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Module 1 Lecture
Module 1 Lecture
Module 1 Lecture
Introduction on Ethics
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to:
1. explain the various notions of good,
2. define ethics,
3. discuss the nature, scope, importance, divisions and sources of ethics, and
4. evaluate the need for making decisions.
Ethics have always existed since men began living together as a community.
Tribal or religious leaders tell their people to refrain from doing such activities that will
ruin the harmony and peace being experienced by the people in the community, such
as, raping women, stealing properties owned by fellow citizens of the tribe and killing
people among others. Besides, if there are bad elements in the tribe, the gods will get
angry and every member of the tribe will suffer. And if there are members of the tribe
who will challenge the long accepted laws or beliefs will be punished. Nobody asks
where ethical rules came from or why they must be obeyed. They just obey these ethical
rules without questions to appease the gods and bring peace to the land. Obeying the
rules without question is good for the tribes.
Then came the Greek philosophers, who admire courage, patriotism and
integrity. Citizens of Greece who are brave and honest are well-liked by Socrates, Plato
and Aristotle. They are considered good citizens of Greece.
What is to be good for the philosophers? In general, the term good in philosophy
is similar to words like necessary, important or valuable. It is applied to everything and
to every human beings, even to concepts and actions. This philosophical goods are good
because of something in themselves and not because people say it is good. For example,
an economist may say that a house is good due to its paint or size. In contrast, a
philosopher may say that a house is good because it sees a shelter.
Aristotle (384 -322 BC), the student of Plato, is not satisfied with the explanation
of his teacher. He says that happiness is the right term for what is good. So, what is
good for Aristotle? The answer is happiness. As a result, to achieve the highest good is
to attain ultimate happiness. This can be done only by being good all the time.
Therefore, for Aristotle, to be good is to gain ultimate happiness. What do we mean by
-this? Aristotle advises the Greek citizens to be experts (arête or excellent) in their field,
meaning to perfect their skills and talents by knowing both the excess and the defect.
Since, perfection is good, and to be good is to achieve happiness (eudaimonia). For
example, if you are a boxer, then know your boxing skills and be an expert boxer, it is
good. Learn your strength and weaknesses inside the ring, it is good. Win the fight and
be happy with your prize.
The problem with the Greek philosophers was, they focused on what was only to
know in order to be good, they failed to discuss so well that being ethical also involved
choosing to do good and not just knowing what is good. Choosing and knowing are
two necessary elements in Ethics. They are inseparable. They make human person truly
good.
Some philosophers think that goodness can be achieve by just following the rules
which is universal like Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) and Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274)
or obey God or gods like Augustine (354 – 430) and Abelard (1079 – 1142). Others, like
Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873), who embrace
utilitarianism, identified the good with pleasure. They also teach that we must
maximize the good, that is, bring about the greatest amount of good for the greatest
number.
Ethics is a science that deals with moral principles or rules. It influences how
people make decisions and lead their lives. For Jose M. de Mesa, Ph.D., a lay Filipino
theologian and professor of Applied Systematic Theology at De La Salle University,
Manila, ethics is to discern what is “pagiging-tao or may mabuting kalo-oban or asal-
tao”(behave as a good human person or moral) versus “pagiging-hayop or may
masamang kalo-oban or asal-hayop” (behave as an evil person or immoral).
Pagpapakatao Pagpapakahayop
"Maganda ang "Masama ang
Kalooban" Kalooban"
Asal Tao Asal Hayop
Etikong Pinoy
Generally, ethics is the study of norms that people must follow in order to attain
their ultimate goal in life, which is to attain ultimate happiness, in the light of reason
alone.
Definition of Norms
Norms, which is derived from the Greek term “nomos” meaning “laws,” are
rules and regulations in society. They guide us to behave in a particular way. They tell
us what is the acceptable or fitting behavior in society. In ethics, we study the various
norms that will help us not to commit any anti-social activity, such as, rape, corruption,
murder or fraud, not through faith but through reason alone. That is why in ethics, we
constantly study and evaluate various moral norms or rules, to ensure that citizens and
society are behaving correctly within the context of a reasonable and solidly based
norms.
The goal of ethics is to know or determine the proper or improper, fitting or not
fitting, appropriate or inappropriate behaviors of a human person in society and try to
explain why people behave that way. So, the human person may grow and develop as a
truly human being and avoid to be like a dangerous and irrational ‘brutes’, and in the
long run attains its ultimate goal in life which is ultimate happiness. For the sake of
simplicity, it means that ethics deals with the rightness or wrongness of human
behaviors in society and the attempt to explain them using various ethical principles in
order to attain total happiness.
Whether we accept it or not... there are so many challenges in our life, from the
food we eat to the clothes we wear. Often these challenges move us to decide. Making a
decision is not easy and simple, because there are numerous choices to consider.
Besides, we consider also the people who will be affected, since we are social beings, a
being always in relation with other beings. Unfortunately, we all have to make
decisions all the time; and not to decide, is a decision. A decision not to decide.
Ethicists, past and present, are not only satisfied on answering the question “how
things are?” They go further by saying “how things should be?”
For example, findings of an opinion poll may indeed prove illuminating in the
course of ethical debate, but this source is not enough, it does not give a clear response
to the vital ethical question about whether such issue or belief shall be praised or
condemned, like issues on divorce, abortion, death penalty or artificial birth control.
Opinion polls only suggest what the majority thinks, but historical records have shown
and revealed to us, that what the majority thinks is not always right. Try to read the
history of the teaching of the Catholic bishops regarding sexuality and birth control –
the “Humanae Vitae” of Pope Paul VI. In July 1968, he published the encyclical even
though an overwhelming majority of the Pontifical Commission for the Study of the
Problems of Population, Family and Birth supported a change in the Church’s teaching.
But, of course, it was very controversial. Pope Paul VI followed the minority.
So, it is the task of Ethics to identify those demands or standards, like rules and
regulations in society, city ordinances or church‘s doctrines or tenets or various ethical
principles to answer questions like, is it right to allow male Muslims to marry 4
women? Is it right for women to enter into pre-marital or extra-marital sex? Is it right to
kill innocent people or even criminals? Is it right to steal from the government’s coffer?
Is it right to ask our own death from our friend doctor?
Etymologically (i.e. coming from the root word), the word ethics is derived from
the Greek term “ethos” (noun), which mean distinct attitude or set of moral beliefs. The
Greek philosophers started questioning their people on the proper conduct in society
and how to be a good citizen. The Chinese ancient teachers and philosophers,
Confucius (551 – 479 BC) and Mencius (372-289 BC) taught their students good manner
and right conduct, so that they will flourish.
There are many ways to make decision, and the one below is one of its way.
Sources of Ethics
Philosophers, both from East and the West, think and believe that ethics basically
begins from the following:
2. A desire for the highest achievement in life or ‘highest good’ or the ‘summum
bonum’, ‘ultimate happiness’, ‘perfect end’ or ‘salvation’ or to be with ‘God’ for
the Christians, to be like ‘Buddha’ for the Buddhists or be united with the ‘Tao’
or nature for the Taoists.
3. The examples of good and respected people at home, in the community and in
society. Like parents, political leaders or religious guru.
5. The existence of ‘Political Power’ and leaders of society who exemplifies good
governance.
6. To our human conscience, the subjective norms of morality and to our intuitions
or feelings.
Ethics is not...
Where do ethical principles come from and what do they mean. It centers on the
issues of objective truths, God’s will, the use of reason in ethical judgments, and
the meaning of ‘good’ or ‘evil’?
2. Normative ethics: It takes on the question ‘how to know the principles that will
make us conform to right behavior to avoid wrong conduct. This may include the
good character we should acquire, the role of feelings in making decision, the
duties to be obeyed, or the consequences of our behavior on others.
Summary
Ethics deals with the study of moral standards human person must follow to
attain his or her goal by reason alone. It began when human beings lived as a tribal
community when tribal and spiritual leaders instructed their people to avoid anti-social
activities that will damage peace and order in their community. But formal ethical
reflection started when ancient Greek philosophers came. They focused on the meaning
of “goodness” in society and for individual person. “Good-ness” according to Socrates,
Plato and Aristotle, is not just about obeying the rules, but to think the reason why there
are rules and why obey them? They even questioned their religious beliefs if these are
necessary to be ‘good.’ The goal of ethics is to know what is proper and improper
behavior in society. Thus, making decision is not just important but a necessary element
to be ethical. The source of ethics is God or the need to achieve the highest good, or the
examples of good people, or good intentions, or even political power and leaders, and
conscience. Ethics is better understood in three areas of concern – meta-ethics,
normative ethics and applied ethics. Ethics assists the human person decide for his or
her good life, to attain ultimate happiness in life.