Lesson 2.0 - Introduction To Vapour Power Systems

THERMODYNAMICS – II
MEng-123n
VAPOUR POWER SYSTEMS
Rigorous understanding on the mathematical and physical attributes

of gases and vapours are put to their greatest potential once used
in a more practical application asides from demonstrative purposes.
Engineers and scientists of the past centuries have came up with
ingenious ways of harnessing power from steam that, to this day, is
still used in more advanced power generating systems such as
nuclear power. Let us dive into the technical aspects of what makes
power generation in the modern world possible.
MEng – 123n |Thermodynamics 2| Lesson 2.0: Introduction to Vapour Power Systems
Lesson 2.0: Introduction

Rigorous understanding on the mathematical and physical attributes of gases and vapors are put to their greatest potential
once used in a more practical application asides from demonstrative purposes. Engineers and scientists of the past
centuries have came up with ingenious ways of harnessing power from steam that, to this day, is still used in more advanced
power generating systems such as nuclear power. Let us dive into the technical aspects of what makes power generation in
the modern world possible.
Learning Outcomes
THE CARNOT CYCLE

NICOLAS LÉONARD SADI CARNOT

A Carnot cycle is a theoretical ideal thermodynamic cycle
proposed by French mechanical engineer Sadi Carnot in 1824
and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s. It
provides an upper limit on the efficiency that any classical
thermodynamic engine can achieve during the conversion of
heat into work, or conversely, the efficiency of a
refrigeration system in creating a temperature difference by
the application of work to the system. It is not an actual
thermodynamic cycle but is a theoretical construct. There are
practical thermodynamic cycles such as a Rankine cycle but
no one can get the efficiency equal or higher than the Carnot
cycle efficiency, by the Carnot's theorem.
NICOLAS LÉONARD SADI CARNOT

Carnot retired from the army in 1828, without a
pension. He was interned in a private asylum in 1832
as suffering from "mania" and "general delirum", and he
died of cholera shortly thereafter, aged 36, at the
hospital in Ivry-sur-Seine. Because of the contagious
nature of cholera, many of Carnot's belongings and
writings were buried together with him after his death.
As a consequence, only a handful of his scientific
writings survived.
CARNOT CYCLE
The Carnot cycles introduced in
this section provide specific
examples of reversible cycles
operating between two thermal
reservoirs. In a Carnot cycle, the
system executing the cycle
undergoes a series of four
internally reversible processes:
two adiabatic processes
alternated with two isothermal
processes.
Isothermal line
CARNOT CYCLE
For the heat transfer during Process 2–3
to be reversible, the difference between the
gas temperature and the temperature of the
hot reservoir must be vanishingly small.
Since the reservoir temperature remains
constant, this implies that the temperature
of the gas also remains constant during
Process 2–3. The same can be concluded
for the gas temperature during Process
4–1.
CARNOT CYCLE
The area under the adiabatic
process line 1–2 represents
the work done per unit of
mass to compress the gas in
this process.
CARNOT CYCLE
The areas under process
lines 2–3 and 3–4
represent the work done per
unit of mass by the gas as it
expands in these processes.
CARNOT CYCLE
The area under process line
4–1 is the work done per
unit of mass to compress the
gas in this process.
CARNOT CYCLE
The enclosed area on the p–
y diagram, shown shaded, is
the net work developed by the
cycle per unit of mass..
THE CARNOT EFFICIENCY

A general expression for the efficiency of a heat engine can be written as:
We know that all the energy that is put into the engine has to come out either
as work or waste heat. So work is equal to Heat at High temperature minus
Heat rejected at Low temperature. Therefore, this expression becomes:

Where, QHot = Heat input at high temperature and QCold= Heat rejected at low
temperature. The symbol (Greek letter eta) is often used for efficiency this
expression can be rewritten as:
The above equation is multiplied by 100 to express the efficiency as percent.


French Engineer Sadi Carnot showed that the ratio of QHighT to QLowT must be
the same as the ratio of temperatures of high temperature heat and the
rejected low temperature heat. So this equation, also called Carnot Efficiency,
can be simplified as:

The Carnot Efficiency is the theoretical maximum efficiency one can get when
the heat engine is operating between two temperatures:
• The temperature at which the high temperature reservoir operates ( THot).
• The temperature at which the low temperature reservoir operates ( TCold).
In the case of an automobile, the two temperatures are:
• The temperature of the combustion gases inside the engine ( THot).
• The temperature at which the gases are exhausted from the engine ( TCold).

Below is a table showing two temperature scales. The scale labeled "HOT,"
shows the range of temperatures for the combustion of gases in a car engine.
The scale labeled "COLD," shows the range of temperatures at which gases are
exhausted from the car engine.

Below is a table showing two temperature scales. The scale labeled "HOT," shows the range of temperatures for the
combustion of gases in a car engine. The scale labeled "COLD," shows the range of temperatures at which gases are
exhausted from the car engine.
Example
For a coal-fired utility boiler, the temperature of high pressure steam (Thot)would be about 540°C and Tcold, the cooling
tower water temperature, would be about 20°C. Calculate the Carnot efficiency of the power plant:
Solution:
Carnot efficiency depends on high temperature and low temperatures between which the heat engine operates. We are
given both temperatures. However, the temperatures need to be converted to Kelvin:
THE CARNOT VAPOR POWER

CYCLE
THE CARNOT VAPOR POWER CYCLE

The Carnot cycle is not limited to processes of a closed
system taking place in a piston–cylinder assembly.
As the water flows through the boiler, a change of phase

from liquid to vapor at constant temperature TH occurs
as a result of heat transfer from the hot reservoir.
Since temperature remains constant, pressure also
remains constant during the phase change.

The steam exiting the boiler expands adiabatically
through the turbine and work is developed. In this
process the temperature decreases to the
temperature of the cold reservoir, TC, and there is
an accompanying decrease in pressure. As the steam
passes through the condenser, a heat transfer to the
cold reservoir occurs and some of the vapor
condenses at constant temperature TC.

Since temperature remains constant, pressure also
remains constant as the water passes through the
condenser. The fourth component is a pump (or
compressor) that receives a two-phase liquid–vapor
mixture from the condenser and returns it
adiabatically to the state at the boiler entrance.
During this process, which requires a work input to
increase the pressure, the temperature increases
from TC to TH.
THE CARNOT
REFRIGERATION AND HEAT
PUMP CYCLES
CARNOT REFRIGERATION AND HEAT PUMP

CYCLES
If a Carnot power cycle is operated in the opposite
direction, the magnitudes of all energy transfers
remain the same but the energy transfers are
oppositely directed. Such a cycle may be regarded as
a reversible refrigeration or heat pump cycle.
CARNOT REFRIGERATION AND HEAT PUMP CYCLES

Process 1–2: The gas expands isothermally at TC while
receiving energy QC from the cold reservoir by heat
transfer.
Process 2–3: The gas is compressed adiabatically until its
temperature is TH.
Process 3–4: The gas is compressed isothermally at TH
while it discharges energy QH to the hot reservoir by heat
transfer.
Process 4–1: The gas expands adiabatically until its
temperature decreases to TC.
A refrigeration or heat pump effect can be accomplished in a cycle

only if a net work input is supplied to the system executing the
cycle.
CONTROL VOLUMES AT
STEADY STATE
STEADY-STATE FORMS OF THE MASS AND ENERGY RATE BALANCES

For a control volume at steady state, the conditions of the mass within the control volume and at
the boundary do not vary with time. The mass flow rates and the rates of energy transfer by heat
and work are also constant with time. There can be no accumulation of mass within the control
volume, so dmcv/dt = 0 and the mass rate balance:
Furthermore, at steady state dEcv/dt = 0,

GROUPING OF APPROPRIATE VARIABLES

ṁ1 =
ṁ2
dividing by the mass flow rate

NOZZLES AND DIFFUSERS

NOZZLES AND DIFFUSERS

A nozzle is a flow passage of varying cross-
sectional area in which the velocity of a gas or
liquid increases in the direction of flow. In a
diffuser, the gas or liquid decelerates in the
direction of flow. The figure shows a nozzle in
which the cross-sectional area decreases in the
direction of flow and a diffuser in which the
walls of the flow passage diverge. Observe that
as velocity increases pressure decreases, and
conversely.
Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling Considerations

For a control volume enclosing a nozzle or diffuser, the only work is flow work at locations
where mass enters and exits the control volume, so the term Wcv drops out of the energy rate
balance. The change in potential energy from inlet to exit is negligible under most conditions.
Thus,
Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling Considerations
Where ṁ is the mass flow rate. The term cv representing heat transfer with the surroundings
normally would be unavoidable (or stray) heat transfer, and this is often small enough relative to
the enthalpy and kinetic energy terms that it also can be neglected, giving simply
Calculating Exit Area of a Steam Nozzle

Steam enters a converging–diverging nozzle operating at steady state with p1 = 40 bar, T1 =
400°C, and a velocity of 10 m/s. The steam flows through the nozzle with negligible heat
transfer and no significant change in potential energy. At the exit, p2 = 15 bar, and the velocity
is 665 m/s. The mass flow rate is 2 kg/s. Determine the exit area of the nozzle, in m2.

Known: Steam flows through a nozzle at steady state with known properties at the inlet and exit, a
known mass flow rate, and negligible effects of heat transfer and potential energy.
Find: Determine the exit area.
Schematic and Given Data:

Analysis: The exit area can be determined from the mass flow rate ṁ:
To evaluate A2 from this equation requires the specific volume y2 at the exit, and
this requires that the exit state be fixed. The state at the exit is fixed by the values
of two independent intensive properties. One is the pressure p2, which is known.
The other is the specific enthalpy h2, determined from the steady-state energy rate
balance

The terms Qcv and Wcv are deleted by assumption 2. The change in specific potential
energy drops out in accordance with assumption 3 and m # cancels, leaving.
Solving for h2

From Table A-4, h1 = 3213.6 kJ/kg. The velocities V1 and V2 are given. Inserting
values and converting the units of the kinetic energy terms to kJ/kg results in
Finally, referring to Table A-4 at p2 = 15 bar with h2 = 2992.5 kJ/kg, the specific
volume at the exit is y2 = 0.1627 m3/kg. The exit area is then;
TURBINES
TURBINES
A turbine is a device in which power is developed as a
result of a gas or liquid passing through a set of
blades attached to a shaft free to rotate. Such
turbines are widely used for power generation in
vapor power plants, gas turbine power plants, and
aircraft engines
Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Considerations

With a proper selection of the control volume enclosing a steam or gas turbine, the net kinetic energy of the matter
flowing across the boundary is usually small enough to be neglected. The net potential energy of the flowing matter
also is typically negligible. Thus, the underlined terms of the equation drop out, leaving the power, enthalpy, and heat
transfer terms, as shown;
Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Considerations

where ṁ is the mass flow rate. The only heat transfer between the turbine and surroundings normally would be
unavoidable (or stray) heat transfer, and this is often small enough relative to the power and enthalpy terms that it
also can be neglected, giving simply;
Calculating Heat Transfer from a Steam Turbine

Steam enters a turbine operating at steady state with a mass flow rate of 4600 kg/h. The turbine develops a power
output of 1000 kW. At the inlet, the pressure is 60 bar, the temperature is 400°C, and the velocity is 10 m/s. At the
exit, the pressure is 0.1 bar, the quality is 0.9 (90%), and the velocity is 30 m/s. Calculate the rate of heat transfer
between the turbine and surroundings, in kW.

SOLUTION
Known: A steam turbine operates at steady state. The mass flow rate, power output, and states of the steam at the
inlet and exit are known.
Find: Calculate the rate of heat transfer.


Analysis: To calculate the heat transfer rate, begin with the one-inlet, one-exit form of
the energy rate balance for a control volume at steady state
where ṁ is the mass flow rate. Solving for Qcv and dropping the potential energy
change from inlet to exit

To compare the magnitudes of the enthalpy and kinetic energy terms, and stress the
unit conversions needed, each of these terms is evaluated separately. First, the
specific enthalpy difference h2 - h1 is found. Using Table A-4, h1 = 3177.2 kJ/kg. State
2 is a two phase liquid–vapor mixture, so with data from Table A-3 and the given
quality
Hence;

Consider next the specific kinetic energy difference. Using the given values for the
velocities;
Calculating Qcv;
COMPRESSORS AND PUMPS

COMPRESSORS AND PUMPS

Compressors and pumps are devices in which work is
done on the substance flowing through them in order
to change the state of the substance, typically to
increase the pressure and/or elevation. The term
compressor is used when the substance is a gas
(vapor) and the term pump is used when the substance
is a liquid.
Compressor and Pump Modeling Considerations

For a control volume enclosing a compressor, the mass and energy rate balances reduce at steady state as for the case of
turbines thus,
Heat transfer with the surroundings is frequently a secondary effect that can be neglected, giving as for turbines
For pumps, heat transfer is generally a secondary effect, but the kinetic and potential energy terms may be significant depending on the application. Be sure to note that for
compressors and pumps, the value of Wcv is negative because a power input is required.
Calculating Compressor power

Air enters a compressor operating at steady state at a pressure of 1 bar, a temperature of 290 K, and a velocity of 6
m/s through an inlet with an area of 0.1 m2. At the exit, the pressure is 7 bar, the temperature is 450 K, and the
velocity is 2 m/s. Heat transfer from the compressor to its surroundings occurs at a rate of 180 kJ/min. Employing
the ideal gas model, calculate the power input to the compressor, in kW.

SOLUTION
Known: An air compressor operates at steady state with known inlet and exit states and a known heat transfer rate.
Find: Calculate the power required by the compressor.


Analysis: To calculate the power input to the compressor, begin with the one-inlet, one-exit form of the energy rate
balance for a control volume at steady state, that is;

The change in potential energy from inlet to exit drops out by assumption 2. The mass flow rate ṁ can be evaluated
with given data at the inlet and the ideal gas equation of state.

The specific enthalpies h1 and h2 can be found from Table A-22. At 290 K, h1 = 290.16 kJ/kg. At 450 K, h2 = 451.8
kJ/kg. Substituting values into the expression for Wcv , and applying appropriate unit conversion factors, we get;
HEAT EXCHANGERS
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers have innumerable domestic and
industrial applications, including use in home
heating and cooling systems, automotive
systems, electrical power generation, and
chemical processing. One common type of heat
exchanger is a mixing chamber in which hot and
cold streams are mixed directly. Another common
type of exchanger is one in which a gas or liquid
is separated from another gas or liquid by a wall
through which energy is conducted.
Heat Exchanger Modeling Considerations

Heat exchangers can involve multiple inlets and exits. For a control volume enclosing
a heat exchanger, the only work is flow work at the places where matter enters and
exits, so the term Wcv drops out of the energy rate balance. In addition, the kinetic and
potential energies of the flowing streams usually can be ignored at the inlets and
exits. Thus, the underlined terms drop out, leaving the enthalpy and heat transfer
terms, as shown
Evaluating Performance of a Power Plant Condenser

Steam enters the condenser of a vapor power plant at 0.1 bar with a quality of 0.95 and condensate exits at 0.1 bar
and 45°C. Cooling water enters the condenser in a separate stream as a liquid at 20°C and exits as a liquid at 35°C
with no change in pressure. Heat transfer from the outside of the condenser and changes in the kinetic and potential
energies of the flowing streams can be ignored. For steady-state operation, determine
(a) the ratio of the mass flow rate of the cooling water to the mass flow rate of the condensing steam.
(b) the rate of energy transfer from the condensing steam to the cooling water, in kJ per kg of steam passing through
the condenser.

SOLUTION
Known: Steam is condensed at steady state by interacting with a separate liquid water stream.
Find: Determine the ratio of the mass flow rate of the cooling water to the mass flow rate of the steam and the rate of energy transfer from the
steam to the cooling water.

Analysis: The steam and the cooling water streams do not mix. Thus, the mass rate balances for each of the two streams reduce at steady state to
give;
(a) The ratio of the mass flow rate of the cooling water to the mass flow rate of the condensing steam, ṁ3/ ṁ1, can be found from the steady-state
form of the energy rate balance applied to the overall condenser as follows:

The underlined terms drop out by assumptions 2 and 3. With these simplifications, together with the above mass flow rate relations, the energy rate
balance becomes simply

The specific enthalpy h1 can be determined using the given quality and data from Table A-3. From Table A-3 at 0.1 bar, hf = 191.83 kJ/kg and hg =
2584.7 kJ/kg, so;
Using assumption 4, the specific enthalpy at 2 is given by h2 ≈ hf(T2) = 188.45 kJ/kg. Similarly, h3 ≈ hf(T3) and h4 ≈ hf(T4), giving h4 - h3 = 62.7 kJ/kg.
Thus,

For a control volume enclosing the steam side of the condenser only, begin with the steady-state form of energy rate balance,
The underlined terms drop out by assumptions 2 and 3. The following expression for the rate of energy transfer between the
condensing steam and the cooling water results:
Dividing by the mass flow rate of the steam, ṁ1, and inserting values;
where the minus sign signifies that energy is transferred from the condensing steam to the cooling water.
THROTTLONG DEVICES
THROTTLING DEVICES
A significant reduction in pressure can be achieved
simply by introducing a restriction into a line through
which a gas or liquid flows. This is commonly done by
means of a partially opened valve or a porous plug.
An application of throttling occurs in vapor-

compression refrigeration systems, where a valve is
used to reduce the pressure of the refrigerant from
the pressure at the exit of the condenser to the lower
pressure existing in the evaporator.
Another application involves the throttling calorimeter,

which is a device for determining the quality of a two-
phase liquid–vapor mixture.
Throttling Device Modeling Considerations

For a control volume enclosing a throttling device, the only work is flow work at locations where mass enters and
exits the control volume, so the term Wcv drops out of the energy rate balance. There is usually no significant heat
transfer with the surroundings, and the change in potential energy from inlet to exit is negligible. Thus, the underlined
terms drop out, leaving the enthalpy and kinetic energy terms, that is;
Throttling Device Modeling Considerations

Although velocities may be relatively high in the vicinity of the restriction imposed by the throttling device on the flow
through it, measurements made upstream and downstream of the reduced flow area show in most cases that the
change in the specific kinetic energy of the flowing substance between these locations can be neglected. With this
further simplification, the equation reduces to;
When the flow through the valve or other restriction is idealized in this way, the process is called a throttling process.
Measuring Steam Quality

A supply line carries a two-phase liquid–vapor
mixture of steam at 300 lbf/in2. A small fraction
of the flow in the line is diverted through a
throttling calorimeter and exhausted to the
atmosphere at 14.7 lbf/in2. The temperature of
the exhaust steam is measured as 250°F.
Determine the quality of the steam in the supply
line.

SOLUTION
Known: Steam is diverted from a supply line through a throttling calorimeter and exhausted to the atmosphere.
Find: Determine the quality of the steam in the supply line.
Engineering Model:
1. The control volume shown on
the accompanying figure is at
steady state.
2. The diverted steam undergoes a
throttling process.

Analysis: For a throttling process, the energy and mass balances reduce to give h2 = h1, which agrees with the
isenthalpic design considerations of the throttling device. Thus, with state 2 fixed, the specific enthalpy in the
supply line is known, and state 1 is fixed by the known values of p1 and h1.
As shown on the accompanying p–v diagram, state 1 is in the two-phase liquid–vapor region and state 2 is in
the superheated vapor region. Thus,
Solving for x1,
From Table A-3E at 300 lbf/in2, hf1 = 394.1 Btu/lb and hg1 = 1203.9 Btu/lb. At 14.7 lbf/in2 and 2508F, h2 =
1168.8 Btu/lb from Table A-4E. Inserting values into the above expression, the quality of the steam in the line is
x1 = 0.957 (95.7%).
For throttling calorimeters exhausting to the atmosphere, the quality of the steam in the line must be greater
than about 94% to ensure that the steam leaving the calorimeter is superheated
SYSTEM INTEGRATION
SYSTEM INTEGRATION
Thus far, we have studied several types of components
selected from those commonly seen in practice. These
components are usually encountered in combination,
rather than individually. Engineers often must creatively
combine components to achieve some overall objective,
subject to constraints such as minimum total cost. This
important engineering activity is called system integration.
Evaluating Performance of a Waste Heat Recovery System

An industrial process discharges 2 X 105 ft3/min of gaseous combustion products at 400°F, 1 atm. As shown the
figure, a proposed system for utilizing the combustion products combines a heat-recovery steam generator with a
turbine. At steady state, combustion products exit the steam generator at 260°F 1 atm and a separate stream of water
enters at 40 lbf/in2, 102°F with a mass flow rate of 275 lb/min. At the exit of the turbine, the pressure is 1 lbf/in2
and the quality is 93%. Heat transfer from the outer surfaces of the steam generator and turbine can be ignored, as
can the changes in kinetic and potential energies of the flowing streams. There is no significant pressure drop for the
water flowing through the steam generator. The combustion products can be modeled as air as an ideal gas.
a) Determine the power developed by the turbine, in Btu/min.
b) Determine the turbine inlet temperature, in 8°F.
c) Evaluating the power developed at $0.08 per kWh, determine the value of the power, in $/year, for 8000 hours of
operation annually.

SOLUTION
Known: Steady-state operating data are provided for a system consisting of a heat-recovery steam generator and a turbine.
Find: Determine the power developed by the turbine and the turbine inlet temperature. Evaluate the annual value of the power developed.

Analysis: The power developed by the turbine is determined from a control volume enclosing both the
steam generator and the turbine. Since the gas and water streams do not mix, mass rate balances for each
of the streams reduce, respectively, to give:
For this control volume, the appropriate form of the steady-state energy rate balance is:

Analysis: The underlined terms drop out by assumption 2. With these simplifications, together with the
above mass flow rate relations, the energy rate balance becomes;
The mass flow rate ṁ1 can be evaluated with given data at inlet 1 and the ideal gas equation of state;

Analysis: The specific enthalpies h1 and h2 can be found from Table A-22E: At 860°R, h1 = 206.46 Btu/lb,
and at 720°R h2 = 172.39 Btu/lb. At state 3, water is a liquid. Using the equation on steam quality and
enthalpy relation as well as saturated liquid data from Table A-2E, h3 ≈ hf(T3) = 70 Btu/lb. State 5 is a two-
phase liquid–vapor mixture. With data from Table A-3E and the given quality;
Substituting values into the expression for Wcv ;


To determine T4, it is necessary to fix the state at 4. This requires two independent property values. With
assumption 3, one of these properties is pressure, p4 = 40 lbf/in2 The other is the specific enthalpy h4,
which can be found from an energy rate balance for a control volume enclosing just the steam generator.
Mass rate balances for each of the two streams give ṁ1 = ṁ2 and ṁ3 = ṁ4. With assumption 2 and these
mass flow rate relations, the steady-state form of the energy rate balance reduces to;
Solving for h4:
Interpolating in Table A-4E at p4 = 40 lbf/in2 with h4, we get T4 = 354°F.


Using the result of part (a), together with the given economic data and appropriate conversion factors, the
value of the power developed for 8000 hours of operation annually is;
1. Alternatively, to determine h4 a control volume enclosing just the turbine can be considered.
2. The decision about implementing this solution to the problem of utilizing the hot combustion products
discharged from an industrial process would necessarily rest on the outcome of a detailed economic
evaluation, including the cost of purchasing and operating the steam generator, turbine, and auxiliary
equipment.
END

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THERMODYNAMICS – II

Rigorous understanding on the mathematical and physical attributes

Lesson 2.0: Introduction

THE CARNOT CYCLE

NICOLAS LÉONARD SADI CARNOT

NICOLAS LÉONARD SADI CARNOT

THE CARNOT EFFICIENCY

THE CARNOT EFFICIENCY

The above equation is multiplied by 100 to express the efficiency as percent.

THE CARNOT EFFICIENCY

THE CARNOT EFFICIENCY

• The temperature at which the high temperature reservoir operates ( THot).

• The temperature at which the low temperature reservoir operates ( TCold).

In the case of an automobile, the two temperatures are:

• The temperature of the combustion gases inside the engine ( THot).

THE CARNOT EFFICIENCY

THE CARNOT EFFICIENCY

THE CARNOT VAPOR POWER

THE CARNOT VAPOR POWER CYCLE

As the water flows through the boiler, a change of phase

THE CARNOT VAPOR POWER CYCLE

THE CARNOT VAPOR POWER CYCLE

CARNOT REFRIGERATION AND HEAT PUMP

CARNOT REFRIGERATION AND HEAT PUMP CYCLES

A refrigeration or heat pump effect can be accomplished in a cycle

STEADY-STATE FORMS OF THE MASS AND ENERGY RATE BALANCES

Furthermore, at steady state dEcv/dt = 0,

STEADY-STATE FORMS OF THE MASS AND ENERGY RATE BALANCES

GROUPING OF APPROPRIATE VARIABLES

STEADY-STATE FORMS OF THE MASS AND ENERGY RATE BALANCES

dividing by the mass flow rate

NOZZLES AND DIFFUSERS

NOZZLES AND DIFFUSERS

Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling Considerations

Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling Considerations

Calculating Exit Area of a Steam Nozzle

Calculating Exit Area of a Steam Nozzle

Calculating Exit Area of a Steam Nozzle

Calculating Exit Area of a Steam Nozzle

Calculating Exit Area of a Steam Nozzle

Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Considerations

Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Considerations

Calculating Heat Transfer from a Steam Turbine

Calculating Heat Transfer from a Steam Turbine

Find: Calculate the rate of heat transfer.

Schematic and Given Data:

Calculating Heat Transfer from a Steam Turbine

Calculating Heat Transfer from a Steam Turbine

Calculating Heat Transfer from a Steam Turbine

COMPRESSORS AND PUMPS

COMPRESSORS AND PUMPS

Compressor and Pump Modeling Considerations

Calculating Compressor power

Calculating Compressor power

Find: Calculate the power required by the compressor.

Schematic and Given Data:

Calculating Compressor power

Calculating Compressor power

Calculating Compressor power

Heat Exchanger Modeling Considerations

Evaluating Performance of a Power Plant Condenser

Evaluating Performance of a Power Plant Condenser