed depth should either be cleaned out with a drill or
compressed air or redrilled. The blasting foreman should make the decision to fire the shot with
short holes.
While checking the borehole for

proper depth, it is convenient to
check for water in the borehole.
With just a little experience, a
blaster can closely estimate the
level of water in a borehole by
visually checking the weighted
tape for wetness after the
borehole depth check has been
made. To get a more accurate
check, the weighted end of the
tape can be jiggled up and down
at the water level, which can be
identified by the splashing sound
this process will generate.
Communication with Drillers
As mentioned in the “Blasthole Drilling” module, communication between blast and drill
crews is essential to achieving desired blast results. Check with the driller or the drill log
to see if voids, mud seams, or other zones of weakness are present in the blast pattern.
A borehole may pass through or bottom into an opening. In such a case, plugging the
borehole may be necessary if the void cannot be filled with stemming material. Gas
bags, stemming plugs, or other air-decking devices may be used to plug a borehole at
various depths.
On occasion, a borehole may
become obstructed. On a sunny
day, a mirror may be used to
check for obstructions. In other
cases, a heavy weight (weighted
tape) can be dropped repeatedly
to free an obstruction. If a new
hole must be drilled adjacent to a
blocked hole, be sure to fill the
blocked hole with stemming so
that the new hole does not vent
into the blocked one.
Weak Material and Incompetent Zones
Zones of weakness—for example, mud seams or faults—may cause serious problems, including
unacceptable fragmentation, in blast patterns. Explosive energy always seeks the path of least
resistance. The best way to counter a blast moving through weak material or incompetent zones is to
use smaller diameter holes and a tighter pattern, both of which will result in better powder distribution.
When
charging the
borehole,
inert
Stemming stemming
Open bed
material
should be
loaded
through these
Explosive weak zones
in the rock.
Weak material
Stem zones of weakness and open beds in boreholes.

Mud Seams and Voids
Where the condition of the borehole is in doubt, the rise of the powder column should be
checked frequently while loading the hole. If the column fails to rise as expected, you have
most likely encountered a void.
At this point, stop loading

explosives and instead
load a deck of inert
stemming. Where this is
impractical because of the
size of the void, it may be
necessary to block the
hole above the void and
Void
continue loading the hole
with explosive material.
Make sure that you leave
enough room at the top of
Mud seam the borehole to adequately
stem the hole.
Loss of explosive energy through zones of weakness.

Wet Boreholes
Any time a blaster encounters water in a borehole, his or her job becomes
more challenging. A decision must be made whether to load waterproof
explosive products or instead to set in motion a dewatering plan. The cost of
products designed for dewatered holes and products designed to be loaded
into standing water must be evaluated and compared, along with the additional
labor costs associated with dewatering. A water-resistant explosive—for
example, an emulsion or a blend—may be quite useful for blasting in wet
conditions. On the other hand, economics may favor dewatering the borehole
and bulk-loading ANFO into it using a protective plastic borehole liner.
In either case, a word of caution: do not load ANFO product into wet
boreholes, even if they have been dewatered. The ANFO may become
desensitized, in which case it will not shoot.
Wet Boreholes
Dewatering
To dewater, a pump is lowered to the bottom of the hole and the water is pumped out. A roll of
hollow plastic tubing, called a “borehole liner,” is brought to the collar of the hole. A rock (weight)
is placed in the liner, and a knot is tied in the bottom of it to keep the rock in place. Be sure to
leave 4 to 6 feet of liner at the top of the hole, to account for slumping caused by the weight of
the explosive. The hole can be primed and loaded inside the liner as normal. Where water is
seeping into the borehole, it is important that the liner and ANFO be loaded quickly to prevent
the hole from refilling with water.
Click on the image to the right

to play a dewatering clip.
Wet Boreholes
Borehole Liners
In the event a decision is made not to use a waterproof explosive in a borehole that has required
dewatering, flexible plastic borehole liners are available to protect the explosive used from any
residual moisture in the hole. These liners are inserted into blastholes and ANFO then loaded inside
them. The liners can be bought in pre-cut sealed lengths or in rolls. Rolls are most often used except
in large casting operations, where single, heavy-duty liners are more economical.
Click on the image to the left

to play a clip that shows a
borehole liner in use.
Wet Boreholes
Bulk Emulsion Blends
Heavy ANFO is defined as a mixture of 20- to 25-percent non-sensitized emulsion and 75- to 80-percent
ANFO. Heavy ANFO is used in dry holes to increase the energy output of an explosion over that of regular
ANFO. A blend of 30-percent emulsion is used in wet, dewatered boreholes to maximize the water
resistance of the explosive. This mixture can be “slept” in a borehole for several days without losing
sensitivity.
Thirty-percent emulsion is bottom-primed like heavy ANFO, but the primer should be pulled up off the
bottom of the borehole a little to avoid any water that may pool there. This product must be regularly
monitored to maintain quality in the finished blend, as detonation sensitivity decreases as the density of the
blend increases.
Cartridge, Bottom-Load Explosives
A cartridge product can be loaded into the wet portion of a borehole after the hole has been dewatered. A
final cartridge is slit, loaded, and tamped to seal the bottom of the hole. ANFO can be loaded into the rest of
the explosive column.
Water-Resistant ANFO
After a hole has been dewatered, “water-resistant ANFO” can be loaded into it from a bulk truck or in 50-
pound bags. Water-resistant ANFO shoots a little harder than regular ANFO, because of its increased
density, but additives in the mixture create a 1.2-g/cc waterproof seal on the outside of the explosive
column.
Primers
A primer is a unit, package, or cartridge of explosives that contains
either (1) a detonator or (2) a detonating cord to which is attached a
detonator designed to initiate the detonating cord.
The effectiveness of a priming system is determined by many

properties, including its detonation pressure, its energy, and its
resistance to water. The size of the primer and the initiation
system’s compatibility with the main charge of explosives should
also be considered.
Detonation Pressure
A good rule of thumb to follow when choosing a primer system is

that the detonation pressure of the primer should always be greater
than the detonation pressure of the explosive being primed. If this
condition is not met, the main charge may not achieve steady-state
velocity or fully develop its borehole pressure, or, worse yet, it may
completely fail to initiate.
Energy
A booster must have sufficient energy both to initiate the detonation reaction in the main charge and to
sustain it until the primed explosive produces enough energy to support the detonation reaction by itself.
Water-Resistance
The water-resistance of most boosters is sufficient enough to withstand exposure to water at various depths
and for extended periods. Check with the manufacturer if you have questions about the water-resistance of
your booster or priming system.
Making Primers
The process of making primers from boosters and detonators or detonating cord requires that
proper care and technique be exercised when combining the sensitive initiator and the explosive
cartridge. Primers should always be made up close to the blastsite and immediately before
loading. The so-called “business end”—that is, the explosive tip—of the detonator should always
be inserted in the booster so that it points in the direction of the main charge. This ensures
maximum confinement and the most efficient use of the explosive’s energy.
Various types of boosters require different types of initiation systems, and the manufacturer or the
technical data sheet should be consulted for the priming recommendations for each type of
booster used.
Click on the image above to play a

clip showing how to load lined holes.
Making Primers
When priming small-diameter cartridges, the hole for the detonator is usually punched in the
end of the cartridge. With electric detonators, the wires are usually half-hitched around the
cartridge. The tubes or fuse from non-electric detonators are taped to the cartridge to ensure
that the detonator is not pulled out during loading. Some safety fuse will not stand up under
the sharp bend required for end-priming. Instead, punch a diagonal hole all the way through
the cartridge and a second diagonal hole partially through. String the cap and fuse through
the first hole, place them into the second hole, and pull to secure. Taping the fuse to the
cartridge will ensure that the primer remains intact during loading.
Detonating cord is secured to large-diameter
cartridges by punching a diametrical hole through
the cartridge, passing the cord through the
cartridge, and tying the cord at the top of the
cartridge with a secure knot.
When attaching detonating cord directly to a small-
diameter cartridge, the detonating cord is usually
inserted into a deep axial hole in the end of the
cartridge. The cord is then either taped to the
cartridge, passed through a diagonal hole in the
cartridge, or secured with a half-hitch to ensure
that the cord will not pull out.
Making Primers
It is recommended that cast
boosters, rather than large-
Short-
diameter explosive cartridges, be
lead
used with non-electric initiators.
detonator
With detonating cord, a cast primer
with a single axial hole is used.
The cord is passed through the
cord tunnel and tightly knotted at Cord well Cast booster
the bottom of the primer. Because
this knot will not pull back through Cap well
the tunnel, it is not necessary to tie
the cord around the primer.
Primers can be added by passing
the downline at the blasthole collar
through each primer’s tunnel and
sliding the primer down the
downline. Place the delay-cast
primers on the cord using the
tunnel connected to the perimeter
of the primer, rather than passing
through the center of the primer
itself. Photograph showing
slider booster.
Photograph showing 1-pound cast
primer with electronic detonator.
1. If your column fails to rise to the desired level during loading, what may you have
encountered?
a. A void
b. Nothing; keep loading
c. Another blasthole
2. True or false: it is acceptable to load ANFO into wet boreholes as long as they have
been dewatered?
3. What may be the consequence(s) of using a primer that is not powerful enough?
a. The detonation will be too great in the hole
b. The blasting agent may not reach its steady-state velocity soon enough to
provide maximum energy
c. The primer won’t set off the detonator attached to it
4. Where and how would you make a primer using a 1-pound cast booster and a
detonating cord downline?
a. At the magazine, using the manufacturer’s recommended procedures
b. At the borehole, using a secure Persian wrap knot
c. At the borehole, using the manufacturer’s recommended procedures
Answers
1. a. is correct.
2. False.
3. b. is correct.
4. c. is correct.
Typical Primer Configurations
Cast primers for use with detonators have a
detonator well in addition to a tunnel. Insert the Detonator
detonator through the tunnel and back up into the leg wires
well, making sure that the detonator is seated in or shock
the bottom of the well. The detonator should tube
remain securely in the primer; however, as an
added precaution, it is a good idea to use
electrician’s tape to secure the detonator.
Water gel/
emulsion
Short-lead Dynamite primer
detonator
To prime large-diameter cartridges
Tape with electric blasting caps, punch a
diagonal hole from the top center of
the cartridge and out the side about
Diagonally 8 inches from the top. Then, double
punched hole over the detonator wires, thread
them through the hole, and wrap
them around the cartridge. Place
Detonator the detonator into a hole punched
inserted to into the top of the cartridge, and pull
full depth the assembly tight. Tape the leg
wires to the cartridge for extra
security.
Making Primers
When making primers, remember to:
• Fasten the detonator or detonating cord so

it cannot be pulled out of or off the primer
cartridge or container;
• Place the detonator or detonating cord in

the safest and most efficient position in the
booster’s cartridge (this is generally near the
center of the booster and pointing towards the
main charge);
• Not subject the shock tube or detonating

cord of non-electric detonators, the wires of
electric detonators, or detonating cord to
damaging pull, strains, or abrasion;
• Select a booster with adequate detonation

pressure (>100 KB), energy, and water-
resistance to meet the demands of the
blasting situation; and
• Employ a priming system that allows the

entire assembly to be loaded safely, easily,
and in the desired position in the charge.
Multiple Priming
Most blasting situations require

only a single-point primer position
per blasthole. A few of the
situations where multiple priming
is used are:
• Specifically, with decked

charges;
• To break up boulder-
prone caprock in the
stemming area of a blast;
or
• In decked charges, to
reduce the charge weight
per delay, thereby reducing
vibrations.
In the first two situations, the decks may be on the same or different delays.
However, in the third situation, the decks must be on different delays. In any case,
each deck will require a separate primer.
Multiple Priming
Another reason for multiple priming that does
not involve multiple decks is a safety factor,
whereby multiple priming ensures total column
detonation. This can take care of problems
associated with long, thin charges or with slip
planes that may be present in the borehole.
In these cases, two or more primers should be

spaced throughout the powder column. These
primers may be on the same delay, but, where
single priming is preferred, they can be put on
separate delays.
Primers
Primer Location
Proper location of the primer is important for both safety and

efficiency reasons. Placing the primer in the bottom of the
hole minimizes bootlegs and also protects against leaving
undetonated explosives in the bottom of the hole if the
cartridges become separated. The primer cartridge must
not be cut, deformed, or tamped. If bulk products are being
loaded, the primer may be raised slightly from the bottom of
the hole. 250-
millisecond
To reduce ground vibrations in bench blasting with a delay primer
designed subdrill, the primer should be placed at toe level assemblies
and NOT the bottom of the hole.
In large-diameter blastholes, a recommended practice is to

place the primer at the bottom of the blasthole to maximize
the confinement of the charge. Bottom-initiated holes tend
to produce less flyrock and airblast than do top-initiated
holes, assuming all other dimensions are equal. If pulling 200-
the toe is not a significant problem, some blasters prefer millisecond
placing the primer near the center of the explosive column.
This gives the quickest total reaction of the explosive column
delay
and may yield improved fragmentation. A good rule of primer
thumb when using a single primer in a large-diameter assemblies
blasthole is to place the primer in the zone of most difficult
breakage, normally the toe.
Loading Procedures
Before loading the primer, it is good practice to load a foot or so of powder so that the primer cartridge is protected
from puncture and coupled in the bottom of the borehole. In almost all situations, it is recommended that the
explosive charge be totally coupled or that it completely fill the borehole diameter. Bulk loading of explosives ensures
good coupling. When cartridged products are used, coupling is improved by slitting the cartridges and tamping them
firmly into place. NEVER tamp a primer cartridge.
The primer (booster with the detonator inserted) should be lowered down the blasthole BEFORE loading additional
boosters and the main charge of explosives. Bailing twine or some other form of lowering material should be used.
NEVER lower large primers (>1 pound) using detonator leg wires or shock tubes, as damage to the initiation
system may result.
Care must be taken to ensure that the detonator does not come out of the primer cartridge during loading. NEVER
drop or tamp the primer cartridge down the hole. One or more cartridges or a few feet of ANFO should be placed
above the primer cartridge before dropping or tamping begins.
Loading Procedures
Blastholes may be loaded with bulk or packaged products. Bulk products are either
poured, augered, or pumped into the hole or blown in through a loading hose.
Packaged products are either dropped into the hole, pushed in with a tamping pole, or
loaded with a pneumatic tube. It is a good idea to check the rise of the powder column
frequently, using a weighted tape, as loading progresses. This will give warning of a
cavity or oversized hole that is causing a serious overcharge or explosive to be loaded;
it will also ensure that sufficient room is left at the top of the hole for the proper amount
of stemming.
Click on the image above to play a clip

showing the use of wet-hole boosters.
Packaged Products
Large-diameter dynamite cartridges are seldom

used today, except occasionally as primers.
ANFO and slurries are much more cost-effective.
An operator who wants to use ANFO in wet
boreholes will typically resort to water-resistant
bags of partially pulverized heavy ANFO. Heavy
ANFO will sink in water; accordingly, the bags
should be carefully lowered into water-filled holes
rather than dropped, because a broken bag will
result in desensitized
ANFO, an interruption
in the powder column,
and some
undetonated
explosive. With
packaged products,
coupling may be
sacrificed.
Bulk Dry and Blend Blasting Agents
Bulk-loading offers significant advantages over loading packaged products into large-diameter blast holes.
Advantages include greater cost-effectiveness, faster loading, and better use of available space in the
borehole.
Bulk ANFO or prills are stored in overhead storage bins, from which they are loaded into bulk trucks. ANFO
may be trucked to a blast site in premixed form, or the oil may be metered into the prills as they are placed
into the blast hole.
Auger-loading gives the fastest loading rates. A side-boom auger

is satisfactory for loading one row of holes at a time. Where it is
desirable to reach more holes from one set-up, an overhead-boom
auger with a 350o radius of swing can be used. Bulk-loading trucks
have capacities of 2,000 to over 30,000 pounds of ANFO.
Bulk Emulsion
Bulk emulsion pumping is common

in large-diameter, vertical-hole
blasting. Some trucks will have
capacities of up to 30,000 pounds
and pumping rates of 200 to 400
pounds/minute. Emulsions may
have micro-balloon sensitizers, or
some blends may be gassed as
they are loaded into the borehole.
Click on the image above to

play a pumping clip
Bulk Emulsion
Quality should be controlled for each

load to maintain the proper loading
density for emulsion and blends. Any
products that need to gas in-hole
should be given adequate time before
the hole is stemmed.
Stemming
It is recommended that all blastholes be stemmed to improve
the efficiency of the explosive and to reduce airblast and
flyrock. As a rule of thumb, the length of stemming should be
from 14 to 18 times the borehole diameter. Sized, crushed
stone or drill cuttings are most commonly used. Large rocks
should never be used for stemming, as they may damage the
initiation system or become projectiles if blown out of the
borehole.
Click on the
image
immediately
to the left to
play a
stemming
clip.
Securing Downlines
It is important that the wires, tubes, or

detonating cord leading from a primer
are properly secured (using a stake) at
the borehole collar in vertical or near-
vertical holes.
Bulk Equipment
Bulk equipment is able to load different blends

of ANFO and emulsion with the touch of a
computer screen in the cab of modern vehicles.
Hydraulic controls are safe for bulk equipment,

because there is no build-up of static electricity
in electric controls.
Cab-mounted equipment uses a programmable

computer that allows the operator to control the
product feed and the boom from the cab. Back-
up controls on the fender allow for boom and
product control outside the bulk truck.
Side-boom trucks are typically used on large

patterns and have controls both at the end of
the boom and in the cab. Overhead mount
trucks are used on smaller patterns and can
load several holes without moving the truck.
Bulk Equipment
Table showing typical bulk-equipment configurations
Swing arc (in
Mount Boom length (in degrees of Discharge level (in
Auger/mount type1 location feet) radius) feet)
Overhead auger, standard mount rear 16 - 20 360 8 - 10
Overhead auger, reverse mount front 16 - 20 360 8 - 10
Overhead auger, reverse mount driver side 12 - 16 180 2-4
1The auger may have a flexible hose attached, which would affect its discharge level. Note,
as well, that the bulk-equipment configurations described in this table are for overhead augers. There
is evidence that side-mount augers are now in more prevalent use, and it is side-mount augers that are
shown in both images below.
Click on the image above to play a Click on the image above to play a clip
load-parting clip showing the operation of a side boom.
1. True or false: double-priming holes in a cast-blast pattern is a recommended safety
practice?
2. True or false: recommended practice is to tamp a primer cartridge to achieve good

coupling in the bottom of a borehole?
3. If you suspect an explosive is burning in a borehole, what should you do?

a. Keep all personnel away from the blastsite
b. Wait 30 minutes before entering the blast area to inspect the misfire
c. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for misfires
d. All of the above
4. What is(are) recommended operating procedure(s) for areas in which charged (loaded
and tied-in) holes are awaiting firing?
a. All required warning signs should be in place to keep out unauthorized
personnel
b. Anyone proposing to enter the blast area should contact the blast supervisor
prior to doing so
c. Berms should be constructed to control equipment access to the blastsite
d. All of the above
5. Losing a primer down a hole can easily be avoided by doing what?
a. Tying downlines to the borehole stakes
b. Avoiding placing primer(s)s too close to the hole prior to loading it
c. Focusing on both working carefully and observing safe practices while
loading the hole
d. All of the above
6. What should the consideration(s) be when loading a packaged product into a blast
hole?
a. Care should be taken so that the coupling is not lost
b. The product should be lowered, not dropped, into a wet blast hole
c. The packaging for a water-gel or emulsion explosive should be slit prior to
loading to achieve better coupling
d. All of the above
7. What are some considerations with respect to selecting bulk equipment for a blasting
operation?
a. Explosive products being used
b. Blast-pattern dimensions
c. Explosive quantities needed
d. All of the above
Answers
1. False. As a practical matter, double- or multiple-priming may be used with
decked charges or to reduce the charge weight per delay. However, as a
safety factor, double- or multiple-priming ensures total column detonation.
2. False. You should never drop or tamp the primer cartridge down the hole;
instead, one or more cartridges or a few feet of ANFO should be placed above
the primer cartridge before dropping or tamping begins.
3. a. and c. are correct.
4. d. is correct.
5. c. is correct.
6. c. is correct.
7. d. is correct.
Geology

DISCLAIMER
Geology
This module presents information regarding fundamental rock properties and the
geologic structures encountered during blasting operations. Geology can vary widely
and has a great impact on drilling and blasting efficiencies.
A blaster should
understand the properties
of the different types of
rock he or she intends to
blast. Typically, rock
“properties” are
described in terms of
composition and
structural characteristics.
The methods selected to

drill blastholes, the type
and placement of
explosives, the layout of
blastholes or the drilling
pattern, and the type of
initiation system all are
greatly influenced by rock Highwall cut showing horizontal bedding planes cut
type and structural by inclined joints that offset beds in the limestone.
geology.
Rock Classification and Properties
Rock Classification which is when the rock fractures and can no
longer support a load.
Rocks are classified according to three types:
Some rocks near the ground surface are exposed
• sedimentary, to weathering processes that chemically break
• igneous, and down the minerals and reduce rock strength.
• metamorphic. Deeper in the earth, the rock may not be
chemically altered and will have a higher strength.
Rock Properties The type and amount of explosives needed to
fracture surface rock and subsurface rock may be
Strength.—A rock’s strength is defined as the very different. Stronger, more competent rock
maximum load it can bear at the point of failure, requires an explosive with high energy output,
higher density, and generally higher cost.
Bulk density.—The bulk density of a rock is

defined as the specific gravity of the rock or the
ratio of the rock mass to water at a constant
volume. Density is a function of the minerals
present in the rock, as well the ratio of solid
mineral grains to open pores such as small voids
and micro-fractures. In general, the greater the
rock density, the higher the explosive energy
needed to break the rock.
Rock Properties
Sonic-wave speed.—The sonic-wave speed of a rock is defined as the speed of sound in the rock
or the velocity of a compression wave traveling in it.
The more competent the rock (with less weathering and greater density), the higher the speed of a
compression wave traveling in it and the greater the explosive energy needed to break the rock.
The illustration below compares the typical distance it might take for a sound wave, generated by
the impact of a heavy hammer or an explosive detonation, to travel in 1 second inside solid marble
(top) and highly weathered and fractured sandstone (bottom).
14,000 feet
Unweathered marble.
5,000 feet
Fractured sandstone.
Field Exercise: Dynamic Rock-Loading Using a Hammer
The next time you go into the field, carry a heavy hand-held hammer with you. Make sure you
wear safety glasses and protective clothing.
Select small, solid rocks (about 6 inches in size) of various types and degrees of weathering. Give
each a good whack with the hammer. How does it feel and sound?
Striking a competent rock that is not easily broken will create a high-pitched “ping,” and the sound
will ring for a short time. The hammer will recoil quickly and might even bounce off the rock
surface.
Look closely at the impact surface of a competent rock. Is it still smooth and unmarked or have
you created dust particles of crushed rock? How much “damage” have you created on the
surface?
On the other hand, striking a highly weathered and weak rock may impart a dull, shallow “thud”
and result in fracturing. The rock may have a preexisting flaw or small fractures that are not visible
to the eye. Impacting the rock may cause the fracture to open, resulting in fragmented pieces.
Examine the fractured surfaces. Are they fresh and unaltered or are they stained with iron oxides
(brownish-rust color), indicating weathering? Scratch the fractured surface with a pocket knife. Is
it soft and coated with fine clays or other materials that are easily removed, or is it hard to scratch?
Just like the variation in responses to a hammer impact, the rock response to explosives can vary
greatly. Understanding the energy required to fracture a given rock with explosives is key to
efficient blasting.
Large-Scale Rock Properties
We often differentiate between the small-scale and the large-scale
properties of rock. The small-scale properties are those that can
be seen in a small rock specimen through a geologist’s hand lens
or with the naked eye. These are the properties that, in part, give
the rock its strength, density, sound velocity, permeability (or
ability for water to flow through the pores), and other attributes.
Just as important to rock breakage using explosives are the large-

scale (or field-scale) properties of rock. These include the rock’s:
• Bedding planes,
• Joints and faults,
• Stratigraphy (or the variation in different rock materials
with depth),
• Hydraulic properties,
• Mud or clay seams, and
• Open voids.
These large-scale features often control the performance of explosives and the size of the blasted
rock particles (termed fragmentation), as well as the direction and distance of rock movement
during the blast. If explosives are loaded within zones of weakness—bedding planes, mud or
clay seams, joints and faults—, the chances of flyrock and excessive airblast will increase.
Near-vertical joint
with offset.
Thin beds.
Thick bed.
Photograph showing the difference between bedding plane and joints.

The number of fractures per linear foot along a rock face and the spacing between fractures (either
vertical joints or bedding planes) are important in projecting what the size distribution of fragments and
the explosive-energy distribution within the rock mass will be. Widely spaced structures will reduce
“blastability” (a function of the number of fracture planes over a given distance and the spacing between
them), resulting in coarser fragmentation.
Photograph showing strong vertical Photograph showing variations in thickness

jointing in a basalt flow. of limestone beds in a highway cut.
Fracture spacing = 3 Fracture spacing = 6

inches inches
1 foot Fracture frequency = 5 1 foot Fracture frequency = 3

A large structural feature, such as

the fault to the right, shows over 30
feet vertical displacement. In many
cases, the variation in geological
properties on either side of a fault
can be dramatic. Lateral changes in
geology, in particular any changes in
rock strength or zones of weakness,
require accommodation, usually
amounting to modifications to the
manner in which explosives are
loaded into the displaced rock.
Open joints that result from intense and deep
weathering in a rock mass may cause a
disruption in explosive-energy distribution.
This may lead to a number of adverse
consequences, such as the venting of
explosive gases, airblast, flyrock, and the
creation of large boulders in the muckpile.
Photograph showing gas venting through factures in the face.

The uniformly
spaced bedding
and jointing at this
quarry allows for a
uniform distribution
of explosive
energy.
As a consequence,
the fragmented
rock resulting from
a blast (shown in
this photograph to
the far right) is
uniform in size.
Top.
The blast (left) in the tight, far corner at this site

produced large boulders from the caprock. Explosive
energy lost through widely spaced, weathered joints
(showing iron-stained) merely loosened the caprock in
place. The caprock remained on top of the muckpile, as
Front. the finer fragmented material was kicked out beneath.
A second shot along the bench (right) showed more
uniform fragmentation from tight, unweathered joints.
Explosive energy was well contained.
Composite photograph showing typical fragmentation distribution from a

well-timed coal-casting shot.
Mixed geology like that shown
to the left occurs when
materials of very different
strengths exist within the
vertical strata.
In this highway cut, bedded

limestone (1) is shown
overlying unconsolidated soils
(2) that grade down to a weak
limestone (3).
1
Note the oxidized red (iron-
colored) staining on the rock,
indicating an active water
2 channel along an open joint.
Such jointing poses a

3 challenge to the process of
loading explosives, because
very little energy is needed to
break and displace the
material near the joint.
The hydraulic properties of

a rock are also important
and contribute to the
varying degrees of
moisture that can develop
in blastholes that are drilled
into it.
Water can seep long

distances through joints or
faults, between bedding
planes (as shown to the
right), or within a coal
seam.
The amount of moisture or

free-standing water in
blastholes is an important
consideration in the
selection of explosives and
hole-loading practices.
Voids, or solution cavities, in certain types of rock such as limestone occur when rain-water-
carrying mild acids from the atmosphere seep into the ground surface. Slowly, over many years,
this acid dissolves the lime or carbonate rock-forming cavities it encounters. Such cavities can
range from a few feet up to tens of feet in diameter.
Mud seams, fault “gouge,” or gravel channels appear in many types of rocks. These features often
represent widely spaced separations in the rock that are filled with weak, unconsolidated clays,
gravels, and sands.
void
Mud seam.
Every effort should be made to detect voids and seams during blasthole drilling. These features can
greatly disrupt the confinement of explosive energy. If explosives are loaded into large voids or
through seams and wide fault zones, the lack of confinement can contribute to flyrock, excessive
airblast, and over-size fragmentation.
The manner in which joints intersect the highwall or free face of an open pit or
excavation will determine the stability of the remaining walls after a blast.
Joints generally come in

“sets.” One-half of a set is
Ground surface.
N shown to the left. Joints are
characterized by:
Strikes.—The strike of a joint

is its orientation as observed
θ from the ground surface; the
strike of the joints to the left is
due north.
Dips.—The dip of a joint is its

inclination as observed on a
vertical plane “cut” through
the earth perpendicular to the
Highwall face. strike (shown to the left as
angle θ).
Dipping joints frequently cause (1) stability problems and (2) difficulty in breaking the burden
toe.
Dipping joints could create unstable Overhanging rock

highwall; excessive backbreak may may result from
lead to plane failure, as well as overloading the toe
surface and slope failure into the region.
working areas.
Vertical backbreak
intersecting with joint dip.
Slope plane
failure.
Plane failure involves large rock-mass

movement and can be very dangerous to
employees and equipment working
below the face.
Last row of holes.
An overloaded toe that causes

excess rock damage or
“overcut” * * * Photograph showing overhang.
* * * can lead to this unsafe

overhang situation.
When joint sets intersect behind the highwall face, the

intersection may form a line of potential slip (dipping
into the working areas). Slip may occur if joints in the
back wall are opened by blasting energy and
excessive vibrations create high lateral forces.
Wedge failures can involve a large mass of rock

material that may, as a consequence, be quite
dangerous to workers below the face.
Large-Scale Rock Properties with Drilling
Simplified Blocky Rockmass Joints Angled to Free Face
Expanded Pattern Prevents Even Energy Distribution Blocky Face From Excessive Backbreak
Poor
Fragmentation
Zone
Free Face
Free Face
Simplified Blocky Rockmass Joints Parallel to Free Face

Tight Pattern Promotes Even Energy Distribution Good Wall Control
Uniform Fragmentation Free Face
Free Face
Large-Scale Rock Properties with Angle Drilling
Multiple geologic seams affect highwall stability. Angle drilling will allow
weathering of softer rock at the natural angle of repose and help prevent
undercutting of competent rock. Remember to deck holes as necessary
to keep explosives in the competent materials.
Multiple Geologic Seams
Hard Cap Rock
Weak Mud Seam
Very Hard Toe

1. True or false: the strength and density of a rock, as well as its structural features
(jointing and bedding), are important considerations when selecting the type of
explosives needed to blast it.
2. The size of rock fragments that form during blasting is not affected by:
a. Rock strength
b. Explosives strength
c. Rock joint patterns
d. Tensile strength of detonating cord
3. List three situations that can lead to unstable highwalls after blasting.
Answers
1. True.
2. d. is correct.
3. Three situations that can create unstable highwalls following blasting are (1)
backbreak intersecting joints dipping into the highwall face; (2) overhang or
undercutting at the toe; and (3) wedge-type failure or slipping on two intersecting
joints.
Regulations
and Safe Practices

DISCLAIMER
Regulations and Safe Practices
This module presents current blasting
and related explosive regulations and
identifies the regulatory agencies that
enforce them.
Regulations in the mining-explosives

industry relate to the:
• manufacture,
• transportation,
• storage, and
• use
of explosives. Blasters are responsible

for knowing all applicable laws that affect
the storage, transport, and use of
explosives on their job sites. The
module focuses on the storage and
transport of explosives from magazines
to such sites. The safety aspects of
explosive handling and use are
presented in other blaster-training
modules.
Regulations and Safe Practices Overview
There are many regulations and guidelines that govern the manufacture, transportation, storage, and
handling of explosives in the United States. These regulations and guidelines are intended to protect
the public and to minimize the hazards of exposure to personnel working with them.
For any blasting operation, there may be up

to four levels of regulation:
• Federal,
• State,
• County, and
• City.
Likewise, there may be several sources of

safe recommended practices. In particular,
entities with input regarding safe practices are:
Industry Explosives manufacturers
Institute of Makers of
Explosives (IME)
End users Company-specific standard operating procedures
On the Federal level, the responsibility to update and enforce explosives-related regulations rests
with five government agencies, which are listed on the next slide. In addition, the IME, whose
recommended safe practices are sponsored by all major explosive manufacturers in the United
States and Canada, provides important explosives-related guidelines.
Federal Regulating Agencies and Other Organizations
FEDERAL AGENCIES
Department of Transportation (DOT) www.dot.gov
Regulates the transportation of explosives on the highways, railways, and
waterways, as well as by air.
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) www.atf.treas.gov

Regulates the storage, importation, manufacture, distribution, onsite
transportation, and use of explosive materials.
Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) www.msha.gov

Regulates the storage, onsite transportation, and use of explosives in all
mines. MSHA recognizes DOT and ATF regulations.
Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) www.osha.gov

Regulates the use of explosives in general industry (other than mining).
Office of Surface Mining (OSM) www.osmre.gov

Regulates the environmental effects of surface and underground coal
mining on Federal and Indian lands, as well as in States that do not
have primacy or a coal regulatory program.
OTHER ORGANIZATIONS
Institute of Makers of Explosives (IME) www.ime.org
Provides recommendations for the proper use, storage, and transportation
of explosive materials.
Agency Responsibility
manufacture OSHA
packaging ATF, DOT
storage ATF, OSHA
ship to distributor ATF, DOT
sold to user ATF
coal mines ATF, MSHA, OSM
metal mines, ATF, MSHA

quarries
construction, ATF, OSHA

industrial
Department of Transportation
CFR Title 49 Transportation of Explosives on Highways,

Rail, Air, or Water
Chapter I, Parts 171-77

Chapter III, Part 397
DOT regulates the safe shipment of explosives

under the auspices of Interstate commerce;
“safe shipment” requires proper identification and
packaging of, public protection from, and
transportation vehicles for such explosives.
DOT defines various classes of explosives and requires a permit to transport hazardous materials
for all shippers intending to transport explosives designated as class 1. (On January 1, 1991, DOT
established the class-1 designation as an overarching hazardous-materials category defining [1]
explosives that had formerly been designated either as Class A, B, or C, or as having “no applicable
hazard” and [2] blasting agents.)
All explosives, including class-1 explosives, must be approved for transportation by DOT prior to
transport. Class-1 explosives are divided according to the DOT hazardous-materials divisions
described on the next slide. Detonators or primers with detonators must travel separate from
division 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, and 1.5 materials.
DOT specifies that detonators must be separated by 24 inches, in transit, from detonating cord.
Department of Transportation
Classification of explosives under DOT hazardous-materials regulations
Class name
prior to January 1, 1991 Class-1 divisions
Class A 1.1 Mass explosive hazard (mass-

detonating)
Class A or 1.2 Projection hazard (non-mass-

Class B detonating, but fragment-
producing)
Class B 1.3 Fire hazard (mass fire)
Class C 1.4 Minor explosion hazard confined

to the packaging (minor
fire)
Blasting agent 1.5 Very insensitive explosives

(blasting agents)
No applicable hazard 1.6 Extremely insensitive explosives

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives
ATF is charged with security in the importation, manufacture, distribution,
and storage of explosives. The primary goal of ATF is to prevent explosives
from being used by unauthorized persons. Recordkeeping and secure
storage are key aspects of ATF regulations.
CFR Title 27 Commerce in Explosives
Chapter II, Part 555, Subparts D, G, and K
Subpart D
Licenses for manufacture or Interstate import and sales
Permits for users to acquire explosives for their own use in Interstate commerce
Subpart G
Records and reporting of all transactions
Subpart K
Storage, with respect to:
quantity and storage restriction
classes of explosives
construction of magazines
types and inspection of magazines; tables of separation distances
housekeeping, repair of stores
smoking and open flames
ATF: Licenses and Permits
The Safe Explosive Act (SEA), which was signed into law in November of 2002, authorizes ATF to
require permits or licenses of all explosives users. If explosives are manufactured onsite for onsite use,
an ATF license is required. Otherwise, an ATF user permit is necessary. Independent contractors using
explosives at such permitted operations must have their own ATF license or permit and must otherwise
be in compliance with SEA.
Companies involved in blasting that are renewing permits or licenses or applying for new permits or
licenses must submit to ATF: (1) identifying information for all employees "authorized to possess
explosive materials“ (referred to by ATF as “employee-possessors”) ; and (2) identifying information, plus
fingerprints and photographs for each "responsible person."
In turn, ATF will conduct background checks on each listed “responsible person” and each listed
“employee authorized to possess explosive materials to ensure that all employees and persons so
identified are not "prohibited persons."
A “prohibited person” is one that is:

• Under the age of 21,
• An alien,
• Someone who has been dishonorably discharged from the military,
• A citizen of the United States who has renounced his or her citizenship,
• A convicted felon or fugitive,
• An unlawful user of marijuana or other depressant, stimulant, or narcotic drug, and/or
• A mental defective or someone who has been committed to a mental institution.
It is the responsibility of each mining, construction, or blasting company to determine who must be
identified to ATF for background checks and clearances.
ATF: Licenses and Permits
ATF requires employee-possessors of explosives (including companies) to have either a
license (in the case of onsite manufacture for onsite use) or a permit (in all other cases).
Specifically, both persons who have “actual physical possession” (e.g., a blaster who is
handling explosives for the purpose of production, shipping, transport, or use) and/or
“constructive possession” (e.g., a supervisor who holds storage magazine keys, persons
who direct explosive use by others, or persons like a truck driver transporting explosives)
must be identified.
ATF defines a responsible person as an individual who has the power to direct the
management and policies of a company as they pertain to explosive materials (e.g., facility-
site managers, corporate officers).
In addition, infrequent users of explosives must now obtain a 1-year “limited” or Intrastate
permit prior to receiving, transporting, or shipping explosive materials within the State of his
or her residence. Limited use is defined as receiving, transporting, and/or shipping on no
more than six occasions during the course of the single, permitted year.
ATF: Storage Classification
For purposes of storage, ATF defines three explosive-storage classifications:
• High explosives, which can be caused to detonate by means of a detonator

when unconfined;
• Low explosives, which can be caused to deflagrate when confined; and
• Blasting agents, which amount to ANFO and certain water gels, as well as
DOT division-1.5 materials.
Explosives must be stored in an ATF-approved magazine type.

Magazine, Type 1
A type-1 magazine is defined as permanent storage for
high or bullet-sensitive explosives that can mass detonate
(other classes allowed).
A type-1 magazine must be constructed of wood, metal,

or masonry, and it must have one door with two mortise
locks. The building must be ventilated, bullet-proof, fire-
resistant, and theft-resistant; it must be made with a
weather-resistant wood frame exterior of 14-gauge metal,
metal walls with 4-inch hardwood interior faces, floors of
non-sparking, bullet-proof metal, and a roof of 26-gauge
metal.
Detonators CAN NOT be stored with high explosives or blasting agents.

Magazine, Type 2 (Outdoor)
A type-2 outdoor magazine is defined as portable or mobile storage for high or bullet-
sensitive explosives that will mass detonate (other classes allowed).
A type-2 outdoor magazine must be constructed as a box or trailer (mobile), with ¼-inch
steel walls lined with 2-inch hardwood interior faces, and it must have one door with two
mortise locks. The box/trailer must be ventilated, fire-resistant, theft-resistant, weather-
resistant, and bullet-proof.
Magazine, Type 2 (Indoor)
A type-2 indoor magazine is

also defined as portable or
mobile storage for high or
bullet-sensitive explosives that
will mass detonate (other
classes allowed).
A type-2 indoor should be

comparable to a type-2
outdoor magazine in all
respects, except that it need
only be fire-resistant and theft-
resistant. Type-2 indoor
magazines need not be bullet-
resistant and weather-
resistant if the buildings in
which they are stored provide
protection from the weather
and from bullet penetration.
Magazine, Type 3
A type-3 magazine is defined as a portable box (often called a “day box”) for the temporary
storage of high explosives while attended. (Note that day boxes must be attended at all times.)
A type-3 magazine must be constructed with 12-gauge steel lined with ½-inch plywood; in
addition, it must be fire-resistant, theft-resistant, and weather-resistant.
Magazine, Type 4
A type-4 magazine can be permanent, mobile, or portable storage for explosives with no mass-
detonation hazard (that is, low explosives and non-mass-detonating explosives).
A type-4 magazine can be a building, tunnel, box, trailer, or semi-trailer; it must be constructed of
12-gauge steel lined with ½-inch plywood. The magazine must be theft-resistant, fire-resistant (not
needed if temporary storage), and weather-proof, and it must be padlocked.
Magazine, Type 5
A type-5 magazine is
defined as permanent,
mobile, or portable storage
for non-bullet-sensitive
blasting agents, ANFO and
non-cap-sensitive slurry,
emulsion, water gel, and/or
black powder.
Type-5 should be
comparable to type-4
construction, except that a
type-5 magazine does not
need to be fire-resistant or
ventilated if its purpose is for
use as temporary storage.
However, a type-5 magazine
must be padlocked.
Transaction Records: Inventory of Magazines
Each approved storage facility must contain a
summary record, or inventory, of all daily
transactions. This inventory should itemize (1) the
products the facility has handled that day, identified
by the manufacturer’s or brand name; (2) for certain
explosives, an identification number; (3) the total
quantity received in and/or removed from each of the
facility’s magazines during the day; and (4) the total
inventory remaining on hand at the end of the day.
All records shall be maintained for 5 years from the

dates of transactions.
Inspections
Magazines shall be inspected

every 7 days to determine
whether unauthorized entry has
taken place or unauthorized
removal of contents has
occurred. The inspection need
not be an inventory inspection.
Theft or loss of explosives must

be reported to the ATF within 24
hours of discovery.
Location of Magazines
The “American Table of Distances” (reproduced in part on the next slide)
specifies the minimum distance between explosives magazines and
inhabited buildings, public highways, and passenger railways, as well as
between two magazines.
When two or more storage magazines are located on the same property,
and each magazine does not comply with minimum separation distances for
magazines from each other, the magazine contents must be combined as if
they were stored in one magazine to determine the distance from inhabited
buildings, railways, and highway.
At coal mines, a minimum magazine separation distance of 25 feet must be

maintained between detonators and all other explosives.
American Table of Distances
American Table of Distances for Storage of Explosives,
Ammonium Nitrate, and Blasting Agents1
(Source: U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, 27 CFR, Chapter II,
Section 555.218)
Distances (in feet) from magazine to:

Passenger railways or
Public highways public highways with
with traffic volume traffic volume of more
Quantity of explosives Inhabited of 3,000 or fewer than 3,000 Separation (in feet)
buildings vehicles/day vehicles/day between magazines
Pounds Pounds
over not over B2 U3 B U B U B U
0 5 70 140 30 60 51 102 6 12
5 10 90 180 35 70 64 128 8 16
10 20 110 220 45 90 81 162 10 20
20 30 125 250 50 100 93 186 11 22
30 40 140 280 55 110 103 206 12 24
40 50 150 300 60 120 110 220 14 28
50 75 170 340 70 140 127 254 15 30
75 100 190 380 75 150 139 278 16 32
etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc.
1Note that this module reproduces only a portion of ATF’s distances table. See 27 CFR,
Chapter II, Section 555.218 for the complete table.
2B = barricaded.
3U = unbarricaded.
Minimum Separation Distances
Minimum required separation distances between AN and/or ANFO and the point of
detonation for HE and/or a blasting agent
(Source: U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, 27 CFR, Chapter II,
Section 555.220)
Minimum separation distance (in feet) of acceptor

Donor weight (pounds) from donor when barricaded1
Minimum thickness (in inches) of artificial
Over Not over Ammonium nitrate Blasting agent barricades
0 100 3 11 12
100 300 4 14 12
300 600 5 18 12
600 1,000 6 22 12
1,000 1,600 7 25 12
1,600 2,000 8 29 12
2,000 3,000 9 32 15
3,000 4,000 10 36 15
4,000 6,000 11 40 15
6,000 8,000 12 43 20
8,000 10,000 13 47 20
10,000 12,000 14 50 20
12,000 16,000 15 54 25
16,000 20,000 16 58 25
20,000 25,000 18 65 25
25,000 30,000 19 68 30
30,000 35,000 20 72 30
35,000 40,000 21 76 30
40,000 45,000 22 79 35
45,000 50,000 23 83 35
50,000 55,000 24 86 35
55,000 60,000 25 90 35
60,000 70,000 26 94 40
1
When the acceptor agents are not barricaded, the separation distances must be multiplied by 6.
Detonator/Detonating-Cord Ratings
For storage, No. 8 detonators are rated 50- to 60-grain detonating cord is
at 1.5 pounds of high explosive per rated at 9 pounds of high explosive
1,000 caps. per 1,000 feet.
Barricades
“Barricading” is defined as the effective screening of a magazine containing explosive
materials from another magazine, a building, a railway, or a highway, by either a natural
barricade or an artificial barricade.
A barricade, such as a berm made from natural soil (like the one shown above), must be
constructed wide enough at height so that a straight line drawn from the top of any sidewall
of the magazine it is screening to the eave line of any other magazine or building will pass
horizontally through a portion of the barricade that is at least 3 feet thick.
Barricades Screening Public Roads or Railways
Any magazine that contains explosive materials and that is proximate to a public road
or railway must be positioned such that * * *
12 feet
BARRICADE MAGAZINE
* * * a straight line from the top of any sidewall of the magazine to a point 12 feet above
the center of a railway or highway will pass through a natural or artificial barricade.
Magazine Housekeeping
Inside the Storage Magazine
Magazines are to be kept clean, dry, and free of

grit, paper, empty packages and containers, and
rubbish.
No combustible or sparking materials may be kept

in a magazine.
Floors are to be regularly swept.
Brooms and other items used in the cleaning and

maintenance of magazines must have no spark-
producing metal parts and may be kept in the
magazine.
ATF states that boxes or cases of explosives must

never be stacked over 8 feet high in a magazine.
(MSHA, which regulates these matters as they
relate to coal mines, specifies a more restrictive [6-
foot] height for explosives storage in magazines at
such mines. Therefore, given its superseding
jurisdiction, MSHA’s requirement takes
precedence. [See 30 CFR 77.1301(g).])
Magazine Housekeeping
Outside the Storage Magazine
The area surrounding magazines is to be kept clear of rubbish, brush, dry grass, and trees (except
live trees over 10 feet tall) for not less than 25 feet in all directions (this requirement is similar to an
MSHA requirement; see next and following slides).
Smoking, matches, open flames, and spark-producing devices are not permitted in any magazine,
in any room that contains an indoor magazine, or within 50 feet of any outdoor magazine.
Mine Safety & Health Administration
CFR Title 30 Safety Standards
and Handling of Explosives
Parts 15, 56, and 77

MSHA regulates safety in the handling of explosives in all types of mining. Specific MSHA regulations
relate to onsite storage, transportation from a magazine to a job site, and the use of explosives, in
particular with respect to hole-loading practices.
MSHA recognizes portions of both DOT and ATF regulations; it also enforces ATF regulations on
sites over which it has jurisdiction. (Note, however, that in some instances MSHA regulations may be
slightly different from ATF regulations.
[An example here would be

one we have already looked
at: MSHA limits the height
to which explosives can be
stacked in magazines at
coal mines to 6 feet; ATF
allows an 8-foot limit.] In
such instances, MSHA
enforces its own regulations
onsite.)
MSHA: Storage of Explosives
Location and Construction
Locations of magazines are prescribed by the ATF “American Table of Distances.” Like ATF, MSHA
prescribes that magazines shall be kept locked when not attended. MSHA also requires that magazine
construction will:
• Include non-combustible material or be covered with fire-resistant material;

• Be reasonably bullet-resistant;
• Incorporate interiors of non-sparking materials; and
• Provide adequate screened ventilation near the floor and ceiling.
Storage of Explosives Materials in Magazines
Detonators cannot be stored with other explosive materials. ANFO must be separated from other
explosives, safety fuses, and detonating cord so as not to cause contamination. Magazines storing
detonators must be at least 25 feet away from magazines storing explosives. Boxes containing
explosives shall be placed at least 2 inches away from all walls.
Heating of Magazines
Magazines will not be heated unless in a manner not to create a fire or explosion hazard.
Signs
Warning signs shall be posted for all storage facilities indicating the contents of such facilities. These
signs must be visible from all approaches to the storage location, such that a bullet passing through a
sign shall not strike the storage facility.
MSHA: Vehicle Transport of Explosive Materials
Vehicles used to transport explosives must be well-
maintained, clean, free of grease, and vented, and
they must have working brakes, steering, horns,
mirrors, windshield wipers, reflectors, steering
mechanism, and good tires. Such vehicles must
carry at least one fire extinguisher, possess no
spark-producing materials in the cargo space, and
only transport persons directly involved with the
blasting operations.
Signs warning of explosives content must be

posted on all sides of vehicles transporting
explosives.
When parking a vehicle containing explosives:

• The brakes must be set,
• The wheels must be chocked to prevent movement, and
• The engine must be turned off, unless it is powering equipment used in the loading
process.
Explosives and detonators can be transported together if they are separated by 4 inches of
hardwood or their equivalent. If a vehicle used for explosives transport must be sent for repair, all
explosives and blasting agents must be removed from the vehicle, and the vehicle and all
components in contact with explosives or bulk agents thoroughly washed to remove all traces of
agents or explosives.
Office of Surface Mining
CFR Title 30 Permanent Program Performance
Standards
Parts 780, 816, 817, 850 and 955
OSM regulates surface coal mining and the surface effects of underground coal mining in the United
States. Most often they pass the responsibility to state agencies. In States that do not have primacy
or on Indian lands, OSM is the regulator. OSM regulations are intended to protect people and
property outside the coal mine area from the harmful effects of blasting.
The “Adverse Effects of Blasting” module discusses

OSM’s regulations in detail. OSM rules set the
baseline for state rules as they pertain to:
• Blaster training and certification,

• Pre-blast surveys of structures,
• Public announcement of blasting schedules*
and warning signals,
• Ground vibrations, airblast and flyrock, and
• Blasting records.
_____________________
*Note that the Wyoming regulations for public notice of blasting schedules specify a
different time period (30 to 60 days prior to the implementation of a blasting program) from the
period OSM regulations specify (10 to 30 days prior to implementation).
The Institute of Makers of Explosives
IME, which was founded in 1913, is the

safety association of the commercial
explosives industry in the United States
and Canada.
Located in Washington D.C., IME

represents explosives manufacturers
working together to promote the safety and
protection of employees, users, the public,
and the environment throughout all aspects
of the manufacture and use of explosive
materials in industrial blasting and other
essential operations.
IME is frequently called upon to provide guidance to legislators and
regulators who formulate new policy with regard to the commerce and
use of explosive products.
IME publishes booklets on recommended safe practice in the areas of

transportation, storage, and the use of explosives in the rock-blasting
industries.
Communication and Continued Learning
The key to ensuring that your blasting operations remain as safe
as possible is maintaining constant communication with others.
If you are unsure of a certain procedure or encounter a new

situation, ask for help from your supervisor.
In some instances, you or

your supervisor may need
to contact your explosives
supplier for advice.
A blasting crew should

meet often with someone
who can represent their
concerns to management
and resolve potentially
critical situations.
Every member of a blasting crew has the right to feel

confident that he or she is conducting work in a safe,
technically correct manner and that the work represents best
practices, regardless of the challenge.
Remember: Safety Comes First!
1. Smoking cannot take place within how many feet of explosive materials or a magazine?
a. 25 feet
b. 50 feet
c. 15 feet
2. True or false: detonating cord and blasting caps may be stored together in the same magazine.
3. Inventory of 25-millisecond non-electric blasting caps shows 570 caps in the magazine at the start
of the day. The same day, 2,000 caps are brought to the magazine by the regional distributor and
200 caps are removed from it for purposes of the daily blast. What should the written inventory
show at the close of the business day?
4. How high can cases or boxes be stored in a magazine at a coal mine?

a. 10 feet
b. Six cases
c. 6 feet
d. 8 feet
5. The minimum barricaded distanced to an inhabited building from a magazine containing 15,000
pounds of explosives is:
a. 1,800 feet
b. 18,000 feet
c. 900 feet
d. None of the above
6. True or false: a metal dustpan can be used inside a magazine as long as it placed 10
feet from explosives.
7. True or false: it is acceptable to take the mine surveyor back to the office in the
explosives transport truck to obtain surveying supplies.
8. True or false: the Safe Explosives Act now requires all blasters loading blastholes to
obtain a permit or license from ATF as “employee-possessors.”
9. All magazines storing explosives must have signs (select each that applies):
a. On all four sides of the building or facility
b. On the roof
c. Posted well away from the structure, such that a bullet passing through the sign
will not strike the magazine
d. Stating “Explosives – Keep Off”
10. True or false: on hot days (over 100°F), a magazine door should be propped open to
maximize ventilation while the blasting crew is loading blastholes.
11. A vehicle used to transport explosive materials must have (check all that apply):
a. A working horn
b. Fire extinguishers
c. An extra 12-V battery
d. Wheel chocks
e. Satellite radio
f. Cargo for holding explosives lined with non-sparking material
Answers
1. b. is correct.
2. False. Caps must be placed in a separate magazine.
3. Total inventory at the end of the day would be:
570 caps + 2,000 = 2,570 – 200 = 2,370 caps
4. c. is correct.
5. c. is correct.
6. False. All metals pose sparking hazards and are not allowed inside magazines.
7. False. Only trained blasting-crew members may ride in the truck.
8. True.
9. c. and d. only.
10. False. Magazine doors must remain closed and locked when unattended.
11. a., b., d., and f.

Controlling the Adverse
Effects of Blasting

instructor.
DISCLAIMER
Controlling the Adverse Effects of Blasting
This module addresses the control of

offsite impacts that result from blasting,
namely:
• vibrations,
• airblast, and
• flyrock.
Much of the information in the module is

derived from the Surface Mining Control
and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA).
The performance standards apply to all
surface coal mines. Similar standards
have been adopted on some State and
local levels and applied to non-coal
blasting operations such as quarrying and
construction.
Part I: Ground Vibrations, Airblast, and Flyrock
Explosive energy is used to break rock. However, the use of this energy is not 100-percent efficient.
Some of the energy escapes into the atmosphere to generate airblast or air vibrations. Some of
the energy also leaves the blast site through the surface soil and bedrock in the form of ground
vibrations.
Both air and ground vibrations create waves that disturb the material in which they travel. When
these waves encounter a structure, they cause it to shake. Ground vibrations enter the house
through the basement and airblast enters the house through the walls and roof.
Airblast may be audible (noise) or in-audible (concussion). When outside a house the blast may be
heard because of the noise, however noise has little impact on the structure. The concussion wave
causes the structure to shake and rattles objects hanging on walls or sitting on shelves. This
“interior noise” will alarm and startle people living in the house.
Flyrock is debris ejected from the blast site that is traveling through the air or along the ground.
Flyrock is the single most dangerous adverse effect that can cause property damage and personal
injury or death.
Blasting Impacts on Structures
Both above-ground and below-ground structures are susceptible to
vibration impacts. Structures can include onsite mine offices and
buildings, as well as offsite residences, schools, churches, power-
transmission lines, and buried pipelines. Some of these structures may
include historic or cultural features sensitive to even low levels of
vibrations.
It is important to understand:
1. the causes of ground vibrations and
airblast, and
2. what practices can be followed to
control and minimize the adverse
effects
Ground Vibrations
Ground vibrations propagate away from a blast site as Rayleigh (or surface) waves. These waves form
a disturbance in the ground that displaces particles of soil or rock as they pass by. Particle motions are
quite complicated. At the ground surface (free boundary), measured particle motions have the greatest
displacements, and displacements decrease with depth (see the illustration below). At a depth of
between 20 to 50 feet below ground surface, particle displacements are barely detectable. Structures
that are well coupled to the ground tend to move with this motion; structures buried in the ground are
less affected by surface motions.
Ground vibrations are measured in terms

of particle velocity and are reported in
inches per second (ips) or the speed at
which a particle of soil or rock moves.
At typical blasting distances from

residential structures, the ground only
moves with displacements equal to the
thickness of a piece of writing paper. In
terms of displacement, this equates to
hundredths of an inch; visually, such
movement cannot be detected.
Airblast
Airblast is measured as a pressure in pounds per square
inch (psi) and is often reported in terms of decibels (dB).
Airblast is a pressure wave that that may be audible or in-

audible. Elevated airblast levels are generated when
explosive energy in the form gases escape from the
detonating blast holes. Energy escapes either through the
top stemming or through fractures in the rock along the face near-surface
or at the ground surface. detonation
Airblast radiates outward from the blast site in all

directions and can travel long distances. Sound
waves travel much slower (1,100 ft/s) than ground
vibrations (about 5,000 – 20,000 ft/s) . Hence, airblast
arrives at offsite structures later than do ground
vibrations.
Both ground vibrations and airblast cause structures to

shake structures. Occupants in structures that are
located far from a blast may experience shaking from
vibration and airblast as two separate, closely spaced
events. This can be particularly bothersome, as it
prolongs the duration of structure shaking and leads
the property owner to think that two separate blasts
occurred.
Vibration Energy
Blast vibrations travel away from a blast in all directions. At 5,000 to 25,000 feet per second, ground
vibrations for all practical purposes arrive immediately at the home at the detonation of the first hole.
Airblast travels much slower at 1,100 feet per second.
Home
Airblast
Blast
1,100 fps
Body Waves Surface Waves

20,000 fps 5,000 fps
Blasting Seismographs
Ground and air vibrations are measured using a blasting seismograph. The components of a
seismograph include:
• a seismograph for
the collection and • a microphone or
storage of vibration airblast sensor.
data.
• a geophone or ground
vibration sensor
Ground Vibration Sensors
Incoming
blast wave
Geophone housing (the Inside housing showing

arrow designates transducer orientations
Longitudinal )
Tri-axial geophones contain three mutually perpendicular

velocity transducers. These transducers move and record TRANSVERSE (T)
ground vibrations in three directions:
• vertical, or perpendicular to the ground surface,

RADIAL (R) or
• longitudinal or radial, or in the direction of the LONGITUNDINAL (L)
incoming wave, and
• transverse, or perpendicular to the incoming
wave.
VERTICAL (V)
These directions of ground vibration are often referred to
as V, T, and R (or L, longitudinal).
Vibrations Measurements
When excited, the ground surface moves randomly about its resting place in 3-D space. Measurements
occur in the component directions (L,T, V) and are recorded as time histories of motion.
Click on the figure below to observe how a particle of soil moves in response to a large surface blast. The
3-D motion is shown in the lower right and the component motion (time history) is show in the middle (E,
N, and Z). Note what happens when 40 holes sympathetically detonate.
Note: Once the
ground vibration
has passed a given
particle of soil, the
particle comes to
rest at exactly at
the position it
started.
There is no
permanent
displacement of
the ground after
the vibration event.
Click on the image

again to watch the
particle return to
the original
position.
Proper Use of Blasting Seismographs
Blasting seismographs are deployed in the field to record
the levels of both blast-induced ground vibration and
airblast. Accuracy of the recordings is essential.
Accordingly, the International Society for Explosives
Engineers (ISEE) has developed guidelines to define the
user’s responsibilities when deploying seismographs in
the field. The ISEE Field Practice Guidelines for
Blasting Seismographs can be found at www.isee.org.
General guidelines in this publication give parameters

for:
• Geophone and microphone placement

(outside—never inside—a structure requiring
seismographic monitoring);
• Geophone coupling to the ground (burying the

geophone 4 to 6 inches under the ground surface);
and
• Seismograph settings, including:

• Maximum data range;
• Sampling rate;
• Total record length to capture airblast; and
• Lowest trigger levels.
ISEE FIELD PRACTICE GUIDELINES FOR

BLASTING BEISMOGRAPHS
The field practice recommendations are intended to serve as general guidelines, and cannot describe all
types of field conditions. It is incumbent on the operator to evaluate these conditions and to obtain good
coupling between monitoring instrument and the surface to be monitored. In all cases, the operator should
describe the field conditions and setup procedures in the permanent record of each blast.
Seismographs are used to establish compliance with regulations and evaluate explosive performance. Laws
and regulations have been established to prevent damage to property and injury to people. The disposition of
the rules is strongly dependant on the reliability and accuracy of ground vibration and airblast data. In terms
of explosive performance the same holds true. One goal of the ISEE Blast Vibrations and Seismograph
Section is to ensure reliable and consistent recording of ground vibrations and air blasts between all blasting
seismographs.
PARTS OF A BLASTING SEISMOGRAPH
Sensor L, T, V Components
Display
Microphone
General Guidelines
Seismographs are deployed in the field to record the levels of blast-induced ground vibration and
airblast. Accuracy of the recordings is essential. These guidelines define the user’s responsibilities
when deploying seismographs in the field.
Read the instruction manual. Every seismograph comes with an instruction manual. Users are
responsible for reading the appropriate sections before monitoring a blast.
General Guidelines
Keep proper records. A seismograph user’s log

Seismograph calibration. Annual should note: the user’s name, date, time, place
calibration of the seismograph is and other pertinent data.
recommended.
General Guidelines
Record the blast. When seismographs Record the full waveform. It is not
are deployed in the field, the time spent recommended that the continuous
deploying the unit justifies recording an recording option available on many
event. As practical, set the trigger levels seismographs be used for monitoring
low enough to record each blast. blast generated vibrations.
General Guidelines
Document the location of the seismograph. Know and record the distance to the blast. The
This includes the name of the structure and horizontal distance from the seismograph to the
where the seismograph was placed on the blast should be known to at least two significant
property relative to the structure. Any digits. For example, a blast within 1000 feet would
person should be able to locate and identify be measured to the nearest tens of feet and a blast
the exact monitoring location at a future within 10,000 feet would be measured to the
date. nearest hundreds of feet. Where elevation changes
exceed 2.5h:1v, slant distances or true distance
should be used.
•Full name & 911 address

•Setup time & date
690 feet Jones
North
General Guidelines
Know the data processing time of the Know the memory or record capacity of the
seismograph. Some units take up to 5 minutes seismograph. Enough memory must be
to process and print data. If another blast available to store the event. The full
occurs within this time the second blast may be waveform should be saved for future
missed. reference in either digital or analog form.
•None?
•20 seconds?
•1 Minute?
•5 Minutes?
General Guidelines
Know the nature of the report that is

required. For example, provide a hard Secure cables. Suspended or freely
copy in the field, keep digital data as a moving cables from the wind or other
permanent record or both. If an event is to extraneous sources, can produce false
be printed in the field, a printer with paper triggers due to microphonics.
is needed.
PPV Wave Form

Digital Data
Frequency?
Zero Crossing
Fast Fourier Transform
Response Spectra Analysis
General Guidelines
Allow ample time for proper setup of the Know the temperature.
seismograph. Many errors occur when Seismograph have varying
seismographs are hurriedly set-up. Generally, manufacturer specified
more than 15 minutes for set-up should be operating temperatures.
allowed from the time the user arrives at the
monitoring location until the blast
Ground Vibration Monitoring
The sensor should be placed on or in the ground on the

side of the structure towards the blast. A structure can
be a house, pipeline, telephone pole, etc.
Measurements on driveways, walkways, and slabs are
to be avoided where possible.
Location relative to the structure. Sensor placement

should ensure that the data obtained adequately
represents the vibration levels received at the structure
being protected. The sensor should be placed within
10 feet of the structure or less than 10% of the distance
from the blast, whichever is less .
Location relative to the structure. Sensor placement should ensure that the data obtained
adequately represents the vibration levels received at the structure being protected. The sensor
should be placed within 10 feet of the structure or less than 10% of the distance from the blast,
whichever is less .
Soil density evaluation. The soil density

should be greater than or equal to the
sensor density. Fill material, sand,
unconsolidated soils, flower-bed mulch or
other unusual mediums may have an
influence on the recording accuracy if not
properly dealt with during geophone
installation.
The sensor must be nearly level.

The longitudinal channel should be pointing

directly at the blast and the bearing should be
recorded
Where access to the structure and/or

property is not available, the sensor
should be placed closer to the blast in
undisturbed soil.
If the acceleration exceeds 0.2 g, slippage of the sensor
may be a problem. Depending on the anticipated
acceleration levels spiking, burial, or sandbagging of the
geophone to the ground may be appropriate.
The preferred burial method is excavating a hole that is

no less than three times the height of the sensor (ANSI
S2.47-1990, R1997), spiking the sensor to the bottom
of the hole, and firmly compacting soil around and over
the sensor.
Attachment to bedrock is achieved by bolting, clamping

or glueing the sensor to the rock surface.
Other sensor placement methods.
Shallow burial is anything less than described above.
Spiking entails removing the sod, with minimal

disturbance of the soil and firmly pressing the sensor
with the attached spike(s) into the ground.
Sand bagging requires removing the sod with minimal

disturbance to the soil and placing the sensor on the
bare spot with a sand bag over top. Sand bags should
be large and loosely filled with about 10 pounds of
sand. When placed over the sensor the sandbag
profile should be as low and wide as possible with a
maximum amount of firm contact with the ground.
A combination of both spiking and sandbagging gives

even greater assurance that good coupling is obtained.
PARTICLE PARTICLE
If the acceleration is expected to be: FREQUENCY VELOCITY VELOCITY
0.2g 1.0g
Less than 0.2 g, no burial or attachment is necessary 4 3.07 15.40
10 1.23 6.15
15 0.82 4.10
Between 0.2 and 1.0 g, burial or attachment is 20 0.61 3.05
preferred. Spiking may be acceptable. 25 0.49 2.45
50 0.25 1.25
Greater than 1.0 g, burial or firm attachment is required 100 0.12 0.60
(USBM RI 8506). 200 0.06 0.30
The sensor may be attached to the foundation of the structure if it

is located within +/- 1-foot of ground level (USBM RI 8969). This
should only be used if burial, spiking or sandbagging is not
practical.
Site conditions dictate certain actions when programming the seismograph.
1. Ground vibration trigger level. The trigger level should be programmed low enough to
trigger the unit from blast vibrations and high enough to minimize the occurrence of false
events. The level should be slightly above the expected background vibrations for the area. A
good starting level is 0.05 in/s.
2. Dynamic range and resolution. If the seismograph is not equipped with an auto-range
function, the user should estimate the expected vibration level and set the appropriate range.
The resolution of the printed waveform should allow verification of whether or not the event
was a blast.
3. Recording duration - Set the record time for 2 seconds longer than the blast duration plus 1
second for each 1100 feet from the blast.
Airblast Monitoring
Placement of the microphone relative to the structure is the most important factor.
The microphone should be placed along the side of the structure nearest the blast
The microphone should be mounted near the geophone

with the manufacturer’s wind screen attached.
The preferred microphone height is 3 feet above the

ground or within 1.2 inches of the ground. Other heights
may be acceptable for practical reasons. (ANSI S12.18-
1994, ANSI S12.9-1992/Part2) (USBM RI 8508 )
Airblast Monitoring
If practical, the microphone should not be shielded

from the blast by nearby buildings, vehicles or other
Jones Mine large barriers. If such shielding cannot be avoided,
Res. the horizontal distance between the microphone and
shielding object should be greater than the height of
the shielding object above the microphone.
If placed too close to a structure, the airblast may reflect

from the house surface and record higher amplitudes.
Structure response noise may also be recorded.
Reflection can be minimized by placing the microphone
near a corner of the structure. (RI 8508)
Airblast Monitoring
Site conditions dictate certain actions when programming the seismograph to record airblast.
1. Trigger level. When only an airblast measurement is desired, the trigger level should be low
enough to trigger the unit from the airblast and high enough to minimize the occurrence of false
events. The level should be slightly above the expected background noise for the area. A good
starting level is 120 dB.
2. Recording duration. When only recording airblast, set the recording time for at least 2 seconds
more than the blast duration. When ground vibrations and airblast measurements are desired on
the same record, follow the guidelines for ground vibration programming.
Vibration Reports
Each vibration report will contain a time history, summary, general information and a graphical section.
•The time history shows the particle velocity over time and is the signature for determining blast-
induced events.
•The summary section reports the peak particle velocity (PPV) for each trace along with the frequency
at the PPV. Displacement and acceleration are calculated from these values. Also reported is the
peak airblast pressure in decibels.
•The general information section describes the blasting seismograph location and trigger levels.
•The graphical section lists the scale of the time histories and calibration information.
Regulations that limit ground vibrations specify limits in terms of the maximum peak particle velocity in any
one of the three perpendicular directions (or components of motion).
Blast-Induced Time History Characteristics
The time histories below were recorded over a 10-second interval. Each is a plot of amplitude versus
time as the particles oscillate. Several key points regarding the time histories emerge:
• the L, T, and V motions all begin at the same time and have peaks at different times;
• the airblast arrival time is later than the arrival time of the ground vibration, because the speed
of sound in air is slower than the speed of sound in rock or soil;
• the V component has an amplitude that is smaller than the R and T components; and
• the number of oscillations per unit time (frequency) are very high in the beginning and decrease
and spread out later in the blast time history for the R, V, and T traces.
airblast
arrival of airblast
+ amplitude radial R
- amplitude
vertical V
arrival of
ground vibration transverse T
10 seconds
Vibration Characteristics
The characteristics of time histories that are important to evaluate ground vibration and airblast are:
• amplitude, or the intensity of particle velocity or airblast,
• frequency, and
• duration of the time history.
Each characteristic impacts structure response (shaking). Amplitude is

the relative strength of the event, frequency is the rate of shaking and
duration is the length of the event waveform.
Understanding the impact of vibrations on structures and how they

may be modified by blast-design is an important step
in limiting offsite impacts.
FACT: A blasting seismograph can measure the effects of

blast-design changes on offsite vibrations.
Also, when a blast generates excessive vibrations, the

waveform can be used to identify blast design or performance
problems.
Amplitude of Ground Vibration: Peak Particle Velocity
PPV The time history is made up of

peaks and troughs of motion,
R radial
the height of any wave is the
amplitude.
PEAK PARTICLE VELOCITY

V vertical
(PPV) is the largest value of
ground-vibration amplitude
measured in any one of the
component directions.
T transverse
The maximum peak particle
velocity is the largest PPV of
time (seconds) the three component motions.
In the example shown above, the maximum PPV is a positive peak R component. This
amplitude is greater than the other two components of ground vibration (V and T).
Frequency of Ground Vibrations
Frequency is the number of cycles or oscillations that a wave completes over 1 second and is
measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz).
Frequency can also be calculated by the time interval of one complete cycle, a positive phase
followed by a negative phase (shown in red). Here the wave meets the zero baseline three
times. Frequency is then the number of cycles (in this case, one) divided by the time increment
(period).
f = 1/p
one cycle over 0.2 seconds
In the example here, the

waveform frequency would be 1
cycle/0.2 seconds, or 5 Hz.
Similarly, if the time is 1.4 1.4 Second

seconds and there are seven
complete cycles shown to the
right, the frequency is then seven zero amplitude
cycles/1.4 seconds, or 5 Hz. baseline
high low
frequencies frequencies
4-20 Hz are considered low frequencies.
Note that the waveform shown above has both high frequencies, in the beginning where the
peaks and troughs are close together in time, and low frequencies, at the end where the waves
are farther apart in time.
Low frequencies can develop in certain geological formations (underground voids) and thick soil
conditions where high-frequency energy diminishes. Low frequencies also develop with
increasing distance from a blast. Some blast timing patterns and blasting methods routinely
generate low frequencies.
Low frequency vibrations cause structures to shake the most.

Ground Vibration Characteristics - Displacement
All blasting seismographs measure particle velocities and report the results as time histories.
However on occasion it is important to determine the displacement and acceleration of a vibration
event.
For simple vibration events, displacement, velocity, acceleration and frequency are all related. If
any two components are known, the other two can be calculated.
The displacement of ground vibrations is the distance (D) a particle physically moves in the
ground. Distance is reported in inches (in) and can be calculated with the equation:
D = V/2 π f
Where D = Displacement (in)
f = frequency (Hz)
V = velocity (in/s)
π = 3.14
Displacement equates to the amount a structure is potentially bent or strained and is important for
damage assessment.
Ground Vibration Characteristics - Acceleration
The acceleration (A) of ground vibrations is the rate at which the particle changes speed or
velocity in the ground. Acceleration is reported in inches per second squared (in/s2) or gravities
(g) and can be calculated with the equation:
A=2πfV
Where A = Acceleration (in/s2)
f = frequency (Hz)
V = velocity (in/s)
π = 3.14
To express acceleration in “g’s” divide the result of the equation above by 386.
Acceleration is important for proper coupling of ground vibration sensors. If the acceleration is
expected to exceed 0.2 g, the sensor should be buried or affixed to the ground. If not, the sensor
will over come the force of gravity and provide errant measurements.
Duration of Ground Vibrations
As a ground vibration travels away from a blast site, the duration of the ground vibration
tends to increase as the wave disperses (or “stretches” in time), whereas the frequency and
amplitude tend to decrease. This is shown below for two R components measured near a
coal mine cast blast at 300 feet and 2,400 feet, respectively, from a blast.
The longer ground vibration will cause a structure to shake longer. If low frequencies are
also present and match the fundamental frequency of the structure, the structure will
respond or shake more strongly.
300 feet
2,400 feet
Structure Response
As ground and air vibrations reach a structure, each will cause
it to shake. Structure response is dependant on the vibration
characteristics (frequency and amplitude) and structure type.
Ground Vibrations enter the house through the basement. This

is like shaking the bottom of a flag pole. Movement at the top
of the pole depends on how frequent (frequency) and how hard
(amplitude) the bottom of the pole is shaken. If shaken at just
the right pace, or at the pole’s natural frequency, the top will
move significantly compared to the bottom. Motion at the top
is amplified from the bottom motion.
All blast damage studies have measured incoming ground

vibrations at the ground surface. The observed structure
amplifications were typically between 1 to 4 times the ground
vibration. Structure response below ground level is the same or
less than the incoming vibrations
Airblast enters the house through the roof and walls. Like
ground vibrations, the frequency and amplitude of the vibrations
affect structure response. However the low frequency events
(concussion) that most strongly affect structures are normally
only a one or two cycle event.
Due to the different arrival times of ground and air vibrations,

occupants may feel two distinct impacts on the house.
Ground Vibration Structure Response
High frequencies do not promote structure

shaking. The length of a single high-
frequency wave cycle is short as compared
with the dimension of a structure. A
structure does not significantly respond to
high frequencies.
On the other hand, low-

frequency wave cycles are
long as compared with the
dimensions of structures.
Accordingly, low frequencies
tend to efficiently couple
energy into structures and to
promote higher-amplitude,
long-duration shaking.
Frequency is a very important component of ground vibration,
because it affects how structures shake.
When the frequency matches the natural or fundamental

frequency of a given structure, the structure will shake more
vigorously than the ground vibration or the structure resonates.
In other words the incoming ground vibrations are amplified in
the upper portion of the structure.
The natural frequency of most residential structures ranges

from 4 to 12 Hz.
If the ground frequency is high (above 20 Hz), very little

seismic energy transfers into the structure, and the amplitude of
structure shaking more closely duplicates ground vibration
level.
upper structure
Ground vibrations tend to affect displacement
(1) the shaking of a whole
structure or (2) differential
motions between the upper and upper corner
lower corners of a structure,
resulting in wall strains. lower corner
Damage Observations
Damage Classifications
• Threshold – Loosening of paint, small plaster cracks at joints between construction elements,
lengthening of old cracks
• Minor – Loosening and falling of plaster, cracks in masonry around opening near partitions, hairline to 1/8
in. cracks, fall of loose mortar
• Major – Cracks of several mm, rupture of opening vaults, structural weakening, fall of masonry, load
support ability affected
US Bureau of Mines – Recommended Safe Levels
SD/PPV Relationship, Coal Mines
Based on USBM RI 8507 coal mine data set, Table 2, Two standard deviations from the mean.
OSM Scaled Distance Line: PPV = 438(SD)^-1.52
10
Peak Particle Velocity (in/s)
1
Observed
Data
Range
0.1
0.01
1 10 100 1000
Scaled Distance (ft/lb^.5)
Causes of Excessive Ground Vibrations
The blaster has some control over the causes of excessive ground vibrations.
Uncontrollable factors:
• Spatial relationships and distance between the blast site and adjacent structures:
• The closer the distance, the higher the amplitude of ground vibrations
• Geology between the blast site and adjacent structures:
• Strong, competent rock tends to promote high frequencies and high vibration amplitudes
• Weak, fractured rock tends to promote low frequencies and low vibration amplitudes
• Seismic energy traveling in the direction of major rock jointing or faults will tend to promote
high vibration amplitudes
• Soils on which a structures sits
• Low density soils foster low frequency ground vibrations
Controllable factors:
• Maximum charge weight detonated within 8 milliseconds:
• Seismic energy from individual blast hole charges that detonate within 8 milliseconds tends
to be additive, increasing vibrations with increased charge weight
• Charge diameter and charge coupling within boreholes:
• The larger the blast hole diameter, the greater the ground disturbance at the blast site
• Well-coupled charges in the blasthole create higher vibrations than do decoupled charges
• Direction of initiation:
• Certain timing between rows and between holes in a row may reinforce seismic energy
• Confinement:
• Heavily confined blasts, such as pre-split and sinking designs, promote excessive
vibrations
Methods to Reduce Ground Vibrations
1. Reduce the weight of explosive per delay by decreasing the hole size or bench height
and decking charges.
2. Reduce burden and spacing to reduce confinement.
3. Eliminate buffer shooting, and make sure that the toe is cleaned of broken rock.
4. Reduce hole depth and subdrilling, if used.
5. Maximize internal relief by using one to two free faces to blast, thereby either
increasing or decreasing delay times while maintaining desired muckpile shape and
degree of fragmentation.
6. Change or modify the direction of initiation, especially for pre-split lines.
7. Reduce the total time of the blast (a) to minimize the duration of the ground motions
(by reducing the number of blastholes) or (b) to reduce the delay times.
Some blasters have found that increasing the charge weight per delay has reduced vibrations.
However, this approach—as well as many others—should be guided with technical assistance
from the explosives suppliers.
The use of accurate electronic delays should, in theory, control vibrations. As programmable
delays become more widely used, the benefits to vibration control should become more widely
published.
Air Vibrations or Airblast
coal-mine blast
Airblast is a pressure wave time history that creates a push (positive pressure) and pull
(negative pressure) effect. For simple time histories, frequency can be determined with the
same methodology as used for ground vibrations.
Frequencies associated with airblast will vary depending on the type of blasting. The coal-
mine pressure pulse shown above has a low frequency of about 2-Hz
The trench-blast airblast time history for the blast shown below is predominately high
frequency. This blast would be audible but the coal mine blast would be in-audible (<20 Hz,
concussion wave).
However, if the trench-blast airblast time history is carefully inspected, one can detect the
high-frequency components (41 Hz) “riding” on top of an underlying lower frequency (4 Hz)
wave (highlighted in orange below).
Like ground vibrations, the low-frequency components will cause structures to more strongly
shake.
construction-trench blast
Airblast Sources
Air Pressure Pulse – rock displacement at the face, low frequency

Rock Pressure Pulse – Seismically induced from the ground at the blasting seismograph
Gas Release Pulse – Gases venting through the fractured rock, low frequency
Stemming Release Pulse - Blow-out of the stemming, high frequency on top of the air pressure pulse
Noise – High frequency from Det cord or surface delays
Click on the Click on

image to the image
the right to to the left
play a to play a
Stemming Air
Release Pressure
Pulse clip. Pulse clip.
Click on
the image
to the
right to
play a
Gas
Release
Pulse
clip.
Airblast Structure Response
Air blast can cause both whole structure and mid-wall response. If a high amplitude pressure wave
has mostly low frequency energy (< 12 Hz), the whole structure will respond similar to ground
vibrations. If a high pressure wave has mostly mid-range frequencies (12-20 Hz) the wave will
cause the mid-walls to bend in response, like the head of a drum when it is struck. The larger the
wall-surface area, the greater the wall response to the airblast. Two-story structures are more
sensitive to airblast than are one-story structures.
When mid-walls shake, loose objects on the wall or sitting on

shelves rattle and generate noise within structures. This noise is
often startling to the residents and creates concern that the
structure is being damaged by the blasting. This, in turn,
promotes fear and sometimes anger, especially if:
• The air-pressure pulse is high in amplitude and long in

duration and/or
• There is a long time interval between the ground

vibrations and the airblast arrival.
Structural damage associated with airblast (other than glass end-wall movement
breakage) has never been documented within recommended
safe levels (133 dB).
Airblast Scaling
•Ground vibration (square root SD) typically attenuates over distance at a higher rate
than Airblast (cube root SD)
•Using cube root scaled distance results in a flatter line, less drop-off of energy over
distance
•Perceptible airblast levels may

occur at much greater distances
from blasting than
perceptible ground vibration
•Cube root scaling of the

charge weight (CW1/3) is
similar to square root
scaling (CW1/2)
•Airblast is strongly
impacted by confinement
Airblast Predictions – SD/dB
Based on USBM 8584 coal mine data, Typical highwall and parting blasts, Expected relationships
A IR B L A S T A N A L Y S IS
150
140
Parting
130
REPORTED AIRBLAST (dB)
120
110
100
Highwall
90
HIG HW A LL RE F E RE NC E LINE
P A R TI N G R E F E R E N C E L I N E
R E P O R TE D S C A L E D D I S TA N C E
80
C A L C U L A TE D S C A L E D D I S TA N C E
10 100 1000 10000
A IRB LA S T C O M P LIA N
CC E E( D
UB 1 3 3R dOBO) T S C A L E D D I S TA N C E ( f t/ lb ^1 / 3 )
Causes of Excessive Airblast
Excessive airblast can be caused by:
• Insufficient length and/or quality of stemming

material, both of which promote blow-outs:
• Improper size and angularity of stem material
will promote low-friction sidewall forces that
cannot withstand detonation pressures
• Stem lengths that are too short will most
likely be ejected
• Gas escaping along the highwall face:
• From insufficient front-row burden
• Through rock fractures
• Detonating cord trunk lines being detonated on the surface

• Delay sequencing across the front face relative to hole spacing
• Adverse atmospheric conditions that tend to convey or focus airblast:
• Wind velocity and direction
• Temperature inversions in the early to mid-morning,
• Windless days when warm temperature air exits over colder temperature air on the
ground surface and this interface is relatively low in elevation
• Lightly confined blasts, such as parting or secondary blasting
• Airblast may be enhance from ridge to ridge, up to 300% over flat terrain
• Topographic features may enhance airblast down valleys
Methods to Reduce Airblast
1. Use sufficient stem length (at least 0.7 times the burden).
2. Use an angular, crushed-rock product of the correct size distribution appropriate for the
hole diameter.
3. Check the free faces for excessive fracturing from back break and the presence of mud
seams or voids; load the front row of holes accordingly.
4. Conduct blasting in the afternoon when temperature inversions are least likely to
persist. Contact a local airport to find out the elevation of the cloud ceiling.
5. Blast when wind conditions are favorable (e.g., either in directions away from
structures or at low velocities).
6. Use non-electric, shock-tube initiation systems instead of detonating cord.
Human Response to Vibrations
Ground and air vibrations affect structure shaking in different ways. However, to the residents
inside structures, these differences cannot be detected. Human response to blasting is subjective.
No two persons will react in the same manner to any one vibration event.
Unfavorable reactions to vibrations that result in complaints being voiced are usually based on
annoyance, fear of damage, and the fact that a structure shaking is startling to its residents. It is
extremely rare that safe blasting practices damage structures.
Airblast damage is chiefly limited to the cracking of glass window panes. A reasonable safe limit for
this type of damage is 140 dB (although this is far above the level that humans will tolerate).
Hairline wall cracks in interior drywall and plaster represent threshold damage from ground
vibrations. Keeping ground vibrations at structures below 0.50 ips will prevent these defects from
occurring.
Past experience in human response to blasting has revealed that persons inside structures can
detect, and will object to, air and ground vibration levels far below those that could damage
structures.
FACTS:
• Low amplitude airblast (110 to 117 dB) can cause glass window panes and mid-walls
to rattle, generating noise inside structures.
• Above 117 dB to 120 dB, airblast may cause some annoyance and fright.
• Ground vibrations as low as 0.02 ips are perceptible to residents inside structures.
• Low frequency ground vibration events are most annoying to people
Flyrock
Material that is ejected from a blast site that travels

through the air or along the ground. Flyrock may be
rock or soil. Any size material is capable of damaging
property or injuring people.
The Single Factor Of Surface Mining That Is

Most Likely To Cause A Fatality!!!
Flyrock control is essential. The blaster is responsible

for securing the area around the blast site where flying
debris may occur.
Flyrock
Fly rock can be cast thousands of

feet from a blast. The most
dangerous source is ejection from a
crack or weak zone in the highwall
face where gases violently vent.
This action is akin to a rifle where
the expanding gases eject a
projectile. Frequently the ejection of
stemming out of the top of a blast
hole is called rifling.
Click on the image above to play a
Rifling and Face Venting clip.
A blast that is designed to
horizontally displace the overburden
material with the explosive energy is
called cast blasting and may be
referred to as “Engineered” fly rock.
This material moves in a controlled,
safe manor. The blast appears well
controlled and non-threatening.
Click on the image above to play a Cast Blast clip.

Flyrock Damage
Flyrock damage is quite obvious

when a structure is hit. Holes and
marks are very visible.
A rock that lands harmlessly in a

field may not appear to be a large
issue. However, mowing and tilling
become hazardous when rock is
struck by farm equipment. Rock
through timber stands mar trees and
potentially impact the market value.
In areas of steep slopes, a rock set

in motion by the explosive energy
may roll hundreds of feet. In this
instance the rock rolled through a
trailer down slope from the mine.
Children were playing in the front
yard at the time. Fortunately no one
was injured.
Causes of Flyrock
Often, the factors that cause excessive airblast and ground vibrations have the potential to cause
flyrock as well. Flyrock is the number two killer in mining operations. For this reason, it is crucial
that blasters understand and control the factors that can create flyrock. Some of the common causes
of flyrock are:
1. Overloaded blastholes with excessive amounts of
explosives
2. Heavily confined charges or the lack of relief (eg. lift
blasts)
3. Explosives loaded into incompetent materials (eg.
mud seams, fractures, and/or voids)
4. Insufficient front-row burden, causing front-face
blowouts
5. Burdens and spacings too close together (resulting
in high powder factors)
6. Inadequate/insufficient stemming material
7. Inadequate delay between holes in the same row or
between rows; detonators firing out of sequence
8. Deviation of blast hole detonation from the intended
sequence
9. Changing geology or rock type
10. Spacing and burden exceeds borehole depth
11. Angled boreholes
12. Secondary blasting
13. Human error, improperly loaded blasts
Controlling Flyrock
1. Accurately measure the burden for each blast hole, and be aware of the true burden
for each hole along the free faces.
2. Be aware of the powder factor and total charge-weight loaded, so that holes are not
overloaded; always measure explosive quantities or tape the holes while loading.
3. Insist on effective communication between the driller and the blasting crew, so that the
driller conveys information regarding unusual conditions (for example, mud seams,
voids, or other weak layers) during drilling.
4. Use adequate stemming and stem through incompetent zones. Use crushed stone for
stemming.
5. Place primer lower in the hole, increase delays between rows, reduce burden in back
rows
Public Relations
In responding to blasting complaints, whether they are claims of annoyance or structure damage, it
is always the best practice to:
• Respond immediately and do not delay direct contact with the complainant;
• Make personal contact;
• Be knowledgeable of the blast creating concern and be prepared to explain any
unusual circumstances that may have contributed to higher than usual offsite noise or
vibrations;
• Provide assurance that blasting is not causing any damages; and
• Be willing to respond to any future concern.
Make a good public-relations program part of your everyday blasting practices.

Part I: Review Questions and Discussion
Answer as many of the following questions as you can before moving to the next slide, where you
will find the answers.
1. List the three directions of ground vibration that blasting seismographs measure.
2. Select the three most important characteristics of blast vibrations that can often be
controlled by the blaster:
a. Ground vibration amplitude, wave speed, and frequency
b. Ground vibration amplitude, frequency, and time duration
c. structure response, frequency, and wave length
3. True or false: The temperature at the ground surface is more important than wind speed
and direction with respect to controlling airblast.
4. What is the name of the machine or device used to measure ground vibrations and airblast?
5. What is the unit of measurement for air vibrations from blasting?
6. What is the unit of measurement for ground vibrations from blasting?
7. List three things that can be done to control airblast.

Part I: Answers
1. Radial (R), vertical (V), and transverse (T). The R direction of ground vibration is
sometimes referred to as longitudinal (L).
2. b. is correct.
3. False; wind speed and direction can cause focusing downwind. Air temperature at ground
level is not as important as a temperature inversion, in which colder air exists on the
ground is covered by warmer air, above in the atmosphere.
4. A blasting seismograph.
5. Decibels (dB).
6. Inches per second (ips).
7. Use adequate (with respect to both length and type) stemming material.
Eliminate the use of detonating cord.
Do not blast during adverse weather conditions.
Part II: Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement
The Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSM) was
created when Congress passed the Surface mining Control and
Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA). OSM is responsible for the protection
of citizens and the environment during surface coal-mining and reclamation
operations. The law creates performance standards, one of which deals
with the use of explosives.
SMCRA AND EXPLOSIVES USE
SMCRA was written to ensure that explosives are used only in accordance
with existing State and Federal law, as well as the regulations promulgated
by State and Federal regulatory authorities. The five SMCRA performance
standards governing the use of explosives require:
1. Issuing written notification of blasting schedules and warning signals;

2. Maintaining written records of each blast for a period of at least 3 years;
3. Limiting the use of explosives so as to prevent (a) injury to persons, (b) damage to offsite property, (c)
impacts underground mines, and (d) modifications to ground or surface water outside the permit area
being blasted;
4. Training and certifying blasters; and
5. Conducting, upon the request of a resident or owner of a man-made dwelling or structure within ½-mile
of any portion of the permitted area, a pre-blasting survey of such structures and submitting the survey
to the regulatory authority, as well as a copy to the resident or owner making the request.
OSM Regulations
STATE-SPECIFIC REGULATIONS
OSM assists States in developing State programs to

regulate surface coal-mining and reclamation
operations within their jurisdictions. These programs
must implement requirements that are at least as
stringent as those mandated by SMCRA. At the
same time, State regulations may reflect local
requirements and local environmental and
agricultural conditions. For more information on
State programs, go to
Blast Site
http://www.osmre.gov/stateregindex.htm.
Blast Area
Permit Area
DEFINITIONS
Permit area is the area in which the mining

company may disturb the surface during mining and
reclamation operations.
Blasting area is the area in which concussion Compliance House

(airblast), flying debris (flyrock), or gases from an
explosion may cause injury to persons.
Blasting site is the perimeter of the loaded blast

holes.
Blasting Plan
Blasting Plan - 30 CFR 780.13
• A plan must be prepared as part of the permit application, on how the blasting
operations will comply with the regulations; The plan is subject to public comment.
• Propose the limits for ground vibrations and airblast

• Provide the basis for the limits
• Describe the methods to be used to control the adverse effects of blasting
• The plan must include a description of any system to monitor the adverse effects of
blasting (ground vibrations, airblast and flyrock) and include:
• The type, capability and sensitivity of the blast monitoring equipment

• Blasting Seismographs
• Video equipment
• Any proposed procedures, and
• Locations of any monitoring.
•If blasting is proposed within 500 feet of an active underground mine, prior to permit
issuance, MSHA must grant approval of the plan.
Certified Blasters
Certified Blasters – 30 CFR 850
• All blasting operations at coal mines must be under the direct supervision of a certified
blaster.
• Blaster means a person directly responsible for the use of explosives in surface coal mining
operations who is certified
• To become certified, blasters must:
– Receive training on the technical aspects of blasting
– Receive training on Federal and State rules
– Complete an application
– Pass a written examination on the training requirements
– Possess practical field experience
• Practical knowledge
• Understands the hazards
• Exhibits conduct consistent with the responsibility
• Blaster Certification
– Fixed period of time
– May be suspended or revoked
– Re certification is required
• Upon request, the certification must be presented
• Blasters may not delegate their responsibility to non-certified blasters.
Performance Standards
The performance standards must be followed unless the permit

specifies otherwise. There are two sections:
•Surface coal mines area at 30 CFR 816.61-68

•Underground coal mines are at 30 CFR 817.61-68
Each performance standard is virtually identical. For brevity only

the surface mining standards will be discussed. If you have an
underground mine, be sure to check the underground performance
standards.
Performance Standards - General
General Requirements – 30 CFR 816.61
• Comply with all State and Federal blasting rules

• Certified blasters must carry certificates or have them at the mine
• The certified blaster and one other person shall be present at the firing of a blast
• The certified blaster will know the blast plan and site specific performance standards
• The certified blaster will give on-the-job training to people on the blasting crew
• Anticipated Blast Design
• Is required if blasting is proposed within 1,000 feet of any dwelling or within 500 feet
of an underground mine;
• May be submitted as part of the mine plan or at any time thereafter but before
blasting within the distances above,
• Should include sketches and a description of the anticipated blast design including:
• Drill patterns,
• Explosives loading and critical dimensions
• Delay periods
• Distances to and descriptions of offsite structures;
• Discuss how design factors will be used to protect the public from
flyrock, airblast, and ground vibrations;
• Must be prepared and signed by a certified blaster.
• Gives RA notice of when blasting is approaching sensitive areas
Performance Standards - Preblasting Surveys
Preblasting Surveys - 30 CFR 816.62
A preblast survey is a report that documents the existing defects in offsite structures that are:
(1) not owned by the mine proposing the blasting and

(2) within ½-mile of the permit boundary.
An “existing defect” includes everything from small hairline cracking to major structural damage;
an “offsite structure” is defined as including everything from buildings, dwellings, and structures to
pipelines, water-supply systems, and transmission lines.
Preblast surveys conducted before blasting starts are important to protect both:
• the owners of nearby structures (should damages occur, a document exists to show the
preblast condition) and
• the blaster or operator (to show that alleged blast damages were in existence before
blasting started).
In the preblast survey, the operator shall determine the condition of the dwelling or structure and
document any pre-blasting damage and other physical factors that could reasonably be affected
by the blasting.
Structures such as pipelines, cables, transmission lines, and cisterns, wells, and other water
systems warrant special attention; however, the assessment of these structures may be limited
to surface conditions and other readily available data.
Performance Standards - Preblasting Surveys
The mine operator shall:
• Notify, in writing, all residents or owners of

dwellings or other structures located within ½-mile
of the permit area how to request a pre-blasting
survey at least 30 days before blasting.
• Conduct a preblast survey promptly when
requested
• Update the survey at the request of the owner if
any additions, modifications, or renovations occur
to the structure.
• Complete any survey requested more than 10
days before the planned initiation of blasting.
• Provide a written report of the survey signed by
the person who conducted the survey.
• Send copies of the report to the regulatory
authority and the person requesting the survey.
If the person requesting the survey disagrees with

the contents and/or recommendations of the
report, they may submit a detailed description of
the specific areas of disagreement to both the
operator and the regulatory authority.
NOTE: State-specific regulations may require

different time periods of notifications and
completion of surveys.
Performance Standards - Blasting Schedule
Blasting Schedule – 30 CFR 816.64
A blasting schedule outlines when blasting operations will occur during the day barring any
unforeseen circumstances. The schedule must describe the hours in which blasting will be
conducted between sunrise and sunset.
The mine operator shall:
• publish the schedule in a newspaper near the mine at least 10 days, but not more than 30
days, before blasting starts.
• give copies of the schedule to local governments and public utilities and to each
residence within 1/2 mile of any proposed blasting site.
• republish and redistribute the schedule at least every 12 months
• revise and republish the schedule whenever the area covered by the schedule changes
or actual time periods for blasting significantly differ from the prior announcement.
Performance Standards - Blasting Schedule
April 21, 2000
The blasting schedule shall contain, at a TO: Resident
minimum: FROM: Dog Run Coal Company

16 Maple Lane
•Name, address, and telephone number McMurray, PA 16223
(412) 937- 2910
of the operator,
• Identification of the specific areas in SUBJECT: Blasting Schedule Notification
Powderly Mine, Permit #9412815
which blasting will take place, South Fayette Township, Alleghany County, PA
• Dates and time periods when explosives
are to be detonated, Dog Run Coal Company plans to start the Powderly mine on or about May 1, 2000. The
• Methods to be used to control access to project will involve blasting of rock to mine the Pittsburgh coalbed. Blasting over the
the blasting area, and next year will occur along Bise Ridge adjacent to State Route 23.
• Type and patterns of audible warning Blasting will occur during daylight hours and according to the following schedule:
and all-clear signals to be used before
and after blasting. Monday through Saturday .......
Sunday......................................
9 AM to 5 PM
No blasting
Unscheduled, “emergency” blasts may Prior to each blast, a warning signal, audible to 1/2-mile, will be sounded and all access
roads to the mine will be blocked by mine personnel. The warnings will be:
take place as long as the reason is
documented and residents within 1/2 mile Three 10-second tones........ 5 minutes until the blast
are notified with audible signals. One 20-second tone............. 1 minute until the blast
Once the blaster has checked the blast site and determines the area to be safe, an all-
clear signal will be sounded. The all-clear signal will be three 5 second tones.
If you have any questions about this schedule, please contact us at the above address.
May Done
Mine Superintendent
Performance Standards - Blasting Signs
30 CFR 816.66(a) - Blasting Signs
Blasting signs reading “Blasting Area” are to

be conspicuously placed along the edge of
any blasting area that comes within 100 feet
of any public road right-of-way, as well as at
the point where any other road provides
access to the blasting area.
Signs that state “Warning! Explosives in Use”

must also be placed at all entrances, from public
roads or highways, to the permit area. Such signs
must both clearly list and describe the meaning of
the audible blast warning and all-clear signals that
are in use and explain the markings of blasting
areas and charged holes awaiting firing within the
permit area.
Performance Standards - Audible Warnings
30 CFR 816.66(b) - Warnings
Warning and all-clear signals of different

character or pattern that are audible
within a range of 1/2 mile from the point
of the blast shall be given.
Each person within the permit area and

each person who resides or regularly
works within 1/2 mile of the permit area
shall be notified of the meaning of the
signals in the blasting schedule.
Performance Standards - Access Control
30 CFR 816.66(c) – Access Control
Access within the blasting area shall

be controlled to prevent presence of
livestock or unauthorized persons
during blasting.
Access will remain controlled until an

authorized representative of the
operator has reasonably determined
that :
• no unusual hazards, such as

imminent slides or undetonated
charges, exist, and
• access to and travel within the

blasting area can be safely resumed.
Typically the blaster is responsible for

defining the blast area and the mine
operator is responsible for securing
the area.
Part II: Review Questions and Discussion
Describe the following warning signs at your mine, quarry, or blasting operation:
1. The pattern of audible warning signals or sirens sounded before blasting, as

well as the all-clear signals or sirens sounded following a blast.
2. Signs used to control access to a blast site.
3. The markings used to outline loaded holes waiting to be fired.

Part II: Answers
1. Your answer should take into account the fact that both the character
and the pattern of warning signals will differ from those of all-clear
signals. All signals should be audible within a range of 1/2 mile from
the point of a blast.
2. Your answer should take into account the following considerations:

blasting signs reading “Blasting Area” should be conspicuously
placed along the edge of any blasting area that comes within 100 feet
of any public road right-of-way, as well as at the point where any other
road provides access to the blasting area. Signs that state “Warning!
Explosives in Use” must also be placed at all entrances, from public
roads or highways, to a permit area in which blasting occurs. Such
signs must both clearly list and describe the meaning of the audible
blast warning and all-clear signals that are in use and explain the
markings of blasting areas and charged holes awaiting firing within the
permit area.
3. Often, blast patterns will be loaded with yellow and red cones and
marked with warnings signs. Your answer should include a similar
approach.
Part III: Performance Standards – Adverse Effects
CONTROLLING the ADVERSE EFFECTS of BLASTING - 30 CFR 816.67
Blasting shall be conducted to prevent injury to persons, damage to property,

underground mines and water supplies outside the permit area.
To this end, blasting performance standards are applied to control ground vibrations,
airblast, and flyrock. Ground vibration and airblast limits focus on preventing damage to
structures outside the permit area. Blast area security is the focus of preventing injury
from flyrock, concussion and fumes.
The vibration limits should not be exceeded at any dwelling, public building, school,
church, community building or institutional building outside the permit area (except mine
owned buildings).
Vibration limits at other man-made structure need to be specified in the blast plan
If necessary, to ensure damage prevention, the RA may set lower limits in the
blast plan and require monitoring of any or all blasts and may specify the location
of the monitoring.
Airblast Limits – 30 CFR 816.67(b)
The airblast limits at any man-made structure shall not exceed the levels
specified in the table below. The operator shall conduct periodic monitoring to
ensure compliance, but is subject to modification by the RA.
Airblast Limits - The monitoring system will

have an upper-end flat frequency response of
at least 200 Hz
Lower frequency limit 1Only when approved by the regulatory authority.

Maximum level
of measuring system
(in ±3 dB)
(in Hz) 2Blasting seismographs used today have a
lower-end, flat-frequency response of 2 Hz;
0.1 Hz or lower1 134 peak
therefore, the airblast limit is normally set at
133 dB.
2 Hz or lower 133 peak2
3A “C-weighted” system misses the middle and
6 Hz or lower 128 peak
high frequency levels.
C-weighted1,3 105 dBC
All blasting seismographs currently manufactured have a frequency range from 2 – 250 Hertz.
Airblast
Example 1: What is the airblast limit at the green house site pictured below if the lower
frequency response range of the microphone is 2 Hz?
Airblast
Answer 1: The regulatory limit for any blast monitored with a 2 Hz

microphone, at any house, is 133 dB.
Flyrock – 30 CFR 816.67(c)
Flyrock traveling in the air or along the ground shall not be cast from a blasting site:
• More than one-half the distance to the nearest dwelling or other occupied structure,
• Beyond the “area of control” (that is, the blasting area), or
• Beyond the permit boundary.
The regulatory limit, in the case of flyrock, is taken to be the shortest of the distances
measured in accordance with these three restrictions.
Material cast on the down slope Flyrock at a steep slope site

Flyrock
Example 2: What is the limit to flyrock throw for the blast site pictured below?
nearest offsite residence =

4,000 feet from blast site
permit-area boundary =
blast site
blast area-of-control
radius =
Flyrock
Answer 2: Calculations related to this example and derived from the three
relevant restrictions to flyrock cast would be:
One-half the distance to the closest home = 4,000 feet/2 =

2,000 feet
Permit-area boundary limitation = 2,800 feet
Area of control surrounding the blast site = 1,200 feet
Because the regulatory limit for any given blast is the shortest
distance measured in accordance with these restrictions, the correct
answer would be 1,200 feet. No flyrock may be thrown beyond 1,200
feet from the blast.
Ground Vibration Limits – 30 CFR 186.67(d)
Performance standards state that the maximum ground vibrations shall not exceed values
approved in the blasting plan.
Four different options are available to show compliance. All but one option requires that
blasting seismographs are used to show evidence of compliance.
Option 1.—Use table 1 to determine the maximum allowable PPV for ground vibration. The
PPV is set to specific values based on the distance from a given blast to the closest offsite
structure. The use of a seismograph is required to show compliance.
Option 2.—Use the scaled-distance value in table 2 to determine the maximum allowable
charge weight of explosives that can be detonated within any 8 milliseconds delay interval.
A seismograph is not needed to show compliance.
Option 3.—Use the modified blasting-level chart pictured in figure 1 to determine the maximum
allowable PPV as a function of predominate frequency at the PPV. The use of a
seismograph is required to show compliance.
Option 4.—Use a modified scaled distance determined by site specific vibration data. The
methodology must be approved by the RA. The use of a blasting seismograph is initially
required but not after the scaled distance is modified.
Ground-Vibration Limits - PPV
•Ground vibration frequencies tend to decrease with increasing distance from a blast.
•This three tier approach requires lower PPV limits as the frequency decreases.
•A blasting seismograph must be used.
Table 1.—Maximum allowable PPV
Maximum allowable PPV

Distance from the blasting
for ground vibration
site (feet)
(ips)1
0 to 300 1.25
301 to 5,000 1.00
5,001 and beyond 0.75
1Ground vibration shall be measured as the particle velocity. Particle velocity shall be
recorded in three mutually perpendicular directions (R, V, and T), and the maximum allowable
PPV shall apply to measurements for each.
Ground-Vibration Limits: Scaled Distance
•Ground vibration frequencies tend to decrease with increasing distance from a blast.
•This three tier approach requires higher limits as the frequency decreases.
•A blasting seismograph is not required.
Table 2.—Scaled-distance factors

Distance from the blasting Scaled-distance factors Scaled distance for a given blast
site (feet) (Ds) is calculated as: D
Ds =
W
0 to 300 50
where D = distance from the
blast site to the nearest offsite
301 to 5,000 55 structure and W = maximum
charge weight of explosives in
5,001 and beyond 65 pounds detonated within any 8-
millisecond delay interval
For a given scaled-distance factor, the allowable charge weight per 8-ms delay, W, can be calculated
from the distance to the closest structure: 2
⎛ ⎞ D
W=⎜ ⎟
⎝ Ds ⎠
Knowing the distance, D, to the nearest structure, the Ds value can be selected from table 2 and used in
the equation above to calculate W.
OSM – SD/PPV Relationship, Coal Mines
The PPV limitations of Table 1 and the scaled distance limitations of Table 2 for each
distance range are tied together with the following equation and is illustrated on the graph.
If a scaled distance of 55 is entered into the equation, the resultant PPV is 0.99 ips. Similar
value result from the other scaled distances
OSM Scaled Distance Line: PPV = 438(SD)^-1.52
10
Peak Particle Velocity (in/s)
0.1
0.01
1 10 100 1000
Scaled Distance (ft/lb^.5)
Ground-Vibration Limits: Modified Blasting Level Chart
The solid black line forming the “Z” in 10

figure 1 represents the upper limit to
PEAK PARTICLE VELOCITY (in/s) aaaa

“safe” ground vibrations produced by
a blast. To meet this definition, 2.0 in/sec
vibrations must be measured at the
structure using a seismograph. 0.75 in/sec
1
The PV and associated frequency
are plotted within figure 1. If a given
ground-vibration data point falls
below the solid black line, that
vibration is in compliance. SAFE REGION
0.1
Put another way, data that plot below
the line are considered to be within
the safe zone. Data that fall above
the solid line are considered unsafe
and may cause cracking in
structures. 0.01
1 10 100
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Figure 1.—Modified Blasting Level Chart

Ground-Vibration Limits: Modified Ds Factor
If the blasting parameters under the scaled distance option are too restrictive, an operator may
choose to develop a modified scaled distance. Under this option, the mine operator establishes a
site-specific Ds factor by plotting site-specific scaled distance vs peak particle velocity data and
performing a regression analysis.
This is done by placing seismographs at varying distances from the blast, compiling data for the
PPV and frequency at the peak, and computing the actual scaled distance at each seismograph.
For example,
D
Ds = where D = the distance between the seismograph and the blast and
W W = maximum charge weight per 8-millisecond delay.
Once scaled distance is plotted against PPV on log-log paper a regression analysis will determine
the A “best-fit” line of the data set. Then if an adequate correlation coefficient (r2 > 0.70) exists,
scaled distance can be used as a reliable predictor of PPV. Based on the statistics, two standard
deviations from the mean will result in a line that encompasses 95 percent of the data points This
line will plot parallel to and above the “best-fit” line.
Using the 95 percent confidence line, the PPV limit to which the mine must comply is selected from
table 1. A horizontal line is made on the plot from the PPV values of 0.75, 1.00 and 1.25 over to the
95 percentile line. The value of these intersections, projected on the x-axis, will give a Ds value at
the various distance of 0-300, 301 to 5000 and >5,000 feet that may be used for blast design.
The new Ds factors are considered less restrictive if they are lower than the corresponding value
shown in table 2.
Ground-Vibration Limits: PPV Example
Example 3: A private residence is 780 feet from a planned blast. According to table 1 (which
is used under option 1 to determine the maximum allowable PPV for ground vibration), what is
the maximum PPV allowed at the residence?
Answer 3: In this example, D = 780 feet falls within the range of 301 to
5,000 feet. Table 1 shows the maximum allowable PPV for this range
to be 1.00 ips in any one of the mutually perpendicular directions of R,
V, or T.
Note that compliance using table 1 must be verified by measuring vibrations with a blasting
seismograph at structures affected by blasting.
Ground-Vibration Limits: Scaled Distance Example
Example 4: Let’s say that you don’t want to use a blasting seismograph to monitor
vibrations at a blast site. A structure exists 800 feet from the blast site. What is the
maximum charge weight, W (lbs/delay), that can be detonated within 8 milliseconds?
Answer 4: In this example, D = 800 feet. According to table 2 (which is used

under option 2 to determine the maximum allowable quantity of
explosive charge that can be detonated within any 8-millisecond
delay interval), 800 feet is within the range of 301 to 5,000
feet. Table 2 shows the Ds factor for this range to be 55. Thus,
2 2
⎛ D⎞ ⎛ 800 ⎞
W=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = (14.5) = 211 lbs / delay.
2
⎝ Ds ⎠ ⎝ 55 ⎠
Always round down your calculations.

Ground-Vibration Limits: Scaled Distance Example
Example 5: Assume now that a structure resides 10,000 feet from a blast site. What
is the maximum pounds per delay that can be used at the site?
Answer 5: According to table 2, if D = 10,000 feet, the Ds factor is 65. Therefore,
2 2
⎛ D⎞ ⎛ 10,000 ⎞
W=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = (15384
. ) = 23,668 lbs / delay.
2
⎝ Ds ⎠ ⎝ 65 ⎠
Ground-Vibration Limits: Blasting Level Chart Example
Example 6: Under option 3, a Z-curve, or blasting-level chart, can be used to determine the maximum
allowable PPV as a function of predominate frequency at the PPV. Under this option, the use of a
seismograph is required to show compliance.
Use the blasting level chart on the next slide to locate and plot the following seismographic
measurements, with data taken from a home:
PPV Frequency at the PPV

(ips) (Hz)
0.35 22
0.09 4
1.40 58
0.90 10
Which of these data, if any, is out of compliance?
Instructions: If you have a printer attached to your computer, go to the next slide and exit the
slide show (use the “Esc” button). Print the slide and plot the seismographic-
measurement data by finding the PPV values on the y-axis of the graph and the
frequency on the x-axis. Go to the following slide to find the answers.
To print this page, once you “Esc” the slide show, click File and then Print. Select Current Slide. Click OK.
10
PEAK PARTICLE VELOCITY (in/s) aaaa
2.0 in/sec
0.75 in/sec
1
0.1
0.01
1 10 100
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Answer 6:
10
PEAK PARTICLE VELOCITY (in/s) aaaa 0.90ips and 10 Hz

is above the line and
not in compliance 2.0 in/sec
0.75 in/sec
1
0.1
0.01
1 10 100
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Ground-Vibration Limits: Modified Scaled Distance
Example 7:
100.00
Remember that a modified scaled distance
should yield less restrictive scaled distance PPV = 42.7 SD
-1.18
values based on vibration monitoring. 2

R = 0.92
PEAK PARTICLE VELOCITY (in/s) B

10.00
Say that forty seismograph readings have
been taken at a quarry. These readings are
plotted on the graph to the right as PPV
versus Ds. Regression analysis yields the 1.00
“best-fit” solid line, that is represented by
the equation. The dashed line represents
two standard deviations from the mean,
below which 95 percent of all data fall. An 0.10
R2 means that for the data gathered, scaled
distance is an excellent predictor of PPV
(minimum value of 0.70).
0.01
Assume that a structure exists at 800 feet 1 10 100 1000
from the blast site. The Peak Particle 1/2 1/2
SCALED DISTANCE (D/W ) (ft/lb )
Velocity allowable at this distance is 1.0 ips
(table 1). Under the scaled distance
limitations of table 2 at 800 feet the Ds is
55. Thus the allowable charge weight is
computed to be 211 lbs/delay.
Ground-Vibration Limits: Option 4
Answer 7: 100.00
To determine the modified scaled distance PPV = 42.7 SD-1.18

use the 95 percent confidence line. 2
R = 0.92
PEAK PARTICLE VELOCITY (in/s) B

10.00
With 1.00 ips as the maximum vibration limit,
a horizontal line can be made on the graph
to the right from the 1.00 mark on the y-axis
to the dashed line (shown in red).
1.00
From the intersection with the dashed line, a

vertical line is drawn (in blue) to determine
the Ds value that could be used to ensure—
with 95-percent confidence—a PPV of 1.00 0.10
ips or less. The revised scaled distance
value is 40:
Rather than being limited to 211 lbs/delay, W

can now be increased by using a lower Ds 0.01
1 10 100 1000
factor such that:
1/2 1/2
2 2
SCALED DISTANCE (D/W ) (ft/lb )
⎛ D⎞ ⎛ 800 ⎞
W=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = ( 20) = 400 lbs / delay
2
⎝ Ds ⎠ ⎝ 40 ⎠
The procedure used to exercise option 4 may vary among regions or States. The local regulatory
authority must approve site-specific Ds factors that will ensure compliance with safe vibration limits.
Blast Records
Company use of Blast Records
• Regulatory requirement – show compliance
• Post blast assessment - analyzing problems
• Liability protection - Documentation or

Evidence of the actual blast pattern used
Regulatory use of Blast Records
• Evaluate Competence of Blaster
• Following acceptable blasting practices
• Determine if blasting operations may pose an Imminent Danger
• Post blast assessment of flyrock
• Address annoyance complaints
• Address damage allegations

Records of Blasting Operations – 30 CFR 816.68
An operator shall retain a record of every blast
within its permit-area boundary for at least 3 years
following the blast.
Upon request, copies of these records shall be

made available to the regulatory authority and to
the public for inspection.
Such records shall contain the following data:
1. Name of the operator conducting the blast;
2. Location, date, and time of the blast;
3. Name, signature, and certification number of the

blaster conducting the blast;
4. Identification of the nearest dwelling, public building, school, church, community, or institutional
building outside the permit area, as well as the direction and distance in feet from the
nearest blasthole to the nearest structure;
5. Weather conditions at the time of the blast, including conditions that might have caused possible
adverse blasting effects;
6. Type of material blasted;

Records of Blasting Operations—continued
7. Sketches of the blast pattern, including number of holes, burden,
spacing, decks, and delay pattern;
8. The diameter and depth of holes;
9. Types of explosives used;
10. Total weight of explosives used per hole;
11. The maximum weight of explosives detonated in an 8-millisecond

period;
12. A description of the initiation system;
13. A description of the type and length of stemming;
14. Mats or other protections used;
15. Seismographic and airblast records, if required, which shall specify (a) the type of instrument, its
sensitivity, and the calibration signal or certification of annual calibration; (b) the exact location
of the instrument, the distance from the blast of its placement, and the dates and times of each
of its records; (c) name of the person and firm taking the reading; (d) the name of the person
and the firm analyzing the seismographic record; and (e) the vibration and/or airblast level
recorded; and
16. The reasons and conditions for each unscheduled blast.

Records of Blasting Operations – Blast Location
Locate the blast site within the permit boundary
Two components
• Latitude and Longitude

• Northing and Easting
• Distance and Direction
How?
• Survey
• Compass and tape or range finder
• GPS - Global Positioning System
Best Technology Currently Available - GPS Locations
• Latitude-Longitude
• UTM
• Convert to state plane coordinates if needed
Note Projection System

WGS 84
NAD 27
Big Blasts – 4 corners or tracks

Accuracy +/- 10 feet
Records of Blasting Operations – Identify Nearest Structure
Identify the correct structure
• Street Address
• Full name of occupant
• House number from permit map
• Verify that the structure exists
Distance and Direction
Distance from the closest blast hole
Cardinal directions are too general

Azimuth to the structure (1500 feet 160 degrees)
Distance: two significant digits

< 100’ ……………to the nearest foot
100’ – 1,000’ …...to the nearest 10 feet
1000’ – 10,000’ …to the nearest 100 feet
Records of Blasting Operations – Spatial Relationships
GPS example, track the perimeter of the blast with

waypoints at the four corner. Nearby houses shown
Records of Blasting Operations – Distances with Coordinates
Pythagorean Theorem: serves as a basis for the definition of distance between two points.
a +b = c
2 2 2
With State plane or UTM coordinates:
D = ( E1 − E2 ) + ( N1 − N 2 )
D – distance, E – easting, N - northing
Records of Blasting Operations – Weight of Explosives per Hole
The weight of explosives in each hole is required by SMCRA and is needed to determine the powder
distribution in the pattern. Most important for flyrock control and post blast assessment of
performance.
• Not the average!
• All holes may be loaded the same
• Powder distribution is critical for post

blast assessment
• Steep slopes critical w/ hole depths

variations
Records of Blasting Operations – Charge Weight per Delay
Time the Blast!
• Surface MS times
• Downhole MS times
• Look for overlaps
• Report the maximum value w/in 8-ms
• Critical vibration control entry
Time each blast out until you are comfortable with the sequencing of the pattern. Take a real close look at
decked patterns.
With electric blasting the cap’s identification numbers are listed, with no note on the millisecond delay time. If
a sequential blasting machine is used, the record may show the same cap numbers for each row with a board
time, the number of milliseconds delay between circuits. Obtain the manufacturers product specification
sheet if needed.
In the Non-electric world, each cap has the delay detonator times. It is critical to time out a few shots in order
to understand how the blaster calculates the pattern times.
When all down hole delay times are identical, only the surface delay times need to be calculated to determine
the holes per *millisecond delay period. Decking shots are most challenging for overlaps, time these
patterns out.
Part III: Review Questions and Discussion
1. A residential structure is located 3,500 feet from a blast site. Each blasthole is loaded with
2,000 pounds of explosives. How many holes can be detonated within 8 milliseconds?
2. A church is located 280 feet from a mine road cut that will be blasted. How many pounds can
be detonated per delay in the blast?
3. A blasting operator must offer a pre-blast survey to all non-mine-owned structures between
the permit-area boundary and up to how many miles away?
4. List three things that must be posted on signs at entrances to a mining permit area that is
conducting blasting from all public roads and highways.
5. True or false: airblast does not need to be monitored, but ground vibrations must always be
monitored using a blasting seismograph.
6. True or false: blasting records must be kept on file at a mine for 5 years.
7. Blasting schedules published in local newspapers and distributed to utility owners, local
governments and residents within 1/2 mile of a permit area proposing blasting must include
what information?
8. Blasting signs reading "Blasting Area" are to be conspicuously placed along the edge of any
blasting area within how many feet of any public-road right-of-way?
Part III: Review Questions and Discussion—continued
9. Particle velocity measures the speed of :
a. Flyrock
b. Detonation cord
c. Ground movement caused by a blast
d. The velocity of an explosive detonation
10. Copies of pre-blast surveys shall be promptly provided to:

a. The Department of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives
b. The Governor of the State in which the blasting will occur
c. The State or Federal regulatory authority and the person requesting the survey
d. None of the above
11. Blasting schedules must be republished and redistributed at least every:

a. 3 months
b. 2 years
c. 6 months
d. 12 months
12. When setting up a seismograph to monitor blasting vibrations at a residence, it is best to

keep the geophone:
a. In the center of the living room floor
b. Buried firmly in the ground outside the structure
c. On the inside of a window ledge
d. Unplugged
Part III: Answers
1. According to table 2, if D = 3,500 feet, Ds = 55. Solving for W,
2 2
⎛ D⎞ ⎛ 3,500 ⎞
W=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 4,049 lbs / delay
⎝ Ds ⎠ ⎝ 55 ⎠
The limit 4,049 lbs/delay ≈ 4,000 lbs/delay. Given that each blasthole is loaded with 2,000
pounds of explosives, two holes detonating at one time (2,000 lbs/hole x two holes) would
meet this limit. Thus, two holes detonated per 8-millisecond delay would be acceptable.
2. According to table 2, if D is less than 301 feet, Ds = 50. Solving for W as the nearest whole
number rounding up,
2 2
⎛ D⎞ ⎛ 280 ⎞
W=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 3136
. lbs / delay
⎝ Ds ⎠ ⎝ 50 ⎠
or 32 lbs/delay.
3. 1/2 mile
4. “Warning. Explosives in Use;” the audible warning patterns both for an impending blast and
for the post-blast all-clear; and a description of barricades or markers that delineate the
blast-site perimeter and all charged holes.
Part III: Answers—continued
5. False. Airblast must be periodically monitored with a blasting seismograph, whereas ground
vibrations do not have to be monitored in cases where the blast has been designed using the
scaled distance (Ds) formula.
6. False. Records must be kept for 3 years.
7. The name, address, and telephone number of operator; an identification of the specific areas
in which blasting will take place; the dates and time periods when explosives are to be
detonated; the methods to be used to control access to the blasting area; and the type and
patterns of audible warning and all-clear signals to be used before and after blasting.
8. 100 feet
9. c. is correct.
10. c. is correct.
11. d. is correct.
12. b. is correct.

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Blaster’s

Prepared under sponsorship from

Office of Technology Transfer, Western Region

Sheridan District Office

Welcome (Overview / User Guide) 1-8

Blasting Modules 1 - 8 Slides

Module 1. Explosives 1-42

Explosives Disclaimer / Overview 1-3

Chemistry of Explosives 4-5

Classification of Explosives 6-8

Explosives Properties 9-19

Review Questions 20-21

Explosives and BA’s 22-39

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 40-42

Module 2. Initiation Systems 1-81

Initiation Systems Introduction 1 - 16

Non-Electric Systems 17-18

Detonating Cord 19-23

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 24-25

Detonating Cord 26-35

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 36-37

Shock-Tube Systems 38-45

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 46-47

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 54-56

Electric Systems 57-69

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 70-71

Cap-and-Fuse Systems 72-78

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 79-81

Module 3. Surface-Blast Design 1-36

Highwall Stability 7-9

Control Blasting 10-12

Hole Diameter and Depth 13

Blast Theory 14-16

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 17-18

Blast Design 19-33

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 34-36

Module 4. Blasthole Drilling 1-27

Drill Rigs 5-9

Hole Diameter 13-15

Drill Accuracy and Deviation 16-18

Planning and Documentation 19-25

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 26-27

Module 5 . Blasthole Loading 1-37

Wet Boreholes 11-13

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 18-19

Loading Procedures 25-26

Packaged Products 27-34

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 35-37

Module 6. Geology 1-28

Rock Classification and Properties 4-26

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 27-28

Federal Regulating Agencies 5

Department of Transportation 7-8

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives 9-12

Magazine Type 13-19

Mine Safety & Health Administration 29-31

Office of Surface Mining 32

The Institute of Makers of Explosives 32-34

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 36-38

Module 8. Controlling the Adverse Effects of Blasting

I Ground Vibrations, Airblast, and Flyrock 3-61

Review Questions / Answers and Discussion 62-64

II Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement 65-77