Fuel 324 (2022) 124603

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Fuel
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Full Length Article

Combustion and emission behaviors of dual-fuel premixed charge

compression ignition engine powered with n-pentanol and blend of diesel/
waste tire oil included nanoparticles
P.V. Elumalai a, b, 1, *, Santosh Kumar Dash c, M. Parthasarathy d, 1, *, N.R. Dhineshbabu e,
Dhinesh Balasubramanian f, g, h, Dao Nam Cao i, 1, *, Thanh Hai Truong j, Anh Tuan Le k,
Anh Tuan Hoang l, 1, *
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aditya Engineering College, Surampalem, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Kakinada, Kakinada, East Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh, India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ghani Khan Choudhury Institute of Engineering and Technology, Malda, West Bengal 732141, India
d
School of Mechanical and Construction, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr.Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India
e
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Aditya Engineering College, Surampalem, India
f
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, TamilNadu, India
g
Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, KhonKaen University, KhonKaen, Thailand
h
Center for Alternative Energy Research and Development, KhonKaen University, KhonKaen, Thailand
i
Institue of Mechanical Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of Transport, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
j
PATET Research Group, Ho Chi Minh City University of Transport, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
k
School of Mechanical Engineering, Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Viet Nam
l
Institue of Engineering, HUTECH University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The main aim of this study was to investigate the effect of n-pentanol percentage on the performance, combustion,
Premixed charge compression ignition and emission characteristics of a premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) engine operated on dual-fuel mode.
Waste tire oil The primary fuel used in the engine was a blend of diesel fuel and pyrolytic oil, which was obtained from waste tires
N-pentanol
by the pyrolysis process. Moreover, CuO/ZnO (CZ) nanoparticles were added to the fuel blend to supply excessive
Nanoparticle
Engine performance
oxygen for better combustion. In addition, n-pentanol is an ecologically innovative and cost-competitive compound
Combustion behavior used as a secondary fuel with high octane rating. For this experimental work, the fuel blend was prepared by adding
20% waste tire pyrolysis oil to 80% diesel fuel containing 50 ppm CZ nanoparticles, while n-pentanol was sprayed
into the intake manifold with varying percentages, namely 10%, 20%, and 30%. As a result of the PCCI dual-fuel
mode, PTO20CuZnO50P10 was found to be the best selection since it brought a significant decrement in emis­
sion parameters such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), and smoke was 12%,
37%, 10%, and 23%, respectively, compared to the conventional diesel engine at peak load condition. However, it is
recorded a reduction in brake thermal efficiency and an increase in specific fuel consumption under PCCI mode
using PTO20CuZnO50P10 compared to the conventional diesel engine. In general, PTO20CuZnO50P10 was chosen
as the best fuel for the PCCI mode of operation aiming to reduce pollutant emissions.

Abbreviations: BTE, Brake thermal efficiency; BSFC, Brake-specific fuel consumption; HC, Hydrocarbon; CO, Carbon monoxide; NOx, Oxides of nitrogen; PCCI,
Premixed Charge Compression Ignition; DEE, Diethyl ether; PTO20, Pyrolysis Tire Oil 20% + Diesel 80%; PTO20CuZnO50, Pyrolysis Tire Oil 20% + Diesel 80%+
Copper/ Zinc oxide 50 ppm; PTO20CuZnO50P10, Pyrolysis Tire Oil 20% + Diesel 80%+ Copper/ Zinc oxide 50 ppm + n-pentanol 10%; PTO20CuZnO50P20,
Pyrolysis Tire Oil 20% + Diesel 80%+ Copper/ Zinc oxide 50 ppm + n-pentanol 20%; PTO20CuZnO50P30, Pyrolysis Tire Oil 20% + Diesel 80%+ Copper/ Zinc oxide
50 ppm + n-pentanol 30%; EGR, Exhaust Gas Recirculation; DI, Direct Ignition; MWCNT, Multi-walled carbon nanotubes; PVP, Polyvinyl pyrrolidone; CZ, Copper
oxide/Zinc Oxide; ID, Ignition Delay; CD, Combustion Duration; PTO, Pyrolysis Tire Oil.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: elumalaimech89@gmail.com (P.V. Elumalai), msarathymech@gmail.com (M. Parthasarathy), nam.cao@ut.edu.vn (D. Nam Cao), hatuan@
hutech.edu.vn (A.T. Hoang).
1
Corresponding authors and these authors have equally contributed.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.124603
Received 18 March 2022; Received in revised form 1 May 2022; Accepted 10 May 2022
Available online 20 May 2022
0016-2361/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P.V. Elumalai et al.
1. Introduction
Conventional diesel engines are used in power generation and the
automobile sector due to their higher efficiency, reliability, and lower
specific fuel consumption than spark-ignition engines [1,2]. Diesel en­
gine emits more quantity of emissions that include oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), soot, and low level of hydrocarbons (HCs), carbon monoxide
(CO), and carbon dioxide (CO2) [3,4], in which NOx and soot emissions
negatively impact human life and environmental pollution [5,6]. The
previous studies reported that the fuels produced and synthesized from
various sources like solid waste [7], industrial waste [8], plastic waste
[9,10], waste lubricant oil [11], waste tire [12], and agriculture waste
[13,14] could be a great alternative energy source for various applica­
tions. However, demand for the usage of waste tire oil is ever-increasing
[15] because it could reduce the dependence on scarce fossil fuel re­
sources, its extraction method is pollution-free [16], as well an esti­
mated 1.5 billion tons of waste tires are released around the globe every
year [17]. Oil extracted from waste tires has a wide range of applications
in heavy industries like steel and glass factories [18].
A tire consists of rubber, carbon, steel wire, fabric cord, and other
substances [19]. Based on a survey, the manufacturing rate of the tires is
elevated each year and thus, the rate of disposal tires gradually increases
[20]. The as-used tires find disposal in various forms, such as landfilling,
burning, garbage dumps, and retreading and producing oil [21]. In Asia,
India and Vietnam are considered as 2 countries possessing large
amount of waste scrap tires, in which nearly 1 million tons and 0.4
million tons of waste scrap tires are available in India and Vietnam
annually [22,23]. The improper disposal of waste tires will directly
impact the environment and human health; thus, it is necessary to take
the alternative step to reprocess waste tires or extract the energy/fuel
from the waste tire [24,25]. However, the direct use of fuels extracted
from waste tires for diesel engines could damage the engine components
owing to the high aromatic components, viscosity, and low volatility of
tire oil [26,27]; therefore, it is suggested to enhance the volatility and
reduce the viscosity of tire oil by mixing with low-viscosity fuels for
engine applications [28,29]. Being low-viscosity fuels, alcohol is
generally used in conventional spark-ignition engines as a replacement
for gasoline. It has a high latent heat of vaporization and octane rating,
and a high flame speed, which reduces combustion duration and helps
achieve complete combustion, and increases the rate of heat release
[30]. Therefore, the addition of alcohol causes a reduction in the exhaust
temperature, which leads to a reduction in NOx and smoke emissions
[31,32]. As reported, a small fraction of alcohol inducted through intake
air in the intake manifold could reduce NOx emission. By adding 10 ml
ethanol concentration into diesel fuel, 43% and 78% reduction of NOx
emission were observed at low loads compared to the case of using diesel
fuel [33]. More importantly, the high cooling effect of ethanol could
reduce NOx emissions at all load conditions. Besides, the obtained results
also showed that increasing ethanol percentage resulted in reducing HC
and CO emissions [33].
In recent years, a combustion mode based on premixed charge has
been developed aiming to reduce pollutant emissions. The premixed
charge compression ignition (PCCI) concept benefits the low level of
NOx and nominal thermal efficiency. Owing to the homogeneous air­
–fuel charge, PCCI engines offer better combustion efficiency [34]. In
the PCCI engine, no external ignition is provided. A premixed fuel and
oxidizer are compressed until self-ignition occurs inside the engine
cylinder [35]. A result of elevated pressure and temperature of the
charge mixture during the compression cause self-ignition of the fuel,
which turn into autoignition at various points in the combustion
chamber. The PCCI engine was run on two fuels (primary and secondary
fuels). The secondary fuel was inducted along with intake air at the inlet
manifold and the primary fuel was directly injected into the engine
cylinder [36]. The comparison of traditional compression ignition (CI)
engine and PCCI engine characteristics was shown in Table 1.
PCCI is a low-temperature combustion method, during which the
2
Fuel 324 (2022) 124603
injected fuels are premixed with the induction charge before combustion
byproducts via compression-induced auto-ignition [37]. PCCI combus­
tion is an innovative combustion technique in which a relatively ho­
mogenous diesel mixture burns primarily in a premixed combustion
phase, resulting in reduced NOx and particle emissions [38]. Due to this
reason, the combination of using alcohol and PCCI combustion mode is
expected to bring benefits in emission and performance characteristics.
Based on the exploration, the outcome (performance, combustion, and
emission) of a diesel engine by mixing 10%, 20%, and 30% of pentanol
with diesel are recorded with the increased ignition delay. Surprisingly,
both the NOx and smoke were found to be lower for a partial pentanol-
powered engine [39]. In another interesting study by Chen et al. [40],
adopting both pilot and main injection strategies for powering a com­
mon rail diesel engine to study the effect of n-pentanol on combustion
and emission profile of the engine was performed. They observed an
insignificant reduction of peak HRR for n-pentanol blended fuel
compared to diesel fuel. They found that pentanol inclusion resulted in
more reduction in NOx emissions and particle number concentration
(PNC) compared to diesel fuel [40]. Also, Soloiu et al. [41] reported that
the PCCI engine was operated with cotton biodiesel and n-butanol. The
cottonseed biodiesel was directly injected into the engine cylinder as a
primary fuel. n-Butanol was used as a secondary fuel. It was obtained
from agricultural byproducts/waste and blended with diesel. The blend
used in this experiment was CS25 (25% cottonseed biodiesel blended
with 75% n-butanol), CS50Bu50, CS70Bu30, and CS100. Among these
blends, CS50Bu50 (Bu50PFI-CS50DI) was found to be the best blend to
reduce emissions of NOx and soot drastically. Indeed, NOx emissions
were reduced by 15% with n-butanol port fuel injection, due to lower in-
cylinder temperature, and soot was reduced by 68% than the diesel
engine. Besides, the CS50BU50 blend has low specific fuel consumption
(BSFC) than other blends (a 2% decrease compared to diesel fuel), while
CO and UHC emissions decreased by 10% and 25%, respectively. With
the addition of n-butanol, brake thermal efficiency for PCCI mode was
reduced by 2% compared to the conventional diesel engine. Besides,
mechanical efficiency parameters were constant at 67% with an
increasing 2% n-butanol in the port fuel injection. Thus, it was noticed
that the CI engine running on the PCCI mode could enhance the nominal
performance and reduce remarkably the emission characteristics. Nibin
et al. [42] studied the PCCI combustion mode by using ethanol to supply
to the intake manifold as the secondary fuel. This experiment used
wheat germ oil with ethanol taken in 10%, 20%, and 30% compositions
(WBE-1, WBE-2, and WBE-3). It was observed that NOx, CO, and HC
emissions for PCCI mode at 30% ethanol energy share were lower than
that of diesel engine at all load conditions due to the cooling effect
created by increasing the percentage of ethanol. As the amount of
ethanol percentage increased, the combustion rate also increased.
Smoke emissions were low for 30% energy share and reduced to 67% at
maximum load. BTE increased to 29.14% at 30% energy share due to an
increase in the premixed combustion rate. In another study, Srihari et al.
Table 1
Comparison of normal CI engine and PCCI engine.
Parameters CI engine PCCI Engine
Injection Injection close to Top Early Injection + TDC injection
strategy Dead Centre (TDC)
Combustion Diffusion Premixed + diffusion
mode
Ignition Auto-ignition (controlled Auto-ignition (controlled by
by injection timing) injection timing)
Combustion Partially high Relatively low
temperature
NOx High NOx emissions due Low NOx emissions due to low
to high combustion temperature and exhaust gas
temperature recirculation(EGR) dilution
Soot High soot emissions due Low soot emission due to lean
to diffusion combustion homogeneous charge
mode
P.V. Elumalai et al.
[43] examined the PCCI engine fueled with cottonseed biodiesel and
diethyl ether (DEE). The cottonseed biodiesel–diesel blend was used as a
primary fuel and DEE was used as the secondary fuel due to low auto-
ignition temperature and low viscosity. This experiment blended 20%
biodiesel with diesel and tested with varying DEE concentrations in
three compositions (5%, 10%, 15%, termed as DBD-1, DBD-2, and DBD-
3 respectively). They found that NOx emissions for PCCI mode were
reduced to 29.5% and 22.2% due to the increased latent heat of fuel
vaporization value with increasing DEE quantity. In addition, the PCCI
combustion mode emitted lower HC, CO, and smoke emissions because
DEE fuel has a higher amount of O2 thereby increasing the combustion
rate, while brake thermal efficiency for PCCI mode was increased by
8.5% compared to diesel engine. Similar results could also be reported in
other studies [44,45]. In addition, doping the nanoparticle into fuel is
considered as an available and efficient method for further improving
the engine performance and minimizing the emission [46–48]. The main
motive of this practice is to enhance the thermal properties of fuels,
enlighten the performance characteristics and meet the current emission
norms [49,50]. In a study of Sree et al. [51], the biodiesel obtained from
Calophyllum–Inophyllum oil was used as a fuel, while cerium oxide
nanoparticles and multi-walled-carbon nanoparticles were used as an
additive. The experiment was conducted with blends BCM20 (20%
biodiesel 80% diesel 20PPM CeO3 20PPM MWCNT) and BCM40 (20%
biodiesel 80% diesel 40 ppm CeO3 40 ppm MWCNT) and compared with
neat diesel. Among the blends, BCM reduced the NOx emissions by
40.6%, and CO emissions were reduced to 50% for BCM20. Smoke
emissions were low for the blend BCM20 (by 54.32%) and those for BTE
increased by 17.9% for blend BCM20. Table 2 shows the performance
and characteristics of the PCCI engine in previous studies.
It could be seen from Table 2 that NOx emissions are less in the PCCI
mode compared with a conventional diesel engine. Moreover, it was also
concluded that doping the nanoparticles into the fuel minimized the
emission characteristics and slightly increase the performance parame­
ters. Alcohols also play a key role in emission reduction, particularly
NOx. Hence, on a detailed exploration of the vast literature available, the
study focuses on the combined impact of fuel modification (waste-
originated biofuel included n- pentanol and nanoparticles) and com­
bustion mode modification. The engine was operated on PCCI and dual-
fuel mode in the present experimental work. The two fuels used were for
the present study namely, waste tire oil blended with diesel fuel as the
primary fuel, and n-pentanol as the secondary fuel owing to superior
properties compared to its competitor alcohols. For the primary fuel,
CuO/ZnO (CZ) nanoparticles were mixed with waste tire oil at a con­
stant dosage of 50 ppm for each blend. This investigation was carried out
on the PCCI engine fueled with various induction rates of n-pentanol to
achieve the dual benefits of engine modification and fuel modification.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Synthesis procedure
Analytical-grade Cu nitrate and Zn nitrate (0.01 mM) as sources of
Cu and Zn were added to a 100 ml beaker, and these chemicals were
stirred in deionized water. Then, the polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) solu­
tion (0.25 g PVP in 10 ml) was added to the above reaction mixture.
Finally, the mixture was sonicated vigorously at room temperature (RT)
Table 2
Previous studies on performance and emission characteristics in PCCI engine.
Engine type Fuel BTE
PCCI mode Waste Cooked Oil (B20) ↑ 3.68
PCCI mode Wheat germ oil/Bioethanol (30%) ↓ 1.78
PCCI mode Ethanol (4% of Vol) – –
PCCI mode Ethanol (10%, 15%)/Diesel – ↓ 8.12
PCCI mode Neem biodiesel/n-decanol (10 to 30%) ↑ 3.77
Fuel 324 (2022) 124603
for 1 h at equal time intervals of 10 min. This combination was reduced
by adding a 5 M ammonia solution dropwise until its pH reached 10. It
was then dried at 80 ◦ C for 8 h in an oven to obtain a brownish-black
powder. The CZ nanoparticle powder was then put into an alumina
crucible, calcined at 500 ◦ C for 3 h, and then cooled to RT.
2.2. Characterization
An X-ray diffractometer (XRD; model XRD; X’Pert Pro PW-1830;
Philips, Germany; CuK source) and a scanning electron microscope
equipped with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS; model JEM-
200; JEOL, USA) were used to investigate the crystallinity and surface
morphology with composition analysis of CZ nanoparticles. The size
and structure characteristics of CZ nanoparticles synthesized and
annealed were determined. The crystalline phase was identified, and the
crystalline size was estimated using an X-ray diffractometer (XRD). The
XRD pattern was recorded with type X’Pert Pro; PANalytical, Almelo,
Cu-K = 1.54 A in the range of 10-85◦ . Scanning electron microscopy
coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) with type JEM-
200, at an accelerated voltage of 20 kV, was used to examine the
morphology. All of the experiments were completed at room
temperature.
2.3. Structural and morphological analyses
The peaks at 2θ values corresponded to the crystal planes of CuO
nanoparticles (110, 002, 111, − 202, 020, 202, and 113) and ZnO
nanoparticles (100, 102, 110, 200, 112, and 201), as seen in the XRD
graph (Fig. 1a). CuO had a monoclinic phase, which matched with
JCPDS card # 05–0661. Similarly, the reported XRD pattern (JCPDS
card # 01–079-0206) matched the diffraction peaks for ZnO with a
hexagonal structure. The average crystallite size of the CZ nanoparticles
obtained from the full width at half maximum of the diffraction peak
was 17 nm. The CZ nanoparticles had a spherical and aggregated
morphology and measured around 100 nm. A few micrometers, which
was in good agreement, the surface of ZnO was aggregated with CuO
nanoparticles, as seen in the SEM image (Fig. 1b). To investigate the
chemical purity of the synthesized product, elemental analysis of CZ
nanoparticles was performed by EDS (Fig. 1c). The obtained EDS
revealed the presence of O, Cu, and Zn in the CZ nanoparticles, which
were successfully synthesized, as evidenced by XRD and EDAX.
3. Oil extraction process and fuel preparation
3.1. Pyrolysis process
Pyrolysis is a process of fast thermal decomposition of biomass
without oxygen. The gases, biofuels, and char are the outputs of the
pyrolysis process at a temperature range of around 700–1000 ◦ C
[56,57]. The schematic layout of the pyrolysis process of the waste tire is
shown in Fig. 2.
In the pyrolysis process of the waste tire, feeding, reaction, and
condensation were performed. The first step of this process is to remove
or pull the steel wires from the tire’s sidewall. After that, the tire is cut
into bulk pieces, and these bulk pieces are supplied to a compressive
shredder through a conveyor belt to cut them into small pieces of tire.
BSFC HC Smoke CO NOx Ref
– ↓ 39.25 ↓ 19.94 ↓ 14.56 ↓ 34.43 [52]
– ↓ 29.53 ↓ 10.52 ↓ 28.52 ↓ 13.04 [42]
↓ 30.76 ↓ 15.67 ↓ 22.14 ↓ 44.56 [53]
↑ 30.76 ↓ 34.00 ↑ 23.10 ↓ 28.00 [54]
– – ↓ 11.80 – ↓ 9.57 [55]
3
P.V. Elumalai et al. Fuel 324 (2022) 124603

Fig. 1. (a) XRD pattern; (b) SEM image; (c) EDS spectra of CZ nanoparticles.

These are crushed into 2–5 cm pieces and fed into the reactor by a tightly supply to the reactor. The reactor has a cylindrical shape drum that
sealed screw conveyor [58]. Fuels such as diesel and LPG were used in rotates on the longitudinal axis for uniform melting of waste tire oil
the burning room to produce heat inside the burning chamber aiming to [59]. Owing to the uniform heating of small pieces of tire, the fuel is

Fig. 2. Pyrolysis process of waste tire for producing oil.

4
P.V. Elumalai et al. Fuel 324 (2022) 124603

evaporated. This vapor state fuel goes to the cyclone separator to remove
the char in the vapor, followed by condensation the vapor is converted
into liquid fuel, which is collected in the oil tank. The uncondensed gas is
supplied to the burner and used as a burning fuel [12,60].
3.2. Fuel preparation
The engine was operated on dual-fuel mode, in which two separate
tanks were used, the primary fuel tank and the secondary fuel tank.
Fig. 3 shows the flow chart of fuel preparation for the experiments of
PCCI combustion mode.
The primary fuel tank was filled with waste tire oil and the secondary
tank was filled with n-pentanol. The secondary fuel (n-pentanol) was
varied in different proportion (10%, 20%, and 30%). In this study, CuO/
ZnO nanoparticles were used at a constant dosage of 50 ppm. CuO/ZnO
nanoparticles were mixed with the primary fuel with the help of an
ultrasonicator. Acoustic waves are used to stir nanoparticles into a so­
lution. To separate substances, it transforms an electrical current into a
mechanical vibration. These disruptions can combine solutions, increase
the speed of the dissolving of solids into a liquid (such as glucose in
waters), and remove absorbed gas from liquids [61]. To generate stable
nanoparticles, sonication methods were used to impact the surfaces and
structure of nanoparticles (acting as electrostatic repulsion) and prevent
particle aggregation [62]. Larger sonication causes nanoparticles to
overcome adhesion forces, resulting in a higher surface charge. The
contact between the probes and the sample is prevented using the in­
direct sonication approach, in which the sonic energy is supplied
through waters from the horn to various tubes in the samples [63]. This
approach is favored when the sample volume is small since it avoids
foaming and sample loss. Table 3 shows the physicochemical properties
of test fuels.
4. Experimental setup
4.1. Engine setup for PCCI mode
A four-stroke, single-cylinder, constant speed water-cooled PCCI
engine with direct injection was used in this experiment. The schematic
layout is shown in Fig. 4, in which a port-fuel injector was used to inject
the secondary fuel into the vaporizer unit that was connected to the
intake manifold through a heat pipe surrounded by a heating coil
insulated with ceramic beads and glass wool.
In Fig. 4, the secondary fuel was injected at a rate of 0.06 gm/s
irrespective of load and speed conditions at a pressure of 3 bar. An in­
jection system was created to feed n-pentanol into finely atomized spray
into the intake manifold; the injection system is also equipped with an
ECU unit capable of higher pressure [64]. A pressure regulator and
bypassing valves were installed to maintain a consistent pressure of 3
bar. The electronic control unit employed in this investigation could
dynamically alter the direct injection time duration based on engine
speed and load condition.
For the experimental setup for PCCI combustion mode, a premixed
charge of fuel and air was injected into the cylinder and the remaining
fuel was injected through the main injection at a pressure of 220 bar and
injection timing of 35◦ BTDC. A fuel injection pump was used to control
the main injection rate and a column tube manometer was used to
measure its flow rate. The engine was connected to an eddy-current
dynamometer that contains a load cell to measure the applied load. A
crank angle encoder was mounted on the crankshaft to check the crank
angle data by using a data acquisition system. The PCCI experiment was
performed from zero loads to maximum load at 1500 pm. An engine
control unit (ECU) was used to control the secondary fuel injection into
the inlet manifold. The engine specifications are shown in Table 4.
A MEXA584L emission gas analyzer was used to measure the emis­
sions released from the engine such as CO, CO2, NOx, and HO. The
amount of smoke released was measured by an AVL415S smoke meter
[65]. The emissions gas analyzer and smoke meter specifications are
shown in Table 5.

4.2. Uncertainty analysis

Uncertainties might arise as a result of a variety of circumstances

such as changes in atmospheric conditions, deterioration of parts and
fuel quality during storage, particularly in the case of biofuel, testing
and interpretations, and so on. Fixed and random errors are two types of
uncertainties. Random or unpredictable errors deal with crucial quan­
tities, whereas fixed errors occur on a regular basis. Table 6 shows the
uncertainty analysis.

Table 3
Physical properties of test fuels.
Properties of Fuel Standards Diesel n- Waste
fuel Pentanol tire oil

Calorific value (kJ/kg) ASTM D240 43,900 36,100 42,600

Kinematic viscosity at ASTM D445 3.45 2.88 4.27
40 ◦ C (mm2/s)
Density (kg/m3) ASTM D1298 852 814 912
Flash point (◦ C) ASTM D93 48 59 26
Cloud point (◦ C) ASTM D2500 2.8 1.6
Latent heat vaporization ASTM D2766 250 308 238
(kJ/kg)
Cetane index ASTM D976 55 20 48
Carbon content (%) ASTM D189 81.20 68.18 83.79
Oxygen content (wt. %) ASTM D4815 0 18.18 4.17
Sulphur content (%) ASTM D129 0.015 0 0.028
RON ASTM D2699 20–30 85.8 –
MON – 20–30 75.9 –
Fig. 3. Flow chart of fuel preparation for PCCI combustion mode.

5
P.V. Elumalai et al. Fuel 324 (2022) 124603

Fig. 4. Experimental setup for PCCI mode operated with waste tire oil included nanoparticles/n-pentanol.

Table 4 Table 5
Experimental specification. Specification of smoke meter and five gas analyzers.
Engine Kirloskar TV1 Model of the gas analyzer Pollutant Range Resolution
Power 5.2 kW
MEX584L CO 0–10%vol 0.01% vol
Speed 1500 rpm
HC 0–20,000 ppm 1 ppm vol
Cylinder 1
CO2 0–20%vol 0.1% vol
Bore 87.50 mm
NOx 0–5,000 ppm 1 ppm vol
Length of Stroke 110 mm
Smoke meter AVL415S Smoke 0–100% capacity 0.1%
Length of Rod 234 mm
Compression Ratio 17:5
Cooling Type Water
for PTO20, PTO20CuZnO50, PTO20CuZnO50P10, PTO20CuZnO50P20,
and PTO20CuZnO50P30 are shown in Fig. 5.
5. Result and discussion As shown in Fig. 5, the BTE increases for all test fuels with the respect
to load. The BTE for diesel fuel outshines compared to all other test fuels.
5.1. Engine performance The pyrolysis waste tire oil blend shows a drop of BTE by 4% compared
to the base fuel. It is due to the lower calorific value and other poor
5.1.1. Brake thermal efficiency physicochemical properties of waste tire oil [66]. However, with the
The results for brake thermal efficiency with respect to load variation inclusion of hybrid nanoparticles (CuZnO, 50 ppm), the BTE of

6
P.V. Elumalai et al. Fuel 324 (2022) 124603

Table 6
Uncertainty analysis.
No Measured parameters Uncertainty (%)

1. CO 0.14
2. NOx 0.7
3. Smoke 0.7
4. BSFC 0.7
5. BTE 0.5
6. HC 0.4
7. Load 0.3

Fig. 6. Variation of BSFC for different fuel blend.

diesel, PTO20, PTO20CuZnO50, PTO20CuZnO50P10, PTO20­

CuZnO50P20, and PTO20CuZnO50P30 was observed to be 0.26, 0.29,
0.28, 0.283, 0.295, and 0.315 kg/kWhr, respectively.

5.1.3. Exhaust gas temperature

Fig. 5. Variation of BTE for different fuel blend.
PTO20CuZnO50 enhanced by 4.36% compared with PTO20 at full load
operation. Obviously, CuZnO hybrid nanoparticles have higher stability
and robustness in the reaction process, which helps in improving the
BTE [67]. The blending of n-pentanol into the fuel mixture reduced the
combustion momentum for which the BTE decreased. This could be due
to the impact of the lower calorific value of the fuel blend. In PCCI mode
operation, the small fraction of n-pentanol addition improves the BTE by
1.2% compared with PTO20. This could be due to the premixed charge
of n-pentanol and air, which enhances the combustion rate of tire oil
blends, thereby increasing the BTE. At full load (80%), the BTE values
for diesel, PTO20, PTO20CuZnO50, PTO20CuZnO50P10, PTO20­
CuZnO50P20, and PTO20CuZnO50P30 were observed to be 30.9%,
28.61%, 29.25%, 28.8%, 28.31%, and 27.87%, respectively.
The exhaust gas temperature (EGT) with respect to the engine load
for baseline fuel diesel, pyrolysis tire oil blend (PTO20), nanoparticle
blend PTO20CuZnO50, and n-pentanol blends PTO20CuZnO50P10,
PTO20CuZnO50P20, and PTO20CuZnO50P30 is illustrated in Fig. 7.
The exhaust gas carries energy in terms of sensible heat to the at­
mosphere. With an increase in load, the EGT increases due to more fuel
burning [70]. However, more EGT could be attributed to the inefficient
burning and subsequent loss of energy for a particular load [71].
Throughout the load condition, EGT has been observed minimum for
diesel fuel. It is seen that the nanoparticle blend PTO20CuZnO50
significantly reduced the EGT compared to PTO20 at all loading con­
ditions and reduced 5.5% at 80% load level. It is also revealed that the n-
pentanol addition as a dual fuel increased the EGT at all load levels. At
80% loading, the EGT for diesel, PTO20, PTO20CuZnO50, PTO20­
CuZnO50P10, PTO20CuZnO50P20, and PTO20CuZnO50P30 is
observed to be 427 ◦ C, 469 ◦ C, 443 ◦ C, 487 ◦ C, 509 ◦ C, and 524 ◦ C

5.1.2. Brake-specific fuel consumption

The brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is an important perfor­
mance parameter that reflects the fuel consumed per unit of power
developed. The BSFC varies with engine operating conditions for
different fuel conditions. The variation in BSFC with load for all test
fuels is represented in Fig. 6. It is seen that the BSFC for diesel is mini­
mum and for pyrolysis waste, tire oil 20% blend (PTO20) is maximum at
all load conditions. This is mainly due to the fuel calorific value and
more aromatic component presence [68].
As expected, the BSFC was reduced for all test fuels with an increase
in load. This is due to the increase in temperature in the cylinder and
decrease in the primary frictional losses. However, the addition of
CuZnO nanoparticles positively impacts the BSFC results. The BSFC for
PTO20CuZnO50 reduced by 3.4% compared to PTO20. This may be due
to the improved combustion reactivity with nanoparticle inclusion in the
blend [69]. Further diluting the blend with n-pentanol showed inferior
results because of a weak fuel mixture formation and delayed vapor­
ization in the premixed combustion stage. At full load, the BSFC for
Fig. 7. Variation of EGT for different fuel blend.

7
P.V. Elumalai et al.
respectively. This might be due to the lower heat content of the fuel
mixture.
5.2. Emission characteristics
5.2.1. CO emission
The CO emission is one of the main undesired exhausts from the
combustion engine. The incomplete oxidation of carbon presents in the
fuel results in the emanation of CO [72]. It has severe health implica­
tions such as reduced oxygen levels in the blood, respiratory diseases,
and heart diseases [73]. The variation in the CO level with load for all
test fuels is shown in Fig. 8.
In terms of percentage volume (vol %), the absolute CO emission was
observed to be more for lower load and full load PCCI engine operation.
It has already been established that alternative results in lower CO and
HC emissions [74]. With an increase in load from 20% to 40%, a drastic
reduction in CO emission was observed (more than 25%), whereas,
beyond 60% load level, CO emission significantly increased. It might be
due to the reduction in the air–fuel ratio resulting in lower availability of
oxygen in the combustion chamber [75]. The inclusion of hybrid
nanoparticles in the blend reduced CO emission. PTO20CuZnO50 wit­
nessed the lowest CO emission, 22.09% and 36.79% lower than PTO20
and diesel fuel. This could be attributed to the superior reaction and
inherent oxygen content in the nanoparticle-embedded fuel [76,77].
With the addition of n-pentanol to the fuel blend, CO emissions signif­
icantly increased. Owing to a lower density and lower heating value, the
combustion momentum was negatively affected, which hindered later-
stage CO oxidation, for which net CO emissions increased [78]. At full
load, CO emission for diesel, PTO20, PTO20CuZnO50, PTO20­
CuZnO50P10, PTO20CuZnO50P20, and PTO20CuZnO50P30 was found
to be 0.106, 0.086, 0.067, 0.075, 0.085, and 0.093 vol%, respectively.
5.2.2. HC emission
The HC emission is caused by improper burning of fuels inside the
combustion chamber [79]. Although the amount of oxygen in the
combustion chamber is sufficient to oxidize hydrocarbon that results in
lower the HC formation. The main reason for HC formation is the wall
impingement of the fuel accumulated in the chamber, crevice volume,
and flame front cooling during combustion [80]. In the PCCI engine,
low-temperature combustion is the main reason for the formation of
high HC emissions. However, with fuel modification and infusing more
oxygen-bound combustion, it could be reduced [81]. The variation in
the HC emission with load is shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 8. Variation of CO emission for different fuel blend.
8
Fuel 324 (2022) 124603
The result is observed that irrespective of fuel blends, HC emission
was highest for peak load conditions. The HC emission slightly decreases
for part-load operation and increases for further increase in load. Diesel
combustion has higher HC emissions compared to other test fuels. The
inclusion of nanoparticles keeps the HC emissions at bay by providing
more oxygen and enhancing the reactivity of the fuel mixture [82]. The
HC emission for PTO20CuZnO50 reduced by 17.03% when compared
with PTO20. The HC emission increased with the increase in n-pentanol
concentration in the blend mainly due to the poor mixture formation
and improper fuel–air mixing. At 80% load, the HC emission for diesel,
PTO20, PTO20CuZnO50, PTO20CuZnO50P10, PTO20CuZnO50P20,
and PTO20CuZnO50P30 was found to be 100, 91, 75, 86, 89, and 94
ppm, respectively.
5.2.3. NOx emission
Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide emissions are prime concerns for a
compression ignition engine. The atmospheric nitrogen present in the
air reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen oxide in the combustion
chamber, which is toxic and augments environmental pollution. This is
mainly prompted by the higher temperature inside the cylinder. The
variation in NOx emission with load is shown in Fig. 10.
It is observed that the NOx closely follows the engine loading trend.
For the lower load level, the emission occurrence is lesser and increases
with the increase in load level and is highest at rated full load (80%
load). Compared to diesel, PTO20 witnessed higher NOx, and the hybrid
nanoparticle inclusion assisted to some extent to balance the higher NOx
emission formation because of superior fuel reactivity. The overall NOx
emission decreased because of low-temperature combustion in the PCCI
combustion [83]. Other studies also support that nanoparticles increase
NOx emissions to some extent [84,85]. However, the NOx level
decreased significantly for n-pentanol addition (up to 30%). This could
be ascribed to the fuel mixture’s lower energy content, resulting in lower
engine cylinder combustion temperature. The NOx emission for
PTO20CuZnO50P30 reduced by 18.04% compared to PTO20. At 80%
load, the NOx emission for diesel, PTO20, PTO20CuZnO50, PTO20­
CuZnO50P10, PTO20CuZnO50P20, and PTO20CuZnO50P30 was found
to be 246, 266, 251, 239, 230, and 218 ppm, respectively.
5.2.4. Smoke emission
Smoke emission primarily depends on the engine operating condi­
tion and hydrogen-to-oxygen share in the fuel. It is one of the common
Fig. 9. Variation of UBHC for different fuel blend.
P.V. Elumalai et al.
Fig. 10. Variation of NOx for different fuel blend.
emissions that results from the incomplete combustion of fuel [86]. In
the PCCI combustion, it is brought to a safer limit. The variation in
smoke emission with load for PTO20, PTO20CuZnO50, PTO20­
CuZnO50P10, PTO20CuZnO50P20, and PTO20CuZnO50P30 is shown
in Fig. 11.
Smoke emission also follows the loading trend and linearly increases
with load level. This is due to the burning of more fuel with insufficient
oxygen in the combustion chamber. The PTO witnessed more smoke
emissions compared to diesel. The smoke level was brought to a lower
level with the inclusion of hybrid nanoparticles due to better combustion
[87]. It was also observed that the smoke was significantly reduced with
n-pentanol addition of up to 30%. This could be due to the oxygen-rich
combustion and better ignition quality of lower-density n-pentanol. The
smoke opacity for PTO20CuZnO50P30 at PCCI mode operation was
reduced by 15.27% compared with the PTO20 at 80% load. It could be
attributed to fine atomization and premixed charge, resulting in droplet
combustion. The smoke opacity for diesel, PTO20, PTO20CuZnO50,
PTO20CuZnO50P10, PTO20CuZnO50P20, and PTO20CuZnO50P30 was
found to be 34%, 36%, 32%, 31.2%, 31%, and 30.05%, respectively.
Fig. 11. Variation of smoke for different fuel blend.
9
Fuel 324 (2022) 124603
5.3. Combustion behaviors
5.3.1. In-cylinder pressure
Fig. 12 shows the in-cylinder pressure generation with crank angle.
The pressure inside the cylinder is a prime combustion parameter that
reflects the overall combustion behavior of the engine. The performance
and emission parameters of a heat engine are also greatly affected by the
combustion phenomenon of the test fuels. The cylinder pressure was
greatly affected by the calorific value of the fuel [88].
From Fig. 12, it could be seen that the maximum cylinder pressure
was observed for diesel fuel compared to other tested fuels. The PTO20
blend witnessed a lower cylinder pressure due to lesser heating value
and poor fuel characteristics of pyrolysis oil-based fuel. However, the
inclusion of nanoparticles significantly improved the in-cylinder com­
bustion activity for which the cylinder pressure improved. The magni­
tude of cylinder pressure (CP) for diesel, PTO20, PTO20CuZnO50,
PTO20CuZnO50P10, PTO20CuZnO50P20, and PTO20CuZnO50P30
were found to be 64.05, 56.89, 61.66, 59.86, 54.01 and 51.13 bar
respectively. The value of CP for PTO20 was 5% and 10% higher as
compared to PTO20CuZnO50P20, and PTO20CuZnO50P30. Surpris­
ingly, the lower percentage n-pentanol addition (PTO20CuZnO50P10)
produced higher cylinder pressure than the PTO20 blend. This could be
ascribed to the better fuel mixture formation, superior fuel vaporization,
and inherent oxygenated effect [89]. However, more n-pentanol-added
blends such as PTO20CuZnO50P20 and PTO20CuZnO50P30 showed
lower cylinder pressure values. It was mainly due to the lower calorific
values and inferior mixture formation in the cylinder chamber.
Furthermore, cooling of flame fronts for higher n-pentanol fuel blends is
expected to resist cylinder pressure [90]. Overall, it can be concluded
that PTO20CuZnO50P10 is the best blend among all the PTO blends
considering the cylinder pressure.
5.3.2. Heat release rate
The heat release rate (HRR) combustion parameter reflects the
conversion of chemical energy in the fuel to heat energy [91]. The HRR
is a function of cylinder pressure, volume, and adiabatic index. It is
observed that the trend of the HRR curve is different for test fuel blends.
Fig. 13 shows the HRR of the premixed combustion phase completed
within 10 to 12-degree crank angle duration for all test fuels.
The peak HRR must appear before TDC for smooth expansion and
compression stroke. Highest HRR is observed for baseline diesel fuel
which is 74.03 J/˚CA, whereas for PTO20 it is reduced to 65.67 J/˚CA. It
Fig. 12. Cylinder pressure generation for different test fuels at 80%
load condition.
P.V. Elumalai et al.
Fig. 13. Heat release rate for different fuel blends at 80% load condition.
may be ascribed to the heat content of the fuel blend. However, with
nanoparticle addition, the HRR again peaked at 71.11 J/˚CA. This is due
to the efficient reactivity of the CuZnO nanoparticle in the ignition
process. It is seen that n-pentanol addition results in the reduction of
peak HRR value. The peak HRR for PTO20CuZnO50P10, PTO20­
CuZnO50P20, and PTO20CuZnO50P30 is observed to be 68.62 J/˚CA,
62.08 J/˚CA, and 56.1 J/˚CA respectively. The n-pentanol addition re­
duces the net energy density of the fuel, which affects the vaporization of
the fuel mixture and subsequent combustion. Overall, smooth combus­
tion of all the test fuel is ensured from the HRR vs. crank angle plot.
5.3.3. Ignition delay
The fuel characteristics play a significant role in the delay time,
necessitating the detailed engine experimental investigation of a
particular fuel. The variation of ignition delay with load for all test fuels
is presented in Fig. 14.
With load level rise, the delay period decreased for all test fuels as
expected due to improved combustion momentum and higher chamber
temperature. Diesel fuel has been observed to offer the least delay period
for all loading conditions. This is mainly ascribed to the higher calorific
Fig. 14. Ignition delay period for different test fuels at various load.
10
Fuel 324 (2022) 124603
value and lower density which helps in faster fuel evaporation. More­
over, the cetane number of the fuel played a primary role in the delay
period by accelerating the flame front [92]. The ID significantly
increased for pyrolysis tire oil blend PTO20 and dramatically reduced
nanoparticle inclusion in the blend. At full load, the ID for PTO20­
CuZnO50 reduced by 6% compared to PTO20. However, with the in­
duction of n-pentanol as secondary fuel, the delay period increases. The
intensity of delay aggravated with the concentration of the n-pentanol
present. This may be attributed to lesser heating value and inefficient
vaporization of n-pentanol [93]. Moreover, the combined role between
cetane and octane number enhanced the ignition delay further for a
higher n-pentanol percentage. At full load, the ignition delay for diesel,
PTO20, PTO20CuZnO50, PTO20CuZnO50P10, PTO20CuZnO50P20,
and PTO20CuZnO50P30 is observed to be 10.8 ◦ CA, 11.7 ◦ CA, 11 ◦ CA,
11.3 ◦ CA, 12.1 ◦ CA, and 12.4 ◦ CA respectively.
5.3.4. Combustion duration
The combustion duration (CD) can be represented by the time taken
for combustion in sec or crank angle rotation in terms of ◦ CA. In this
investigation, the CD is presented as crank angle rotation in terms of
◦
CA. The variation of CD with load is illustrated in Fig. 15.
Unlike ignition delay, the combustion duration increases with load
level increase. As the load increases, admission of more quantity of fuel
charge for the set power requirement results in a higher combustion
duration. The range varies from 25.4 ◦ CA at 20% load to 40.3 ◦ CA at
80% load for diesel fuel. Interestingly, it is observed that the CD trend
follows similar to that of ID for a particular load. The CD was minimum
for diesel fuel and surged for 20% blending with pyrolysis tire oil
(PTO20). However, the surge of CD was significantly balanced (~11%)
by nanoparticle inclusion. This may be due to the better reactivity of the
fuel blend and oxygen enrichment [94]. However, the reversed trend
could be observed for the n-pentanol addition as secondary fuel. At full
load, the combustion duration for diesel fuel, PTO20, PTO20CuZnO50,
PTO20CuZnO50P10, PTO20CuZnO50P20, and PTO20CuZnO50P30 is
observed to be 40.3◦ CA, 47.6◦ CA, 42.5◦ CA, 45.2◦ CA, 48.7◦ CA, and
51.4◦ CA, respectively. In general, the comparison of results obtained
from the present study with others could be given in Table 7, which
compares the current study’s findings with other related previous
studies. From Table 7, it can be inferred that the present study agrees
well with the previous study on similar work with PCCI engine incor­
porating alcohol blends in the intake manifold.
Fig. 15. Period of combustion for different test fuels at various load.
P.V. Elumalai et al.
Table 7
Comparison of the present study with previous study experimental results.
Parameters Present study Srihari El et al. [95] Bhiogade et al.
[54] [96]
BTE ↑ (8%) – ↑ 4% ↑ 3%
NOx ↓ (12%) ↓ 28% ↓ 27% ↓ 42%
HC ↓ (10%) ↓ 13.76% ↑ 36% ↑ 40%
Smoke ↓ (23%) ↓ 34% – ↓ 20%
CO ↓ (37%) ↑ 23.1% ↑ 40% ↑ 54%
HRR ↑ (7.6%) – ↑ 6.2% ↑ 7.4%
6. Conclusions
This study was performed on a PCCI engine fueled with highly
viscous waste tire pyrolysis oil. The high-volatile n-pentanol was added
along with fresh air charged into the cylinder through the intake
manifold. The prime aim of the study was to determine the influence of
n-pentanol percentage on PCCI engine characteristics at various load
conditions. In general, some crucial findings are given below:
• PCCI mode operation was attained for lean mixture combustion
without n-pentanol induction rate. The highest BTE noticed in the
PCCI mode was 30.9% for diesel whereas for n-pentanol induction it
was 6.7%–9.8% lower than the diesel fuel. PCCI operation at n-
pentanol induction rate with tire oil was achieved up to 30%. Slightly
irregular combustion and noisy operation were noticed when the n-
pentanol induction rate was beyond 30%. Moreover, the PCCI mode
operation was limited at 80% load condition due to supply of lean
mixture condition, which results in restriction of extension load
condition up to 100%.
• BTE of PTO20was lower than that of diesel fuel at all load conditions
whereas it was slightly similar with diesel when nanoparticles were
added to the blend. With an increase in the rate of n-pentanol with
blend, BSFC was gradually increased. The highest rise in BSFC was
0.8 kg/kWhr at the initial load and 0.31 kg/kWhr at 80% load for
PTO20CuZnO50P30. When n-pentanol was added to tire oil, the
energy of the fuel blend decreased.
• An increase in engine load leads to a drop in the CO emission for all
test fuels. The increase in the n-pentanol concentration in the blend
caused an increment in the emission of CO. The lowest CO emission
was achieved for PTO20CuZnO50 due to the nanoparticle’s catalytic
activity and inbuilt O2, which enhanced the carbon monoxide con­
version rate. Moreover, tire pyrolysis oil had 18.8% lower CO
emission than diesel at high load conditions and a small percentage
of n-pentanol addition also exerted a positive impact on CO emission
reduction.
• HC emission was reduced with a decrease of CuZnO in the tire blend.
It was also increased with the increase in the n-pentanol induction
rate with tire oil due to lower cylinder temperature. The maximum
HC emission was 101 ppm for diesel fuel at a high load. In addition,
n-pentanol induction led to 12.7%–20.2% higher HC emissions than
PTO20 CuZnO.
• Smoke emission was 13.2%–15.2% lower in n-pentanol induction
rate with tire pyrolysis oil compared to PTO20 while in hybrid
nanoparticle doping, it showed 11.1% less smoke emission than
without nanoparticles. In addition, PTO20 showed a higher smoke
emission than diesel fuel. It could be attributed to the high C/H ratio
of tire pyrolysis oil, which resulted in larger fuel droplets and high
viscosity, thereby inferior combustion.
• A maximum reduction of NOx emission was 10.1%–18.04% for n-
pentanol addition with tire oil than PTO20 whereas in hybrid
nanoparticle doping, it was 5.6% more insufficient. This was mainly
due to the catalytic behavior of nanoparticles that results in the lower
thermal breakdown of HC particles, thereby decreasing the cylinder
temperature.
11
Fuel 324 (2022) 124603
• On the whole, it was concluded that the diesel-powered PCCI engine
was superior to the other test fuels, but CuZnO doped PTO20
exhibited a similar trend to diesel. Furthermore, the lowest induction
rate of n-pentanol (PTO20CuZnO50P10) recorded a significant in­
crease in thermal efficiency and a remarkable reduction in NOx and
smoke emission as compared to the PTO20 blend. Hence, the blend
PTO20CuZnO50P10 was chosen as the best fuel for the PCCI mode of
operation at 80% load condition.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
P.V. Elumalai: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
Writing – original draft. Santosh Kumar Dash: Methodology, Writing –
review & editing. M. Parthasarathy: Methodology, Investigation,
Writing – review & editing. N.R. Dhineshbabu: Methodology, Valida­
tion, Investigation. Dhinesh Balasubramanian: Conceptualization,
Writing – review & editing. Dao Nam Cao: Conceptualization, Writing –
review & editing. Thanh Hai Truong: Review & editing. Anh Tuan Le:
Review & editing. Anh Tuan Hoang: Methodology, Writing – review &
editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors extend their heartfelt thanks to the management of
Aditya Engineering College, Surampalem, India; Mepco Schlenk Engi­
neering College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu, India; and HUTECH University,
Vietnam for providing the necessary support to complete this work
effectively.
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