BY: AZRI IZANI

 Convection: Energy exchange mechanism between a surface and a fluid moving

over a surface.

 Forced convection: Flow is induced by an external source such as a pump,

compressor, fan, etc.

 Natural convection: Flow is induced by natural such as buoyancy effect.

Convection

Natural Force
convection convection
 External Flow: flow in which boundary layers develop freely, without constraints

imposed by adjacent surfaces. .

 Internal Flow: Fluid is confined by a surface.

 Boundary
Layer

Thermal Velocity
Boundary Boundary
Layer Layer
 Velocity boundary layer: The region in which flow adjusts from zero velocity at

the wall to a maximum in the main stream of the flow.

 The concept of boundary layers is of importance in all of viscous fluid dynamics

and also in the theory of heat transfer.

 Thermal boundary layer: The region of the fluid in which these temperature
gradients exist.

 At the leading edge the temperature profile is uniform with Tbulk. Fluid particles
that come into contact with the plate achieve thermal equilibrium at the plate’s
surface temperature.

 At this point, energy flow occurs at the surface purely by conduction. These
particles exchange energy with those in the adjoining fluid layer (by conduction
and diffusion), and temperature gradients develop in the fluid.
 Prandtl Number: The ratio of these two boundaries (velocity and thermal boundary
layers) is governed by the Prandtl number, which is defined as the ratio of momentum
diffusivity to thermal diffusivity.

 The lower Prandtl number, the thermal boundary layer is thicker than the velocity
boundary layer. The greater Prandtl number, the thermal boundary layer is thinner than
the velocity boundary layer.

 Example: Air at room temperature has a Prandtl number of 0.71 and for water at 18°C it
is around 7.56, which means that the thermal diffusivity is more dominant for air than for
water.
 Reynold number: Ratio of surface geometry, surface roughness, free-stream velocity,
surface temperature and type of fluid.

Inertia forces VLc 𝛒𝐕𝐋𝐜

𝐍𝐑𝐞 = = =
Viscous 𝛎 𝛍

Where:

V: Upstream velocity (equivalent to the free-stream velocity for a flat plate).

Lc: Characteristic length of the geometry.

ν = µ/ρ : Kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

µ: Dynamic viscosity of fluid.

 Nusselt Number: Ratio of convection heat transfer to conduction heat transfer

under the same condition. It is an important parameter that can contribute to a

better rate of heat exchange. It is basically a function of Reynolds and Prandtl

number

𝐡𝐋
𝐍𝐍𝐮 =
𝐤
Where:
NNu : Nusselt Number.
L: Characteristic length.
k: Thermal conductivity.
 The fluid temperature in the thermal boundary layer varies from Ts at the surface to

about T∞ at the outer edge of the boundary. Hence, film temperature is calculated,
Tf.

 The fluid properties such as density, thermal conductivity, viscosity also vary with

temperature, and thus with position across the boundary layer.

Ts + T∞
Tf =
2
 Convection heat transfer strongly depends on the fluid properties dynamic

viscosity µ, thermal conductivity k, density ρ, and specific heat Cp, as well as the
fluid velocity Ѵ. It also depends on the geometry and the roughness of the solid
surface, in addition to the type of fluid flow characteristics.

 Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of convection heat transfer is

observed to be proportional to the temperature difference and is conveniently

expressed by Newton’s law of cooling.
 𝐐ሶ 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯 = 𝐡𝐀𝐬 (𝐓𝐬 − 𝐓∞ )

Where:

h: Convective heat transfer coefficient

T∞: Free stream temperature.

Ts: Surface temperature.

As: Surface area.

 There are 4 main geometries that cover external flow convection:

a) Parallel flow over a flat plate.

b) Flow across cylinder.

c) Flow across sphere

d) Flow across bank of tubes

 Problem solving steps in external
flow convection.

Obtain fluid Nusselt number

Reynold number
properties from film calculation (Plane,
calculation
temperature cylinder, sphere)

Convective heat
Heat transfer rate, Q transfer coefficient,
h
 Average Nusselt Number, NNu calculation

Laminar flow (For Reynold Number, 𝐍𝐑𝐞 < 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 ):

𝟏ൗ
𝐍𝐍𝐮 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟒𝐍𝐑𝐞 𝟎.𝟓 𝐏𝐫 𝟑

Where:

NRe: Reynold number.

Pr: Prandtl number

 Average Nusselt Number, NNu calculation

Turbulence flow (For Reynold Number, 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 ≤ 𝐍𝐑𝐞 ≤ 𝟏𝟎𝟕 and 𝟎. 𝟔 ≤ 𝐏𝐫 ≤ 𝟔𝟎):

𝟏ൗ
𝐍𝐍𝐮 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟕𝐍𝐑𝐞 𝟎.𝟖 𝐏𝐫 𝟑

Where:

NRe: Reynold number.

Pr: Prandtl number

 Air at 1 atm pressure and 20°C flows with a velocity of 8 m/s over a 1.5m x 6m flat

plate whose temperature is 140°C . Determine the rate of heat transfer from the
plate if the air flows parallel to the 6m long side flat plate.
 Churchill and Bernstein proposed the average Nusselt number for cross flow over a

cylinder:

𝐡𝐃 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝐍𝐑𝐞 𝟏/𝟐 𝐏𝐫 𝟏/𝟑 𝐍𝐑𝐞 𝟓 𝟒/𝟓

= 𝐍𝐍𝐮 = 𝟎. 𝟑 + 𝟐
[𝟏 + ( )𝟖 ]
𝐤 𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟎. 𝟒 𝟑 𝟏/𝟒
[𝟏 + 𝐏𝐫 ]

Note: Validity of formula: (𝑁𝑅𝑒 × 𝑃𝑟 > 0.2), Fluid properties at Tf

Where:
NRe: Reynold number.
Pr: Prandtl number
NNu: Nusselt number.
 A long 10cm diameter steam pipe whose external surface temperature is 110°C

passes through some open area that is not protected against the wind. Determine
the rate of heat loss from the pipe per unit of its length when the air is at 1 atm
pressure and 10°C and the wind is blowing across the pipe at a velocity of 8 m/s.
 According to Whitaker, convective heat transfer coefficient over a sphere can be calculated from
equation:
𝐡𝐃 𝟏 𝟐 𝛍∞
= 𝐍𝐍𝐮 = 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝐍𝐑𝐞 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝐍𝐑𝐞 𝟑 𝐏𝐫 𝟎.𝟒 ( )𝟏/𝟒
𝐤 𝛍𝐬

Note: Fluid properties is refer to the surrounding temperature, 𝑇∞ except 𝜇𝑠 is referred to 𝑇𝑠 .

Where:

NRe: Reynold number.

Pr: Prandtl number

NNu: Nusselt number.

μ∞ : Dynamic viscosity at T∞
μs : Dynamic viscosity at Ts
 A 0.25m diameter stainless steel ball with density, ρ = 8055 kg/m3, Specific heat

capacity, Cp = 480 J/kg·°C) is removed from the oven. The ball is then exposed to
the flow of air at 1 atm pressure and 25°C with a velocity of 3 m/s. The surface
temperature of the ball is 250°C. Calculate the average convection heat transfer
coefficient during this cooling process.
 Cross-flow over tube banks is commonly used in heat transfer equipment such as

heat exchangers. In such equipment, one fluid moves through the tubes while the
other moves over the tubes in a perpendicular direction.

 The tubes are usually placed in a shell of heat exchanger and the fluid flows

through the spaces between the tubes and shell Arrangement of tubes in a tube
bank are usually in-line or staggered in the direction of flow.
 Common terms related to tube banks cases:

Terms In-line flow direction Staggered flow direction

Outer diameter: D
Transverse pitch: 𝑺𝑻
Longitudinal pitch: 𝑺𝑳
Diagonal pitch: 𝑺𝑫
Length of tubes: L
Flow area: 𝑨𝟏 , 𝑨𝟑 , 𝑨𝑫
 Flow area can be calculated by using this equation:
𝐀𝟏 = 𝐒𝐓 𝐋
Where:
ST: Transverse pitch tube arrangement.
L: Length of tube.
𝐀𝐓 = 𝐒𝐓 − 𝐃 𝐋
ST: Transverse pitch tube arrangement.
L: Length of tube.
D: Outer diameter.
𝐀𝐃 = 𝐒𝐃 − 𝐃 𝐋
Where:
SD: Diagonal pitch tube arrangement.
L: Length of tube.
D: Outer diameter.
 In a tubes bank, flow properties dominate by Vmax . In order to determine Reynold

Number in tube banks, maximum velocity,Vmax must be calculated.

𝛒𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐃 𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐃
𝐍𝐑𝐞 = =
𝛍 𝐯
 Maximum velocity, Vmax

In-line flow direction Staggered flow direction

𝐒𝐓 Condition 1:
𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 = (𝐕) (𝐒𝐓 +𝐃)
𝐒𝐓 − 𝐃 If 𝐒𝐃 >
𝟐
Where: 𝐒𝐓
ST : Transverse pitch. 𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐕
𝐒𝐓 − 𝐃
D: Outer diameter
Where:
V: Fluid velocity
𝑆𝑇 : Transverse pitch.
D: Outer diameter
V: Fluid velocity
Condition 2:
(𝐒𝐓 +𝐃)
If 𝐒𝐃 <
𝟐
𝐒𝐓
𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐕
𝟐(𝐒𝐃 − 𝐃)
𝑆𝑇 : Transverse pitch.
D: Outer diameter
V: Fluid velocity
SD: Diagonal pitch tube arrangement.
 Zukauskas proposed a correlation to calculate Nusselt number, NNu where the

values of the constants C, m, and n depend on Reynolds number as table below.

However, this is only applicable to 0.7 < Pr < 500.
 The Nusselt Number need to consider in additional correction factor if number of

rows, 𝑁𝐿 < 16 and NRe > 1000.

𝐍𝐍𝐮,𝐧𝐞𝐰 = 𝐅. 𝐍𝐍𝐮
 Hence, heat transfer rate in tube banks, Q calculated by using equation:

𝐀𝐬 = 𝐍𝛑𝐃𝐋
𝐍 = 𝐍𝐋 × 𝐍𝐓
𝐐 = 𝐀𝐬 𝐡∆𝐓𝐥𝐧

Where:

As: Surface area.

h: Heat transfer coefficient.

∆Tln: Log mean teamperature.

N: Amount of tubes.
NL : Number of longitudinal tubes
NT : Number of transverse tubes

D: Diameter of tubes
 There are 4 main geometries that cover external flow convection:

a) Laminar flow

b) Turbulent flow
 For laminar flow: NRe < 2100, Sieder and Tate introduce a formula to calculate

Nusselt Number, NNu for flow inside a cylindrical pipe. Fluid properties is
𝐓𝐛𝐢 +𝐓𝐛𝐨
calculated from average bulk temperature, 𝐓𝐚𝐯𝐞 =
𝟐

𝐃 𝟏 𝛍𝐛 𝟎.𝟏𝟒
𝐍𝐍𝐮 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟔(𝐍𝐑𝐞 𝐍𝐏𝐫 )𝟑 ( )
𝐋 𝛍𝐰
Where:
μb : Fluid dynamic viscosity at bulk average temperature
μw : Fluid dynamic viscosity at wall temperature
L: Length of pipe.
D: Pipe diameter.
 𝐐ሶ 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯 = 𝐡𝐚 𝐀𝐬 ∆𝐓𝐚

𝐓𝐰 − 𝐓𝐛𝐢 + (𝐓𝐰 −𝐓𝐛𝐨 )

∆𝐓𝐚 =
𝟐

Ta: Average temperature.

Tw:Wall temperature.

Tbo: Outlet pipe bulk fluid temperature.

Tbi: Inlet pipe bulk fluid temperature.

 When Reynold number is above 6000, the flow is fully turbulent and heat transfer is
higher in turbulent region. Fluid properties is calculated from average bulk
𝐓𝐛𝐢 +𝐓𝐛𝐨
temperature, 𝐓𝐚𝐯𝐞 = . This is the formula that can be used to calculate Nusselt
𝟐
number for turbulent flow.
𝟏 𝛍𝐛
𝟎.𝟖
𝐍𝐍𝐮 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟕𝐍𝐑𝐞 𝐏𝐫 𝟑 ( )𝟎.𝟏𝟒
𝛍𝐰
Note: For NRe > 6000, 0.7 < Pr < 16000 and L/D >60

Where:
NRe : Reynold number.
μb : Fluid dynamic viscosity at bulk average temperaturePr: Prandtl number
μw : Fluid dynamic viscosity at wall temperature
 𝐐ሶ 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯 = 𝐡𝐋 𝐀𝐬 ∆𝐓𝐥𝐦

𝐓𝐰 − 𝐓𝐛𝐢 − (𝐓𝐰 −𝐓𝐛𝐨 )

∆𝐓𝐥𝐦 =
𝐓 − 𝐓𝐛𝐢
𝐥𝐧( 𝐰 )
𝐓𝐰 − 𝐓𝐛𝐨

Tlm: Log mean temperature.

Tw: Wall temperature.

Tbo: Outlet pipe bulk fluid temperature.

Tbi: Inlet pipe bulk fluid temperature.

Announcements:
1. Quiz 3
2. Tutorial 3
3. EOC 1
4. Test 1