COMPUTER
-“to do things for us”-purpose
-speak their language to describe what we
want done.
-Users have it easy--users just pick the
ones we want to use.
Users
-see computers as a set of tools - word
processor, spreadsheet, map, todo list, etc.
Programmers
- learn the computer “ways” and the
computer language .
- have some tools that allow them to build
new tools.
- sometimes write tools for lots of users
and sometimes.
-write little “helpers” for themselves to
automate a task.
A Layered View of the Computer
 Application Programs
-Word-Processors, Spreadsheets,
Database Software, IDEs, etc…
 System Software
- Compilers,
Interpreters,Preprocessors, etc.
Operating System, Device Drivers
Machine with all its hardware.
Programs
- are written in programming languages.
PL / programming language
-Pieces of the same program can be written
in different.
-special purpose and limited language.
- set of rules and symbols used to
construct a computer program.
- language used to interact with the
computer.
PLs / Programming Languages
- Languages closer to the machine can be
more efficient, As long as they agree on
how to communicate.
Computer Languages
 Machine Language
-Uses binary code
-Machinedependent
-Not portable
 Assembly Language
-Uses mnemonics
-Machine-dependent
-Not portable
 High-Level Language
-Uses English-like language
-Machine independent
-Portable (but must be compiled for
different platforms)
+ Examples: Pascal, C, C++, Java,
Fortran, . . .
Low Level Languages
- Computer language consisting of
mnemonics that directly correspond to
machine language instructions.
-Assembly language, machine
language, hardware.
High Level Languages
- symbolic languages that use English
words and/or mathematical symbols rather
than mnemonic codes.
-uses statements consisting of English-like
keywords such as "FOR", "PRINT" or “IF“, ...
etc.
-one-to-many correspondence
-Much easier to program than in assembly
language.
-Data are referenced using descriptive
names.
-Operations can be described using familiar
symbols.
-EXAMPLE: visual languages, fortran, c,
pascal, high - level language.
Machine Language
-The representation of a computer program
which is actually read and understood by
the computer.
- A program in machine code consists of a
sequence of machine instructions.
Instructions:
- Machine instructions are in binary code
- Instructions specify operations and
memory cells involved in the operation.
Assembly Language
-symbolic representation of the machine
language of a specific processor.
-converted to machine code by an
assembler.
-Each line of assembly code produces one
machine instruction (One-to-one
correspondence).
-Programming in assembly language is
slow and error-prone but is more efficient
in terms of hardware performance.
- A Mnemonic representation of the
instructions and data.
Compiled Languages
-are translated to the target machine's
native language by a program called a
COMPILER.
-This can result in very fast code, especially
if the compiler is effective at optimizing,
however the resulting code may not port
well across operating systems and the
compilation process may take a while.
Interpreted Languages
-are read by a program called an
interpreter and are executed by that
program.
- portable as their interpreter and have no
long compile times.
- usually much slower than an equivalent
compiled program.
TYPE SYSTEM
-logical system comprising a set of rules.
-assigns a property called a type to the
various constructs of a computer
program, such as variables, expressions,
functions or modules.
*Type Strength: Strong or Weak
Strong Typing System
-puts restrictions on how different types of
variables can be converted to each other
without any converting statements.
An ideal strong typing system would that
do not make any sense, such as an integer
to a Fruit object.
Weak Typing System
-would try to find some way to make the
cast work. forbid implicit "casts" to types.
*Type Checking: Static or Dynamic
Statically Typed
- compiler/interpreter does the type
checking once before the program runs/is
compiled.
Dynamically Type
-checked at run-time.
*Type Safety: Safe or Unsafe
-degree to which a language will prohibit
operations on typed variables that might
lead to undefined behavior or errors.
Safe Language
-will do more to ensure that such
operations or conversions do not occur.
Unsafe Language
-will give more responsibility to the user in
this regard.
PROGRAMMING PARADIGM
-methodology or way of programming that
a programming language supports.
Common Paradigms
▪ Declarative
▪ Functional
▪ Generic
▪ Imperative
▪ Structured
▪ Procedural
▪ Object-Oriented
▪ Declarative
-supposed to accomplish rather than by
what means it is supposed to accomplish it.
-paradigm might be used to avoid
undesired sideeffects resulting from having
to write one's own code.
▪ Functional
-subset of declarative programming.
- tries to express problems in terms of
mathematical equations and functions.
-to avoid the concepts of states and
mutable variables which are common in
imperative languages.
▪ Generic
-focuses on writing skeleton algorithms.
▪ Imperative
-allow programmers to give the computer
ordered lists of instructions
▪ Structured
-aim to provide some form of noteworthy
structure to a language.
▪ Procedural
-imperative structured programming
language which supports the concept of
procedures and subroutines.
▪ Object-Oriented  +
-abbreviated to OOP.  ==
-subset of structured programming which  -
expresses programs in the terms of  .
"objects".  <=
-meant to model objects in the real world. 
 ;
Organization  >=
❑ American National Standards Institute  /
(ANSI)  *
❑ International Organization for  \
Standardization (ISO)  !=
❑ De-facto standard
Reserved words, keywords, or word
History of C++ symbols:
-C is a programming language developed in ▪ int, float, double, char, const, void,
the 1970's alongside the UNIX operating return.
system.
-C provides a comprehensive set of Identifiers
features for handling a wide variety of - All C++ variables must be identified with
applications, such as systems development unique names.
and scientific computation. - These unique names.
-C++ is an “extension” of the C language, - can be short names (like x and y) or more
in that most C programs are also C++ descriptive names (age, sum, totalVolume).
programs.
-C++, as opposed to C, supports ✓ Names can contain letters, digits and
“objectoriented programming. underscores. ✓ Names must begin with a
letter or an underscore
Features of C++ ✓ Names are case sensitive ( myVar and
- open ISO-standardized language. myvar are different variables)
-compiled language. ✓ Names cannot contain whitespaces or
- strongly-typed unsafe language. special characters like !, #, %, etc.
-supports both manifest and inferred typing. ✓ Reserved words (like C++ keywords,
-supports both static and dynamic type such as int ) cannot be used as names.
checking.
-offers many paradigm choices.
-portable. Whitespaces
-upwards compatible with C -Every C++ program contains whitespaces-
- has incredible library support. - blanks, tabs, and newline characters.
-Used to separate special symbols,
BASICS OF C++ PROGRAMS reserved words, and identifiers.
Function: -Proper utilization of whitespaces is
- collection of statements; when executed, important.
accomplishes something.
Syntax: Data Type
-rules that specify which statements -specifies the size and type of information
(instructions) are legal. the variable will store.
Programming language:
-a set of rules, symbols, and special words. Int
Semantic rule: -4 bytes
-meaning of the instruction. - Stores whole numbers, without decimals.

Special Symbols Float

 -4 bytes
-Stores fractional numbers, containing one
or more decimals. Sufficient for storing 7
decimal digits.
Double
-8 bytes
-Stores fractional numbers, containing one
or more decimals.
-Sufficient for storing 15 decimal digits.
Boolean
- 1 byte
-Stores true or false values
-bool keyword.
-used for conditional testing.
-When the value is returned, true = 1 and
false = 0.
char
-1 byte
-Stores a single character/letter/number,
or ASCII values.
-smallest integral data type.
-Each character is enclosed in single quotes.
-blank space is a character and is written ' ',
with a space left between the single quotes.
String Data Type
-store a sequence of characters (text).
-not a built-in type
-values must be surrounded by double
quotes “ ”
- Each character has relative position in
string.
- Position of first character is 0.
- Length of a string is number of characters
in it.
Arithmetic Operators
-Operators are used to perform operations
on variables and values.
Modulus- Return the division remainder.
Symbol: “%”
Increment- increases the value by 1 .
Symbol: “++”
Decrement- decreases the value by 1.
Symbol: “--”
Operator Precedence
- All operations inside of () are evaluated
first
- *, /, and % are at the same level of
precedence and are evaluated next.
- and ? have the same level of precedence
and are evaluated last .
-When operators are on the same level.
- Performed from left to right (associativity).
Expressions
-If all operands are integers.
-Expression is called an integral expression
- Yields an integral result - Example: 2 + 3
*5
-If all operands are floating-point.
-Expression is called a floating-point
expression - Yields a floating-point result.
Example: 12.8 * 17.5 - 34.50
Mixed expression
-Has operands of different data types.
-Contains integers and floating-point.
Examples of mixed expressions:
▪2 + 3.5
▪6 / 4 + 3.9
▪5.4 * 2 ? 13.6 + 18 / 2
Evaluation rules:
➢If operator has same types of operands
- Evaluated according to the type of the
operands
➢If operator has both types of operands
- Integer is changed to floating-point
- Operator is evaluated
- Result is floating-point
Entire expression is evaluated according to
precedence rules.
Phases of C++ Programs
EDITOR—DISK
-Program is created in the editor and
stored on disk.
Preprocessor—Disk
-Preprocessor program processes the code.
Compiler-- Disk
- Compiler creates object code and stores it
on disk.
Linker—Disk
- Linker links the object code with the
libraries, creates a.out and stores it on disk
Loader—Disk—Primary Memory
- Loader puts program in memory.
CPU—Primary Memory
- CPU takes each instruction and executes
it, possibly storing new data values as the
program executes.
 T T T
Variables T F F
-portion of a memory to store a value. F T F
-programmers get choose the name of the F F F
variable.
-can change the contents of a variable in a BOOLEAN OPERATOR – OR(||)
later statement.
a b a||b
Identifiers
-sequence of one or more letters, digits, or T T T
underscore characters. T F T
-Spaces, punctuation marks, and symbols F T T
cannot be part of it. F F F
-always begin with a letter.
-case sensistive. Conditional Operator (?)
-evaluates an expression returning a value
Declaration Statement: int x; if that expression is true and a different
Assigment Statement: x = 2; one if the expression is evaluates as false.
Assigment with Expression: x = x + 2; FORMAT:
Display Statement: cout << x; Condition? Result 1: Result 2
T F
Assigment Statement
- “=”-used to assign statement. COMMA OPERATOR (,)
-consist of statement on the rightside and a -used to separate two or more expression.
variable store the result.
Bitwise Operators
COMPOUND ASSIGNMENT -modify variables considering the bit
patterns that represent the values they
value += increase; store.
 value = value + increase;
a -= 5; AND (&) -Bitwise AND
 a = a-5; OR (|) -Bitwise Inclusive OR
a /= b; XOR (^) - Bitwise Exclusive OR
 a = a / b; NOT (~) -Unary Complement (bit
price *= units + 1; inversion)
 price = price * (units + 1); SHL (<<) -Shift LEFT
SHR(>>) -Shirt RIGHT
Relational and Equality Operator
Explicit Type Casting Operator
== -Equal to -provides a method for explicit conversion
!= -Not Equal to of the type of an object in a specific
> -Greater than situation.
< -Less than -can be used as unary expression.
>= -Greater than or equal to
<= -Less than or equal to The “Hello World” Program
Line 1:
LOGICAL OPERATOR -must begin with two slash sign (//) also
! -NOT known as comment.
&& -AND -use to include short explanation or
|| -OR observation about the program.

BOOLEAN OPERATOR – AND(&&) Line 2: #include <iostream>

-begin with the hash sign and directives
a b a&&b read and interprented (pre-processor)
Header iostream
-include a section of standard c++ code.
-allows to perform standard input and
output operations.
Line 3: Blank Line
-no effect on the program.
-improve readability.
Line 4: int main()
-Initiates the declaration of a function.
Lines 5 & 7: { and }
-everything between these braces is the
function’c body that defines what happens
in the main.
Line 6: std::cout<<”HELLO WORLD!”;
-c++ statement
-expression that can actually produce some
effect.
-meat of a program, specifying its actual
behaviour.
Preprocessor directives
-begin by #
-read and processed by the pre-processor
before proper compilation begins.
-must be specified in their own line a.
-do not end in semicolon (;)
Comments
line comment – discards everything from
where the pair of slash sign.
//line comment
Block comment- discards everything
between /*, with the possibility of including
multiple lines.
/*block comment*/
Return Statement
-return 0;
-causes the main function to finish.
-may be followed by a return code.
-program worked as expected without any
errors during the execution.
-usual way to end a c++ console program.
Standard Output (cout)
-used in conjuction with the insertion
operator(<<)
Standard Input (cin)
-applying the overloaded operator of
extraction (>>)
Program FLOWCHART
-used to describe the steps and process
using pre-defined symbols.
-represents an algorithm process.
-show logics of algorithm.
-emphsizes individuals steps and their
interconnections.
BENEFITS of Program Flowchart
1. Help programmers to find the bug in
the process before carrying out.
2. Works as a blueprint when analysing
the systems and developing
programs which makes coding more
efficient.
3. Improves programmers efficiency in
maintaining the operating program.
4. Communicating the logic of a system
concerned gets much easier.
COMMON FLOWCHART SYMBOL
FLOWLINE
-used to connect symbols and indicate the
flow of logic.
TERMINAL
-used to represent the start and end of a
task.
Input & Output
-used for input and output.
-for reading and displaying.
Processing
-for arithmetic and data-manipulation
operations.
-for instruction.
Decision
-for any logic or comparison.
-has one entry and two exit paths.
-path chosen depends on the answer if it’s
“yes” or “no”.
Connector
- to join different flowlines.
Offpage Connector
-to indicate that the flowchart continues to -numbered.
a second page. -used to describe the actions a program will
taken when it’s coded in a programming
language.

Predefined process ADVANTAGES OF Pseudocode

-to represent a group of statements that  Improves the readability of any
perform one processing task. approach. It’s one of the best
approaches to start implementation
of an algorithm.
 Acts as a bridge between the
Annotation program and algorithm or flowchart.
-to provide additional info about another  It’s main goal is to explain what
flowchart symbol. exactly each line of a s program
should do, hence making the code
construction phase easier for the
PARTS of a Flowchart programmer.

 Start of a Program
- Marks the beginning of the DISADVANTAGES OF Pseudocode
program.
 Does notv provide a visual
 Statement Block representation of a logic
-statement to execute or behaviour programming.
to perform.  No proper format for writing the
pseudocode.
 Decision Block  There is extra need to maintain
-decision point in program. documentation.
-ask a simple question, and do  There is no proper standard.
different things depending on the
answer. WRITING a Pseudocode
Step 1:
 Yes/No (True or False, etc.) Arrange the sequence of tasks and
-Answers to the question posed in write the pseudocode accordingly.
the decision block.
Step 2:
 End Program Start with the statement of a
-Marks the end of the program. pseudocode which establishes the
main goal or aim.
GUIDELINES for developing Flowchart
 Can only have one start and stop Pseudocode COMPONENTS
symbol.
 On-page connectors are referenced  Repitition
using numbers.  Variables
 Off-page connector are referenced  Input-Output
using alphabets.  Selection
 General flow of processes is stop to  Assignment
bottom or left to right.
 Arrows should not cross each other.

6 Specific Structured Programming

Pseudocode Contructs
-set of sequential written human language  Sequence
instructions.
 -Linear progression where one
task is performed sequentially
after another.
 While
-a loop(repetition) with a simple
conditional test as its beginning.
 If-Then-Else
-a decision(selection) in which a
choice is made between two
alternative sources of action.
 Repeat-Until
-a loop with a simple conditional
test at the bottom.
 For
-“counting” loop.
 Case
-multiway branch (decision)
based on the value of an
expression; generalization of IF-
THEN-ELSE.
Sequence
-instructions to be computed simply follow
one another in a logical progression.
-indicates a processing group in a program.
 Sequence Construct
-linear progression where one
task is performed sequentially
after another.
 Sequential Control
-indicated by writing one action
after another, each action on a
line by itself and all actions
aligned with the logical indent.
Selection(Decision)
-decision-making structure
-process of deciding which choice is made
between two or more alternative courses of
action.
 If-then-else
 Case Construct
-indicates a multiway branch
based on the conditions that are
mutually exclusive(Case, Of,
Others, and Endcase)
Iteration or Repetition(Looping)
-used when some particular task is to be
repeated for a number of times according
to the specified condition.
-looping is used to avoid writing the same
set of instructions again.
-one time or multiple times until the
desired output was obtained.
 While looping
 Repeat-Until
 For loop
Linear Sequence of Statements
-each individuals instructions of a program.
-end in semicolon.
-executed in the same order in which they
appear in a program.
 Variable declarations: int a, b, c;
 Expressions: N = 2*(N+1)
Flow control statement
-compound statement
-group of statements
-each of them was terminated by its own
semicolon.
-all grouped together in a block.
-enclosed in curly braces
 {statement1; statement2;
statement3;}
Iteration Statement
-set of statements to be executed
repeatedly.
-as long as the condition evaluates to True,
the set of statement(s) is executed.
C++ Loops
-sequence of instructions that is repeated
until a certain condition is reached.
Checking of Counter:
 Counter Not Reached: counter
has not reached the desired
numbers, the next instruction in
the sequence returns to the first
instruction in the sequence and
repeat it.
 Counter Reached: If the
condition has been reached, the
next instruction “falls through” to
the next sequential instruction or
branches outside the loop.
2 categories of loops:
 -three fields in a for-loop are optional.
 Entry Controlled Loops -can be left empty, but in all cases the
-The test condition is at the top. semicolon between of them are required.
-While loop, for loop.
Example :
 Exit Controlled Loop For(;n<10;)
-test condition is at the bottom. --without initialization or increase (while-
loop)
3 statements of Loop:
 Initialization expression For(;n<10;++n)
 Test expression --with increase, but no initialization (maybe
 Update expression because the variable was already initialized
before the loop).
While loop
Syntax: -No condition (INFINITE LOOP)
initialization expression; --loop with true as condition.
while(test expression)
{ Infinite Loop
//statements -if the condition is always TRUE—infinite
update_expression; times.
} Syntax:
For Loop //infinite while loop
Syntax:
for(initialization expression;condition; While(true){
update_expression){
//body of loop //body of the loop
}
}
Initialization
-initializes variables and is executed only IMPORTANT POINTS
once.  Use for loop
Condition -when number of iteration is known
-if true—executed. beforehand.
-if false—terminated.
Update  Use while loops
-updates the value of initialized variables -where exact number of iterations is
and again checks the condition. not known but the loop termination
condition is known.
PROCESS-for Loop
 Use do while loop
1. Initialization is executed.(only at the -if the code needs to be executed at
beginning of the loop) least once like MENU driven
2. Condition is checked.(if true— programs.
continues. If false—end. Will be
skipped and jump to step 5) Jump Statement
3. Statement is executed.(single -allow altering the flow of a program by
statement or enclosed in curly performing jumps to specific locations.
braces) -used to alter the flow of control
4. Increase is executed, and the loop unconditionally.
gets back to step 2. -Transfer the program control within a
5. The loop execution continues by the function unconditionally.
next statement after it. -used standard library function exit()
To jump out the entire program.

TIPS-for Loop
Jump Statement
 Break
-used to terminate the loop.
 Continue
-used to execute other parts of the
loop while skipping some parts
declared inside the condition, rather
that terminating the loop, it
continues to execute the next
iteration of the same loop.
 Goto
-unconditional jump.
-used to jump anywhere within a
function.
 Return
-stronger than break.
Used to terminate the entire function
after the execution of the function of
after some condition.
Exit() statement
Syntax: exit();
-standard lib function that terminate the
entire program immediately and passes the
control to the operating system.
 BREAK STATEMENT
-used when we are not sure about
the actual number of iterations for
the loop or we want to terminate the
loop base on the some condition.
 CONTINUE STATEMENT
-used to skip the current iteration of
the loop and the control of the
program goes to the next iteration.
 GOTO STATEMENT
-jump statement and sometimes
referred to unconditional jump
statement.
- used to jump anywhere within a
function.
 EXIT()
-terminates the calling process
without executing the rest code
which is after exit() function.
 RETURN STATEMENTS
-returns the flow of execution to the
function from where it’s called.

-takes a single parameter and exit status of

the program and returns the same status
to the opening system upon termination.

-status can be either a zero(successful

termination) or non-zero(unsuccessful
termination) value.

Return Statement
Syntax: return expression(opt);

-statement terminates execution of a

function and returns control to the calling
function, with or without a return value.

-function may contain any number of

return statements.

-if it is with an expression, it cannot appear

in a function whose return type is void.

IMPORTANT POINTS