Journal of Global Fashion Marketing

Bridging Fashion and Marketing

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rgfm20

Exploring Skill Requirements of Local and

Multinational Companies for Entry Level
Marketing Professionals in the Apparel Industry in
a Developing Country

Tamgid Ahmed Chowdhury & Nusrat Zaman Anon

To cite this article: Tamgid Ahmed Chowdhury & Nusrat Zaman Anon (2021): Exploring Skill
Requirements of Local and Multinational Companies for Entry Level Marketing Professionals
in the Apparel Industry in a Developing Country, Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, DOI:
10.1080/20932685.2021.1939758

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/20932685.2021.1939758

Published online: 27 Jul 2021.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 25

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rgfm20
JOURNAL OF GLOBAL FASHION MARKETING
https://doi.org/10.1080/20932685.2021.1939758

Exploring Skill Requirements of Local and Multinational

Companies for Entry Level Marketing Professionals in the
Apparel Industry in a Developing Country
a
Tamgid Ahmed Chowdhury and Nusrat Zaman Anonb
a
Marketing and International Business, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; bResearch Department,
Keystone Business Support Company Limited, Dhaka, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The purpose of this study is to offer an ‘employability skill index” for Received 24 February 2021
entry-level marketing professionals in the apparel industry and com­ Revised 23 April 2021
pare the skill requirements of local and multinational companies Accepted 3 June 2021
(MNCs). The study applies Structural Equation Modeling approach KEYWORDS
for index development. Primary data were collected through Employability skills;
a structured questionnaire from 1082 managers of 18 local and 16 marketing in the apparel
MNCs operating in the apparel industry in Bangladesh. Convergent sector; multinational
and discriminant validities of the proposed index were tested. The companies; developing
research revealed a six-dimensional 22-item skill index with signifi­ countries; Bangladesh
cant differences in skill requirements between local and MNCs. The
skills MNCs prioritized are major courses taken, research-based
internship, written communication skills, and English language abil­
ity. Local companies, on the other hand, put preferences on experi­
ence, team building ability, network skill, and effective listening. The
literature review revealed that there is a lack of quantitative studies to
offer employability skills for entry-level marketing managers in the
apparel industry in the South Asia region. Therefore, the current
study is original and adds significant value to the literature. The
proposed skill index can help the universities to design their courses
accordingly to increase the employability of marketing graduates in
the apparel industry.

1. Introduction
Kenayathulla et al. (2019) and Jain et al. (2021) found that employers while recruiting
prefer candidates with additional qualifications (also called employability skills) other
than just academic results and knowledge. Therefore, job seekers should develop those
employability qualities that can help them to enter, stay in, and progress in the job field
(Dominique-Ferreira et al., 2021). In this study, employability skills are conceptualized as
a “set of attributes that make graduates more likely to gain employment and be successful in
their chosen professions” (Knight & Yorke, 2003, p. 124). As the nature of employments is
different among the industries and across different departments within the same com­
pany, a generalized global (Lauder & Bliip Global Employability, 2013) or national

CORRESPONDENCE TO Tamgid Ahmed Chowdhury tamgid.chowdhury76@gmail.com Marketing and

International Business, North South University, Plot-15, Block-B, Bashundhara, Dhaka 1229, Bangladesh
© 2021 Korean Scholars of Marketing Science
2 T. A. CHOWDHURY AND N. Z. ANON

(Chowdhury & Miah, 2019; Institute for Employment Studies, 2015) skill index is not
sufficient enough to understand the requirements of a particular job category (such as
marketing).
There has always been a conflict between employers and academia in educating the
graduates regarding necessary skills (Pimpa, 2020). To address the fixed issue,
a significant number of studies had been conducted to provide a competency list for
different disciplines such as human resources management (Chowdhury & Miah, 2019),
marketing (Board of Studies Teaching and Educational Standards (BOSTES), 2014), and
engineering (Koka & Raman, 2015) positions. Most of the existing studies on marketing
& sales are qualitative and offered a general list that may not be totally applicable for
marketing graduates looking for jobs in a specific sector such as in the apparel brands
(fashion designing and marketing as per Guercini, 2012). A statistically important
employability skill index based on the opinion of the marketing managers of apparel
brands can help the universities to design their courses accordingly to increase the
employability of these graduates. This study intends to offer such an index to minimize
the gaps in the existing literature. It is important to note that a marketing executive in the
apparel brands needs to formulate strategies to communicate the core values of the
fashion house as well as enhance sales of the same.
Focusing on the apparel industry in Bangladesh is vital as this sector of the country
contributes a 6.5% share of the global apparel market (WTO, 2019). In addition, around
84% of the country’s export income comes from the ready-made garment (RMG) sector
(Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2019). Also, RMGs, fashion houses, and other apparel-
relevant companies employ a significant percentage of the total labor force of Bangladesh.
Recent studies on the apparel industry of Bangladesh mostly focused on the blue-collar
workers concerning increasing their productivity (Fukunishi, 2014) and skills enhance­
ment through training (Macchiavello et al., 2014). Rarer is to find relevant works that
tried to identify the skill requirements for the entry-level white-collar marketing
executives.
There has always been the predominance of skill listings in the developed countries.
Few commendable studies are on soft skills requirements in the USA (Crawford & Lang,
2011), general skill listing in Canada (Latendresse & Cortoni, 2005) and Australia
(DEEWR, 2012), a technical quality needed in Japan (Institute of Technologists, 2011),
and skill needs in the hospitality industry in EU (Hiyang & Halim, 2010). Very few
studies are available in developing countries, especially in the South Asian region.
Available studies in Vietnam are by Duoc and Metzger (2007) on qualities of business
graduates and Malaysia by Kenayathulla et al. (2019) on hospitality industry. Available
studies in Bangladesh are The Economist (2014) on the general list of skills, Srivastava
and Khare (2012), and Chisty et al. (2007) on qualities required by business graduates,
and these are all based on qualitative focus group discussion. Negligence in quantitative
skill listing and lack of effort in incorporating them in the curriculum in developing
countries (such as Bangladesh) further justify the reason behind a higher rate of graduate
unemployment in these nations. For instance, World Bank (2019) reported that nearly
50% of all graduates in all sectors are unemployed in Bangladesh, whereas the national
unemployment rate is only 4.37%. This study will try to minimize the above-mentioned
research gap by providing a multidimensional employability skill index for entry-level
white-collar executives in the apparel brands in Bangladesh.
 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL FASHION MARKETING 3

Another gap in the literature is the lack of listing skill requirements and comparison of
the priorities of local and multinational companies (MNCs). A comparative study can be
value-adding because to make graduates useful for the globe, MNCs’ distinctive skill
policies and requirements along with local needs can help in national human capital
development (Jiboku & Akpan, 2019). We believe that identifying the skill requirements
of locals and MNCs can assist the job seekers to prepare more competently. This study
will discourse this issue too.
By considering the rationales mentioned above, this study will address the following
research questions:

(1) What are the qualities that will enhance a marketing graduate’s employability in
apparel brands of Bangladesh?
(2) Are there differences in skill requirements between local and multinational appa­
rel brands operating in Bangladesh?

2. Literature review
2.1. Theoretical framework
The current study is based on the 21st-century skill list proposed by Finegold (2010).
Even though several other such lists are available (for instance, Ministry of Education of
Singapore, 2021; OECD, 2009), the authors used the one proposed by Finegold (2010)
due to its wider acceptance among the researchers of different disciplines (Benson, 2018;
Mykkanen & Vos, 2017). Finegold’s (2010) model is based on the definition of compe­
tency used by OECD (2009), which stated that “A competency is more than just knowl­
edge and skills and it involves the ability to meet complex demands, by drawing on and
mobilizing psychosocial resources in a particular context”. Finegold started with the
literature on human capital and then analyzed different national and sectoral quality lists.
Finally, with the suggestions of the Hewlett Foundation, Finegold (2010) ended up with
15 competencies grouped under five dimensions (refer to Table 1) that are crucial for the
21st century.
As per Finegold (2010), “analytic skills” are soft skills that can help to identify and
solve a complex problem. “Interpersonal skills” are competencies related to communica­
tion that is necessary for success in the job market. “Ability to execute” is the skill that can
help someone to take responsibility to manage his/her own life in the broader social
context. The “Information processing” dimension typically deals with literacy and
numeracy, however, from a digital media perspective. Finally, “capacity for change”
measures the extent to which a person can adapt to the frequent changes in

Table 1. List of 21st century competencies (adapted from Finegold, 2010).

Competency dimension Underlying skill items
Analytic skills Critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, and research and inquiry
Interpersonal skills Communication, collaboration, and leadership and responsibility
Ability to execute Initiative and self-direction, and productivity
Information processing Information literacy, media literacy, digital citizenship, and ICT operations and concepts
Capacity for change Creativity, adaptive learning, and flexibility
4 T. A. CHOWDHURY AND N. Z. ANON

organizational practices and technological innovation. Even though the proposed index
is a generic one, Finegold (2010) argued that the list needs to be revised as per the
requirements of the specific job category. Even though Finegold’s (2010) proposed index
has been applied in different fields (in the business field by Benson, 2018; in the field of
communication and IT by Mykkanen & Vos, 2017), there is a lack of study to test the
applicability of the proposed index for marketing executives working in the apparel
branding.

2.2. Studies on skill listing for marketing managers in general

Table 2 summarizes the findings of the studies that proposed similar and contrasting
employability skills in the field of marketing and sales in different countries.

2.3. Studies that offered skill list for marketing executives in the apparel industry
and the gaps
Several works have been conducted to explore the skill requirements of the marketing
executives working in the apparel industry. However, there are three notable gaps in the
existing relevant literature. First, most of the relevant studies are based on in-depth
interviews with the managers and the reported findings lack statistical significance
(exceptions are Frazier & Cheek, 2016). For instance, Jacobs and Karpova (2020)
suggested skills such as teamwork, diplomacy, leadership, self-management, positive
attitude, flexibility, assortment management, and strategic thinking as important for
merchandisers in South Africa. Other notable qualitative studies are by Jacobs and
Karpova (2019), and Arasinah et al. (2014).
Second, there are several relevant; however, older studies have available findings,
which may not be fully applicable in the current context. For instance, Yu and Jin
(2005) suggested competencies such as network skills, knowledge of selling, results in
the relevant field, and persuasion ability. Other notable studies are by LeHew and Meyer
(2005) and Kim and Johnson (2007). We believe that it is important to explore the recent
developments in the relevant field – this paper intends to do that. Finally, exploring the
skill requirements for entry-level marketing executives in the apparel brand sector in
South Asia, which is mostly neglected, is important because many countries of this region
such as Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka are the largest players in the global
apparel market (Kuruppu, 2018) with significant total share and continuously rising
export volume. These positive changes have opened up significant employment oppor­
tunities for graduates in the apparel brand sector. Therefore, it will be value-adding to
explore the recent skill requirements for marketing executives in the apparel industry
considering Bangladesh – a South Asian country – as a case study.

3. Methodology
3.1. Measurement development
As mentioned earlier, there is a lack of works on exploring employability attributes for
marketing graduates willing to get employment in the apparel industry. Therefore, to
Table 2. Employability skills required in the field of marketing and sales from a global perspective.
Type of
Reference Country of study study Skills listed
Studies that offered similar skills
Board of Studies Teaching and Australia Qualitative Listening, speaking, negotiation, team work, problem solving skill, organizing ability, initiative taking,
Educational Standards (BOSTES) basic IT knowledge, positive attitude, adaptive, leadership ability, work under pressure, goal
(2014) orientation, verbal communication skill, written communication skill, critical thinking ability, and self-
Conference Board of Canada (2013) Canada Qualitative management
Heffernan et al. (2010) China Quantitative
Paulrajan (2011) India Quantitative
Graduate Management Admission Cross-country Quantitative
Council (2012)
Burnett & Jayaram (2012) Africa Quantitative
Brixiova et al. (2014) South Africa Qualitative
Chowdhury & Miah (2019) Bangladesh Quantitative
Studies that offered contrasting findings
Harris (2014) Canada Quantitative research skills, trade skills, financial expertise, coaching, coding, sales ability, and web design
Institute for Employment Studies UK Qualitative attitude & outlook, extrovert, basic numeracy, selling skills, product knowledge, and initiative taking
(2015)
Ministry of Labor and Employment India Qualitative interpersonal relationship, stress management, time utilization, understanding customers, handling
(2014) tough customers, and use of sales tools
Manpower Group (2012) Global Qualitative foreign language, enthusiasm, and attention to detail
Manpower Group (2012) America and Europe Qualitative professionalism, intellectual curiosity, and ability to deal with complexity
Manpower Group (2012) Asia and Pacific Qualitative business acumen and customer handling ability
Graduate Management Admission Cross-country Quantitative length of experience, reference, internship, language skills, major courses completed, and willingness to
Council (2012) relocate,
Burnett & Jayaram (2012) Asia Quantitative willingness to learn, appearance, hardworking, influencing skill, quest for knowledge, and quick
responsiveness
Schlee and Harich (2010) Global (21st century skills) Quantitative developing marketing plan, manage marketing functions, brand management, forecasting and
budgeting, internet marketing, maintaining public relations
Srivastava and Khare (2012) and Bangladesh Qualitative behavioral skills, language, safety, accounting skills, business acumen, commitment, and sincerity
Burnett and Jayaram (2012)
JOURNAL OF GLOBAL FASHION MARKETING
5
6 T. A. CHOWDHURY AND N. Z. ANON

generate an initial pool of skill items, we did an extensive literature review to sort out all
available qualities irrespective of the country of analysis with a focus on studies relevant to
marketing and sales positions. To accumulate a list of skill items, authors reviewed relevant
journal articles and book chapters between 2000 and 2020. In addition, Google Scholar
and Scopus databases were searched with keywords such as employability skills, compe­
tencies for marketing jobs, employability qualities in developing nations, and skill require­
ments in the apparel industry. The initial list will then be customized to the requirements
of the employers for marketing positions in the apparel industry. Considering the employ­
ability qualities for marketing professionals available in the existing literature, primarily we
have sorted out 97 skills. A panel of five scholars, who are experienced in teaching human
resources management courses, has collaborated to refine 97 items (Shimp & Sharma,
1987). By considering the focus (marketing jobs in the apparel brand industry) of the
study, the panel advised adding four skill items, deleting seven items, and rephrasing six
variables in the list. Experts suggested that the “operations and systems analysis” is mostly
an engineering task, and marketing executives have less connection to that. Also, experts
recommended using a five-point Likert scale to record the opinions of the respondents.
With all the refinements, we had 94 items on the list.
At the second stage, we discussed the refined 94 items with human resource (HR)
managers of three local and two multinational apparel marketing companies. The
managers recommended rephrasing eight items to make them more tailored to the
objective of the study and to drop four items from the list (mostly because of repetition).
After refining these suggestions, we had 90 items. At the third stage, we conducted a pilot
study among 20 marketing managers of two apparel brand companies (one local and one
MNC) to pre-test the contents of the questionnaire. Many of them suggested dropping
one more item, namely, “investigation skills,” as entry-level executives do not get the
authority to investigate.

3.2. Questionnaire
We prepared a multi-modal fixed-alternative questionnaire to facilitate quantitative data
collection. The questionnaire contains dichotomous questions (such as gender and the
type of company work for), multiple-choice questions (MCQs) (such as size of the
company), and scale-based questions (for employability skill-related questions). The
first section of the survey contains demographic questions and the second section
contains questions regarding the 89 skill items. A five-point Likert scale is used to capture
the opinions of the managers, regarding the degree to which the employability skill item
is important to them, where 1 and 5 stand for “not at all important” and “most
important,” respectively.

3.3. Data collection protocol

We have collected data from mid-level and top-level marketing managers of local and
MNCs doing apparel businesses. The data were collected through both paper-based and
online surveys using the snowball sampling approach. The authors first collected names
of only the apparel brand companies from Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and
Exporter Association’s (BGMEA) member list, then distributed the physical
 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL FASHION MARKETING 7

questionnaires and online survey link to one or two managers of a company and
requested them to share the survey instruments with other colleagues who are working
in management positions. The primary data were collected between January and
September 2020. To facilitate exploratory analysis, the first set of data have been collected
from 611 marketing managers [following Steven’s (1996) minimum of 5:1 data criterion]
of eight local companies out of which 418 (68.41%) and 193 (31.59%) data are from mid-
level and top-level managers, respectively. The second set of data have been gathered
from 471 marketing managers of MNCs to facilitate confirmatory analysis. Table 3
presents detailed demographic profiles of the respondents.

3.4. Data analysis plan

As our primary objective was to explore the essential employability skills along with their
dimensions, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses through the Structural
Equation Modeling (SEM) are used to develop the employability index (Hair et al.,
2016). The SEM approach is used because of its philosophical similarity to the analysis
of multidimensional scaling and greater statistical strength in comparison with other
multivariate techniques.

4. Results: Skill index development process

4.1. Stage-1: Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)
Kaiser Meyer Olkin (KMO) value, which measures the data adequacy (N = 611), shows
that our value of 0.84 is high enough to conduct factor analysis. First-stage EFA results
reported that 89 items were grouped under 20 factors with a total variance explained
(TVE) value of 86.42%. As our primary objective was to reduce the number of skills to
more relevant ones, we decided to apply strict rules to drop the skill items with loading less
than 0.50, or cross-loaded, or having a high critical ratio (CR>3.96), or the extraction value
is less than 0.50 (Hossain et al., 2018; Hair et al., 2016). Considering the defined rules, 22
attributes have been dropped, out of which 20 items were cross-loaded (such as judgment
ability, listening to others, knowledge of basic numeracy, level of education, and commer­
cial awareness), and two items (self-motivation and physical appearance) had loading less

Table 3. Respondents’ profile of the study.

Demographic variable Local companies Multinational companies
Position of the respondent
Mid-level (5–10 years of experience) 418 (68.41%) 363 (77.07%)
Top-level (More than 10 years of experience) 193 (31.59%) 108 (22.93%)
Gender
Female 207 (33.88%) 165 (35.04%)
Male 404 (66.12%) 306 (64.96%)
Educational qualifications
Bachelor’s completed 113 (18.49%) 49 (10.40%)
Master’s completed 492 (80.52%) 419 (88.95%)
Above Master’s degree 6 (0.99%) 3 (0.65%)
Total number of respondents 611 471
8 T. A. CHOWDHURY AND N. Z. ANON

than 0.50. Many managers said that entry-level marketing executives are assigned to day-
to-day operations. Therefore, the “judgment ability” is of less importance to the employers.
We ran EFA (2nd stage) with the remaining 67 items. It was suggested by Hair et al.
(2016) to run EFA to purify the list until all retained items have a loading of 0.50 or
above. This time, 13 items (such as the ability to work as team encourager, investigation
ability, life-long learning, and independence) were dropped as they could not comply
with our item retention rules. This process continued until we got all the remaining
qualities that satisfied our prior stated decision rules. Finally, after conducting the 8th
stage of EFA, 25 skill items that were grouped under six dimensions have been retained
for confirmatory analysis.

4.2. Stage-2: Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

To run CFA, 471 new data have been collected from the mid-level marketing managers
of 16 MNCs (refer to Table 3). It was decided to keep those statistically significant
(p < 0.05) items in CFA that had the loading greater than 0.40. In addition, the
dimension and the index would be considered acceptable with satisfactory fit index
[Root Mean Residual (RMR)<0.040, Goodness of fit index (GFI)>0.90, comparative fit
index (CFI)>0.90, Normed Fit Index (NFI)>0.85, Root mean square error of approx­
imation (RMSEA)<0.05, Pclose>0.05 and Hoelters>200] (Chowdhury & Miah, 2019;
Hair et al., 2016).
By running through CFA for the first dimension and its corresponding five skill items
(found from EFA), we found one item, namely, “critical thinking ability” with the loading
of 0.13 only. Moreover, fit index values for RMR, GFI, CFI, NFI, RMSEA, Pclose and
Hoelters were 0.06, 0.86, 0.90, 0.83, 0.056, 0.07 and 188/211, respectively. By dropping the
mentioned insignificant item from the CFA model, we found RMR, GFI, CFI, NFI,
RMSEA, Pclose and Hoelters to be 0.025, 0.91, 0.92, 0.89, 0.041, 0.76, and 246/301,
respectively, which show a satisfactory first dimension and its corresponding four
attributes.
We followed the same procedure for the remaining dimensions and their correspond­
ing items. Through the process, one more skill item (having a foreign degree) was
discarded from the study due to the low loading value. Our CFA results revealed that
all six dimensions and their underlying 23 skill items have satisfactory fit value. Now, we
need to test the extent to which all dimensions and their items are compatible with each
other as a single index.

4.3. Stage-3: Constructing the Employability Skill index for marketing executives
in the apparel sector
The remaining 23 items and their six factors were put all together into the structural
model. By running the model twice, we found one attribute (working in a cross-cultural
environment) with loading lower than our desired value. It was argued by the managers
that in Bangladesh, cross-cultural environment is rare and therefore, this item is of less
importance. This skill attribute was dropped from the study. This time, all items were
found to have loading greater than 0.40 with RMR, GFI, CFI, NFI, RMSEA, Pclose, and
Hoelters values of 0.07, 0.89, 0.91, 0.87, 0.039, 0.68 and 309/332, respectively. The final
 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL FASHION MARKETING 9

22-item six-dimensional “employability skill index” for marketing positions in the

apparel industry is reported in Table 4. Cronbach’s Alpha of our index is 0.90 which
confirms the high reliability and internal consistency of the model. Exploring and
suggesting 22 essential and statistically significant skill items for the employability of
marketing graduates in apparel brand industry address the first research question of the
study.
A quick look at the attributes (positive attitude in work, professionalism, and goal-
achievement) under the first dimension shows that these are the qualities that not only
help the candidate to secure a job but are also necessary to perform better in the job
position. Thus, the dimension is named “Goal Attainment Skills.” Again, skill items (such
as work stress acceptance, self-motivating, self-engagement, and effective listening)
under the sixth dimension reveal that these are the skills that reflect the personality of
an individual and therefore named as “Personality Skill” aspect of the index (similarly
suggested by Whetten & Cameron, 2007). By following the same pattern, we called other
dimensions as “Academic Skills,” “Leadership Abilities,” “Interpersonal Abilities,” and
“Communication Skills” dimensions (support the findings of Whetten & Cameron,
2007).

4.3.1. Convergent and discriminant validity of the index

We have conducted two validity analyses to confirm convergent and discriminant
validities. We assessed convergent validity and internal consistency through construct
reliability (CR). Also, the average variance explained (AVE) values were calculated to test
the explanatory power of the skill dimensions. The CR and AVE values reported in Table
A1 in the appendix approve the validity of the index as a whole. As all the CR values are
higher than the threshold of 0.70, our proposed skilled dimensions are reliable and valid
from an internal consistency perspective (Cho, 2016). Factor loadings are all higher than

Table 4. Items and dimensions of final Employability Skill Index for marketing jobs in apparel industry.
No. Employability Skills Dimension Loading Mean (SD)
I1 Positive attitude in works Goal 0.78 4.36 (0.70)
I2 Professionalism Attainment 0.81 4.30 (0.78)
I3 Goal achievement Skills 0.69 3.98 (0.92)
I4 Leadership quality Leadership Abilities 0.71 4.06 (0.93)
I5 Planning ability 0.84 3.95 (0.83)
I6 Execution skill 0.88 3.93 (0.90)
I7 Socialization ability 0.50 3.97 (0.84)
I8 Relevant Experiences Interpersonal Abilities 0.73 3.12 (1.03)
I9 Subject knowledge 0.82 2.86 (1.00)
I10 Alumni Network skill 0.69 2.81 (0.93)
I11 Working in a team 0.61 3.83 (1.02)
I12 Higher concentration on GED Academic 0.65 2.67 (0.86)
I13 Knowledge of selling Skills 0.59 2.76 (1.06)
I14 Type of courses completed as major 0.81 3.02 (0.97)
I15 Research component in internship 0.71 2.58 (1.02)
I16 Relevant internship 0.69 2.41 (1.05)
I17 Written communication skills Communication Skills 0.72 4.03 (0.82)
I18 Knowing different languages 0.75 3.66 (1.03)
I19 Self-motivating Personality 0.49 3.62 (0.82)
I20 Work Stress acceptance Skills 0.61 4.00 (0.84)
I21 Self-engagement 0.54 3.91 (0.80)
I22 Effective listening 0.74 4.14 (0.76)
10 T. A. CHOWDHURY AND N. Z. ANON

0.40 and significance is another indication of a valid index. AVE values that assess the
convergent validity are all higher than 0.50 (Hair et al., 2016). Dimension correlation
(square root of AVE) reported in Table A-1 shows that each skill dimension is highly
correlated with its underlying items and has less correlations with the skill items of
another dimension. These findings approve convergent and discriminant validity of the
index. Finally, we calculated the variance inflation factor (VIF) values that range from
2.81–3.87 and are less than the threshold of 5.00. This means that there is no multi-
collinearity problem in the index.

5. Discussions and implications

Our results (Table 4) revealed that three out of five 21st century competency
dimensions (Finegold, 2010, Table 1) are similar to the skill dimensions proposed
in the current study. For example, “interpersonal skills” and its underlying items
(such as communication, collaboration, and leadership and responsibility) of 21st-
century competency index are similar to the items of “leadership ability” and
“communication skill” dimensions of our proposed index. However, our proposed
dimensions capture more skill items to represent the interpersonal skill dimension
than the 21st-century skill model. Again, our “personality skill” dimension and its
corresponding skill items are represented by the “ability to execute” and “capacity
for change” dimensions (items are self-direction, productivity, adaptive learning,
and flexibility) of the 21st-century competency model. There are two dimensions,
namely, “analytic skills” and “information processing” and their underlying items
proposed in the 21st-century model are absent in our model. On the other hand,
two dimensions, namely, “goal attainment skills” and “academic skills” and their
underlying eight items of our model are absent in the 21st-century competency
index. Many mid- to top-level managers argued that items of “analytic skills”
dimension (critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making) of 21st-
century model are absent in our study as those are less relevant to entry-level
executives as they do not get the authority to make decisions in a critical situation.
Item-wise comparison found that seven out of sixteen items of 21st-century model
are present in our proposed skill index.
Our results (Table 4) suggest that “positive attitude in works” (mean is 4.36) is
the most demanding quality in marketing jobs in the apparel brand industry
followed by “professionalism” (4.30) of the candidate. Managers argued that
a positive attitude towards work ensures complying with the rules and policies of
the company, which is vital to create a positive image in the market. ’Working in
a team ability’ of the candidate and how accurately the person can “listen and apply
the knowledge” are other critical competencies in apparel brand marketing in
Bangladesh. The managers also put more importance on the written communication
skills (mean is 4.03) of the candidate (consistent with Finegold, 2010). Finally, it can
be observed that personal skills are more important qualities in apparel marketing,
whereas academic skills are less demanded (Consistent to Schlee & Harich, 2010) in
the stated field.
 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL FASHION MARKETING 11

5.1. Similarities and differences in skill requirements between local and

multinational companies
“Positive attitude towards work” is vital to MNCs (mean is 4.44) and locals (4.13) and
employers prefer to see their employees of all levels working as per company regulations
(Table 5). Managers of both MNCs and local companies claimed that they had strict
monitoring facilities installed in the workplace. A positive attitude also includes
a cooperative, politics-free attitude, and equal opportunity to everyone irrespective of
gender and caste. Both types of companies also prioritized “professionalism,” which
usually include appearance, approachability, physical gesture, and mannerism (consis­
tent with Jacobs & Karpova, 2020). Faculty members through regular monitoring of dress
codes in the class and demanding good speaking ability can play a role in developing
professionalism among the candidates. Also, training on soft skills can be value-adding.
Both local and MNCs have shown (refer to Table 5) their higher priority on “planning
ability” (mean is 3.97 for MNCs and 3.92 for locals) and “execution skill” (3.92 for MNCs
and 3.94 for locals) of the candidates (consistent to Jacobs & Karpova, 2020). The
managers of multinational apparel companies said that they assign their fresh recruits
to deal with local and foreign buyers (after a short training) where planning and carrying
out the plan effectively are vital. Local company managers also mentioned that they
involve executives while planning and therefore, these qualities are more demanding to
them too. Universities should allocate creative assignments in apparel marketing courses
(such as marketing and product plans) to build the planning and execution abilities of the
students.
Other than the above-mentioned items, significant variations can be found between
local and MNCs on skill requirements (Table 5, column 3 and 4). For instance, self-
engagement, work stress acceptance, subject knowledge, and goal achievement skills

Table 5. Comparison of entry-level marketing skill requirements between local and MNCs.
No. Employability Skills Mean (SD) for Locals Mean (SD) for MNCs Calculated t-value Sig.
I1 Positive attitude in works 4.13 (0.84) 4.44 (0.61) 5.32 0.023
I2 Professionalism 4.10 (0.91) 4.41 (0.67) 4.11 0.038
I3 Goal achievement 4.02 (0.85) 3.89 (1.04) 3.38 0.049
I4 Leadership quality 4.23 (0.80) 3.97 (0.99) 4.89 0.031
I5 Planning ability 3.92 (0.89) 3.97 (0.79) 0.698 0.407
I6 Execution skill 3.94 (0.94) 3.92 (0.89) 0.249 0.619
I7 Socialization ability 4.04 (0.87) 3.94 (0.77) 0.110 0.641
I8 Relevant Experiences 3.38 (0.86) 3.02 (1.11) 3.81 0.046
I9 Subject knowledge 3.21 (0.97) 2.89 (1.02) 5.38 0.022
I10 Alumni Network skill 3.17 (0.94) 2.86 (1.01) 5.20 0.028
I11 Working in a team 3.89 (1.09) 3.79 (0.87) 3.24 0.043
I12 Higher concentration on GED 2.72 (0.87) 2.98 (0.79) 1.43 0.122
I13 Knowledge of selling 2.64 (1.13) 2.97 (0.90) 3.18 0.077
I14 Type of courses completed as major 2.82 (0.96) 3.38 (0.87) 4.28 0.033
I15 Research component in internship 2.41 (1.00) 3.06 (1.01) 3.12 0.046
I16 Relevant internship 2.16 (0.94) 3.12 (1.11) 2.80 0.038
I17 Written communication skills 3.94 (0.85) 4.08 (0.81) 4.08 0.040
I18 Knowing different languages 3.29 (0.96) 3.81 (1.04) 3.82 0.042
I19 Self-motivating 3.90 (0.82) 3.98 (0.74) 4.52 0.036
I20 Work Stress acceptance 4.19 (0.74) 3.49 (0.92) 3.90 0.041
I21 Self-engagement 4.19 (0.82) 3.69 (0.80) 2.40 0.048
I22 Effective listening 3.79 (0.89) 4.34 (0.72) 2.46 0.069
Note: Cronbach’s Alpha for the scales of local and MNCs are 0.91 and 0.89 respectively. Sig. at 95% interval
12 T. A. CHOWDHURY AND N. Z. ANON

are most demanded by the locals, whereas positive attitude towards the workplace,
effective listening, self-motivating, and ability to work in a team are prioritized by
MNCs.
Local companies prefer applicants who can “accept work stress” (mean is 4.19)
(consistent to Srivastava & Khare, 2012) because entry-level marketing executives need
to work in the field with customers and suppliers. Interestingly, MNCs rated this attribute
as mediocre (mean is 3.49). Local companies also emphasized “self-engagement” skill
highly (mean is 4.19) (consistent to Finegold, 2010), whereas MNCs have shown less
importance (3.69) towards the said attribute. All the above-stated findings prove that
local companies prefer candidates with better personal qualities. As expected, MNCs
prefer to recruit candidates with better “foreign language” skills (3.81). However, the
local company’s expressively weak demand on the said attribute is noticeable (mean is
3.29). MNCs require their executives to liaison with the regional and global head offices,
and thus foreign (especially English) language skill is pertinent to them.
The results (Table 5) revealed that “listening effectively” is a priority of MNCs (4.34)
(consistent with Srivastava et al., 2016), however, less demanded by the locals (3.79).
MNC managers argued that as entry-level executives are mostly implementers, they
should have the quality to listen to their mentors and superiors properly. Managers
also said that active listening by marketing and sales executives has an impact on the
company’s relationship with different stakeholders.
MNCs have put more emphasis on “research components in internship” (3.06) and the
“type of major courses completed” in apparel marketing (3.38) (similar to Brixiova et al.,
2014). MNC managers said that internship is a pathway to full-time employment, and thus,
they judge the academic and research qualities of the candidates during that tenure. In this
sector, interns are assigned to research the products to explore problems and opportunities
which in turn helps the manager to evaluate the research, critical thinking, and judgment
abilities of the candidate. To perform better in the internship, students must take job-
relevant major courses such as the Strategic Apparel Marketing course if s/he is planning to
build a career in apparel marketing (Consistent to Schlee & Harich, 2010). Universities
need to design their curriculum as per the requirements of the corporate arena.
It was observed that “concentration to general education (GED)” is another necessity
in our proposed index which implies that the employers want to see applicants with
knowledge of culture, music, history, politics, and arts in addition to job-relevant courses.
This quality is more important to MNCs (2.98) but less vital to locals (even though no
significant difference is found in results). This is a new finding for job seekers in apparel
brand marketing and an important message to the universities. Currently, most of the
universities in Bangladesh have significantly less contribution of GED courses in their
degree requirements. We firmly recommend forming and utilizing a “business advisory
committee,” consisting of the top-level managers of fashion marketing while preparing
the curriculum. Having “up-to-date subject knowledge” about brand apparel marketing
which is a top priority for local companies (mean is 3.21 and consistent with Karpova
et al. 2011) is less demanded by MNCs (2.89). As apparel marketing practices are
evolving rapidly, to acquire this skill, faculty members should provide current and
local examples along with solving recent case studies. Job seekers need to read recent
journal articles and should attend apparel marketing seminars to get up-to-date
knowledge.
 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL FASHION MARKETING 13

Although MNCs and local companies agreed on 22 essential employability qualities

for entry-level marketing jobs in the apparel brand industry, a quick look at the priority
skill list of MNCs can reveal that their main focus is on “Academic Skills” and
“Communication Skills”. Local companies, on the other hand, prefer candidates with
better “Interpersonal Abilities” and “Personal Qualities.” These findings suggest that
local companies and MNCs have significantly different skill requirements while recruit­
ing marketing executives at the core level – answering the second research question of
this study.

6. Conclusion and future research potentials

This paper, based on quantitative data collected from marketing managers of local
and multinational apparel-selling companies, offers 1) an employability compe­
tency index development process by using structural equation modeling and 2)
a 22-item six-dimensional statistically reliable and valid employability skill index
for entry-level executive jobs in apparel brand marketing in Bangladesh. Few
exceptional and noticeable skills in the proposed index are concentration on
general education courses, alumni network skills, research components in intern­
ship, and internship in the relevant field. The results of the study revealed that
both local and multinational companies prioritized a positive attitude towards
work and written communication skills. This finding leads us to recommend
universities allocate more creative assignments in fashion/apparel marketing
courses. We also found that both types of companies preferred professionalism
and teamwork ability. However, significant variations have been observed between
MNCs and local businesses on prioritizing skill requirements. For instance, MNCs
prioritized skills such as major courses taken, research components in internship,
self-motivating, written communication skills, and having different language skills.
However, local companies put preferences on accepting stress, self-engagement
skill, and research on the subject matter. It was also observed that apparel market­
ing managers want to see the candidate with basic knowledge of sales in the
respective field.
To increase the employability of the marketing graduates in the apparel industry, we
suggested forming and utilizing “business advisory council” for course curriculum re-
designing, use of local examples and cases by the faculty members for better under­
standing of the course contents, more creative report writing to enhance critical thinking
and planning abilities of the candidates, and adding more general education courses in
the programs.
This study is limited to developing an employability skill index for marketing execu­
tives in the apparel brand sector in Bangladesh. The proposed multidimensional index
development process can be used to generate skill index for other professions such as HR,
engineering, supply chain management, etc. A comparison between the perceptions of
the students and the marketing managers about the employability qualities for marketing
jobs can be of high interest to the readers. As the significance of the index has been tested,
future research can validate the applicability of the proposed index in other developing
countries of the world.
14 T. A. CHOWDHURY AND N. Z. ANON

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

ORCID
Tamgid Ahmed Chowdhury http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6789-3275

References
Arasinah, K., Abrahim, B., & Norhaily, A. (2014). Technical Skills, Knowledge Competencies and
Expected Changes in the Clothing Industry. International Journal Humanities, Arts, Medicine
and Sciences, 2, 1–12.
Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. (2019). Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 2019. Ministry of
Planning, Government of Bangladesh. http://www.bbs.gov.bd/site/page/29855dc1-f2b4-4dc0-
9073-f692361112da/Statistical-Yearbook
Benson, L. (2018). Leadership skills in the digital age: Implications for university Business School. Journal
of Eastern European and Central Asian Research, 5(2), 80–89.https://doi.org/10.15549/jeecar.v5i2.217
Board of Studies Teaching and Educational Standards (BOSTES). (2014). Employability skills in
retail services. Crown in right of the State of New South Wales.
Brixiova, Z., Ncube, M., & Bicaba, Z. (2014). Skills and Youth Entrepreneurship in Africa: Analysis
with Evidence from Swaziland. (William Davidson Institute Working Paper no. 1077). SSRN.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2445001
Burnett, N., & Jayaram, S. (2012). Skills for employability in Africa and Asia. (ISESE Skills Synthesis
Paper). Results for Development Institute. https://doi.org/http://hdl.voced.edu.au/10707/
288507
Chisty, K. K., Uddin, M., & Ghosh, S. (2007). The Business graduate employability in Bangladesh:
Dilemma and expectations by corporate world. BRAC University Journal, 4(1), 1–8. https://core.
ac.uk/download/pdf/61800371.pdf
Cho, E. (2016). Making Reliability Reliable: A Systematic Approach to Reliability Coefficients.
Organizational Research Methods, 19(4), 651–682. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428116656239
Chowdhury, T., & Miah, M. (2019). Perceptions of students and employers regarding employ­
ability skills for entry-level positions in marketing and sales. Australian Journal Of Career
Development, 28(1), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1038416217751566
Conference Board of Canada. (2013). Employability skills 2000+ [Poster Presentation]. http://www.
conferenceboard.ca/Libraries/EDUC_PUBLIC/esp2000.sflbGoogleScholar
Crawford, P., & Lang, S. (2011). Comparative analysis of soft skills: What is important for new
graduates. Association of Public and Land-grant Universities.
Dominique-Ferreira, S., Rodrigues, B., & Braga, R. (2021). Personal marketing and the recruitment
and selection process: Hiring attributes and particularities in tourism and hospitality. Journal of
Global Scholars of Marketing Science, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/21639159.2020.1808845
Duoc, T. Q., & Metzger, C. (2007). Quality of business graduates in Vietnamese institutions:
Multiple perspective. Journal of Management Development,26(7), 629–643.
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR). (2012).
Employability skills framework stage 1:Final report.
Finegold, D. (2010). 21st-century competencies and their impact: An interdisciplinary literature
review. The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation.
Frazier, B., & Cheek, W. (2016). An Industry View of Competencies for Entry-Level
Merchandising Jobs: Application of the ITAA meta-goals. Clothing And Textiles Research
Journal, 34(2), 79–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887302X15622003
Fukunishi, T. (2014). The Bangladeshi garment sector in the liberalised market: Is upgrading
needed? Growth Research programme.
 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL FASHION MARKETING 15

Graduate Management Admission Council. 2012. 2012 Global Management Education Graduate
Survey Report. GMAC. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED540022
Guercini, S. (2012). Integrating Design and Fashion Marketing. Journal of Global Fashion
Marketing, 3(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/20932685.2012.10593101
Hair, J., Black, B., Babin, B., & Anderson, R. (2016). Multivariate Data Analysis: A Global
Perspective (7th ed.). Pearson Publication.
Harris, P. (2014, July 5). Ten essential skills that employers are actively searching for now.
WORKOPOLIS.
Heffernan, T., Feng, W., Angell, R., & Fang, Y. (2010). The identification of marketing focused
employability attributes for graduates in China. Proceedings of 2010 Australian and New Zealand
Marketing Academy conference (pp. 1–7), University of Canterbury.
Hiyang, T. K., & Halim, N. H. (2010). Generic skills profile hospitality graduates: Perspective polytechnic
lecturers. 2nd World Congress on teacher education for TVET 2010, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia.
Hossain, M., Rahman, S., Chowdhury, T., Chan, C., Yang, X., & Su, Q. (2018). How signaling
mechanisms reduce “lemons” from online group buying (OGB) markets? A study of China.
International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 48(7), 658–681. https://
doi.org/10.1108/IJPDLM-02-2017-0113
Institute for Employment Studies. (2015). IES annual review – 2015. Institute for Employment Studies.
Institute of Technologists. (2011). Development of employability skills. Institute of Technology.
Jacobs, B., & Karpova, E. (2019). What do merchandisers need to succeed? Development of an
apparel merchandising competency framework. International Journal of Fashion Design,
Technology and Education, 12(3), 272–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/17543266.2019.1587791
Jacobs, B., & Karpova, E. (2020). Skills and Knowledge for Merchandising Professionals: The Case
of the South African Apparel Retail Industry. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal,
0887302X2093551. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887302x20935516
Jain, S., Mishra, S., & Mukhopadhyay, S. (2021). Critical success factors for luxury fashion brands
in emerging markets: Insights from a qualitative study. Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, 12
(1), 47–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/20932685.2020.1845765
Jiboku, J. O., & Akpan, W. (2019). Skills development in the multinational corporate sector:
Building employee capacity beyond the factory gate. African Sociological Review, 23(2), 83–102.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14725843.2021.1932413
Karpova, E., Marcketti, S. B., & Barker, J. (2011). Putting the puzzle together: Apparel profes­
sionals’ perspectives on creativity. International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and
Education, 4(2), 103–113.
Kenayathulla, H. B., Ahmad, N. A., & Idris, A. R. (2019). Gaps between competence and
importance of employability skills: Evidence from Malaysia. Higher Education Evaluation and
Development, 13(2), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1108/HEED-08-2019-0039
Kim, E., & Johnson, K. P. (2007). The U.S. apparel industry: Futuring with Undergraduates
students in apparel major. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 25(4), 283–306.
Knight, P., & Yorke, M. (2003). Assessment, Learning and Employability (1st ed.). Open University Press.
Koka, A. S., & Raman, M. (2015). Importance of employability skills in information technology
multinational corporations. Asian Journal of Management Research, 6(10), 1–9.
Kuruppu, R. (2018). Skilling Requirements in Textiles: Technical Training and Its Trainers-Sri
Lanka in Perspective. Journal of Textile Science and Technology, 4(4), 101–116. https://doi.org/
10.4236/jtst.2018.44007
Latendresse, M., & Cortoni, F. (2005). Increasing employability related skills among federal male
offenders: A preliminary analysis of the national employability skills program. Report number–162.
Research Branch, Correctional Service Canada.
Lauder, S., & Bliip Global Employability. (2013). Employability skills: The connection between skills
and employment. Bliip Global Employability, Australia. http://www.bliip.co/docs/Bliip_
Whitepaper.pdf .
LeHew, M. L. A., & Meyer, D. J. C. (2005). Preparing global citizens for leadership in the textile and
apparel industry. Clothing and Textile Research Journal, 23(3), 290–297.
16 T. A. CHOWDHURY AND N. Z. ANON

Macchiavello, R., Menzel, A., & Woodruff, C. (2014). Managerial Capital and Productivity: Evidence from
a Training Program in the Bangladeshi Garment Sector. University of Notre Dame.
Manpower Group. (2012). Talent shortage survey. Retrieved from http://www.manpowergroup.
com/wps/wcm/connect/6f7772f1-cfe9-4ddd-a573-9a096e8f0e5f/2012_Talent_Shortage_
Survey_Res_US_FINAL_(2).pdf?MOD=AJPERES
Ministry of Education of Singapore. (2021). 21st Century Competencies. MoE. https://www.moe.
gov.sg/education-in-sg/21st-century-competencies
Ministry of Labor and Employment. (2014). Employability skills craftsman training scheme (CTS)
apprenticeship training scheme (ATS). Salt Lake. Directorate General of Employment &
Training, Central Staff Training and Research Institute.
Mykkanen, M., & Vos, M. (2017). Clarifying skills and competencies in organizational decision
making. Advances in Public Relation and Communication Management, 2, 1–10. https://doi.org/
10.1108/S2398-391420170000002007
OECD. (2009). 21st century skills and competences for new millennium learners in OECD countries.
(Working Papers no. 41).
Paulrajan, R. (2011). Employability Skills in Chennai Retail Market, India. ACTA Universitatis Danubias,
7(5), 16–30. http://journals.univ-danubius.ro/index.php/oeconomica/article/view/1059/936
Pimpa, N. (2020). Skills development in the Vietnamese garment industry: The engagement of the
vocational education institutions & industry. International Journal Entrepreneurship, 24(2), 1–6.
https://www.abacademies.org/articles/Skills-Development-in-the-Vietnamese-Garment-
Industry-The-Engagement-of-the-Vocational-Education-Institutions-Industry-375.pdf
Schlee, R., & Harich, K. (2010). Knowledge and Skill Requirements for Marketing Jobs in the 21st
Century. Journal of Marketing Education, 32. 341–352. https://doi.org/10.1177/0273475310380881
Shimp, T. A., & Sharma, S. (1987). Consumer ethnocentrism: Construction and validation of the
CETSCALE. Journal of Marketing Research, 24(3), 280–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/
002224378702400304
Srivastava, A., & Khare, M. (2012). Skills for employability – South Asia. The World Bank.
The Economist. (2014). High university enrolment, low graduate employment. An Economist
Intelligence Unit Report for the British Council.
The World Bank. (2019). Bangladesh Development Update: Tertiary Education and Job Skills. https://
openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/32533
Whetten, D., & Cameron, K. (2007). Developing Management Skills (7th ed.). Pearson Publications.
World Trade Organization (WTO). (2019). World Textiles and Apparel Trade in 2019. https://
shenglufashion.com/2020/08/03/wto-reports-world-textiles-and-apparel-trade-in-2019/
Yu, H., & Jin, B. (2005). Enhancing international dimensions in apparel and merchandising
curricula in the USA. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 9(2), 232–243. https://
doi.org/10.1108/13612020510599376

Appendix

Table A1. Evidences of convergent and discriminant validities of the index.

Goal
Attainment Leadership Interpersonal Academic Communication Personality
AVE CR skills Abilities Abilities Skills Skills Skills
Goal Attainment skills 0.55 0.79 0.74
Leadership Abilities 0.53 0.81 0.22 0.72
Interpersonal Abilities 0.49 0.74 0.19 0.28 0.70
Academic Skills 0.51 0.78 0.31 0.11 0.21 0.71
Communication Skills 0.56 0.71 0.27 0.18 0.20 0.19 0.73
Personality Skills 0.52 0.77 0.19 0.30 0.18 0.28 0.16 0.72