Types of 

Bearing Capacity of Soil

Bearing Capacity
In geotechnical engineering, bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the
ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the foundation and
the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil. The maximum value of load the soil can bear is the
Bearing capacity of soil.

Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu)

It is the maximum pressure that a foundation soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure. It is the
maximum gross pressure at the base of foundation which the soil can bear without shear failure.
qu=max(qg)

Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qnu)

It is the maximum extra pressure (in addition to initial overburden pressure) that a foundation soil can
withstand without undergoing shear failure.

Where γ = unit weight of soil, Df = depth of foundation

By neglecting the overburden pressure from ultimate bearing capacity we will get net ultimate bearing
capacity.

Net Safe Bearing Capacity (qs) :

When Net ultimate bearing capacity is divided by factor of safety it will give gross safe bearing capacity.
 Gross safe bearing capacity (qs) 
When ultimate bearing capacity is divided by a factor of safety it will provide a total safe bearing capacity.

qs = qu/F

 Net safe settlement pressure (qnp)  

The pressure with which the soil can carry without exceeding the allowable settlement is called net safe
settlement pressure.

Net allowable bearing pressure (qns)

This is the pressure we can utilize for the design of foundations. This is equivalent to net safe bearing pressure
if qnp > qns. In the reverse case, it is similar to net safe settlement pressure.

Allowable bearing pressure

Allowable bearing pressure are dependent on the shear strength of the soil and the tolerance of the proposed structure
to settlement.

It is the net loading intensity at which neither the soil fails in shear nor there is excessive settlement detrimental to the
structure.

Allowable bearing Capacity = Ultimate bearing capacity / FOS

Net Safe bearing capacity

It is defined as ratio of net ultimate bearing capacity divided by FOS ( 2.5 to 3 )
 1. GROSS PRESSURE INTENSITY
Gross pressure intensity (q) is the intensity of pressure at the base of foundation due to load from super structure,
self weight of foundation and overburden, if any.

2. NET PRESSURE INTENSITY

Net pressure intensity (qn) is gross pressure intensity minus the over burden pressure at the level of base of
foundation prior to excavation.

qn = q – ϒD

Where,

ϒ = Effective unit weight of foundation soil

D = Depth of foundation

3. ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY

Ultimate bearing capacity (qf) is the minimum gross pressure intensity at which the soil at the base of foundation
fails by shear.

4. NET ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY

Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnf) is the minimum net pressure intensity at which the soil at the base of foundation
fails by shear.

qnf = qf − ϒD

5. NET SAFE BEARING CAPACITY

Net safe bearing capacity (qns) is the maximum net pressure intensity to which the soil at the base of foundation can
be subjected without risk of shear failure.

qns = qnf / F

Where,

F= factor of safety against shear failure.

6. SAFE BEARING CAPACITY

Safe bearing capacity (qs) is the maximum gross pressure intensity to which the soil at the base of foundation can
be subjected without risk of shear failure.

qs = qf / F
or more appropriately,

qs = qns + ϒD

or, qs = (qnf / F) + ϒD

7. ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE

Allowable bearing pressure (qa) is the maximum gross pressure intensity to which the soil at the base of foundation
can be subjected without risk of shear failure and excessive settlement detrimental to the structure.

qa = qna + ϒD

Where, qna = net allowable bearing pressure.

Gross Pressure Intensity

It is the total pressure at base of the foundation due to self weight of footing , applied load of footing . Gross pressure
may be less than or equal to or greater than the bearing capacity of the soil.

Net Pressure Intensity

Net pressure intensity = It is the pressure at the base of the foundation in excess to the initial effective overburden
pressure.(= is the final stress – the initial stress on the soil )
SPRING CONSTRAINTS CALCULATION
SPT Vale is the total of the last two number of blows ( number of blows are counted for thepenetration of the
sample for 300mm For SPT-9 ( 29 +27 = 56 )
Foundation Settlement.
Settlement is volume reduction of soil volume as a consequence of an increase in effective stress, when the
involved , or influenced , soil volume stays “the same” as the stress increase. It consists of either one or the
sum of “ elastic” compression and deformation due to consolidation. The elastic compression is the
compression of the soil grains and of any free gas present in the voids. The elastic compression is often
called “immediate settlement”. It occurs quickly and is normally small ( the elastic compression is not
associated with expulsion of water). The deformation due to consolidation , on the other hand, is volume
change due to the compression of the soil structure associated with an expulsion of water-consolidation. In
the process, the imposed stress, initially carried by the pore water, is transferred to the soil structure.
Consolidation occurs quickly in coarse-grained soils, but slowly in fine-grained soils. As a term, ”settlement” is
used when the total stress is constant and the involved, or the influenced, soil zone stays the same, while the
effective stress increases.

During settlement the soil transitions from the current body ( self-weight) stress state to a new one under the
additional applied load. The stress change Δq from this added load produces a time –dependent
accumulation of particle rolling, sliding, crushing and elastic distortions in a limited influence zone beneath the
loaded area. The statistical accumulation of movement in the direction of interest is the settlement. In the
vertical direction the settlement will be defined as ΔH.

The principle components of ΔH are the particle rolling and sliding, which produce a change in the void ratio,
and grain crushing, which alters the material slightly. Only a very small fraction of ΔH is due the elastic
deformation of soil grains. As a consequence, if the applied stress is removed, very little of settlement ΔH is
recovered. Even though ΔH has only a very small elastic component, it is convenient to treat the soil as a
pseudo-elastic material with” elastic “ parameters Es,G,υ and Ks to estimate settlement. This would appear
reasonably because a stress change causes the settlement, and large stress changes produce large
settlement.

Settlement are usually classified as follows.

 Immediate, or those that take place as the load is applied or within a time period of about & days.
Immediate settlement analyses are used for all fine-grained soils including silts and clays and for all
coarse-grained soils with a large coefficient of permeability.

 Consolidation, or those are time-dependent and take months to years to develop. Consolidation
settlement are used for all saturated, or nearly saturated, fine-grained soils. For these soils we want
estimates of both settlement ΔH and how long a time it will take for most of the settlement to occur.

Magnitude of Acceptable settlement.

Settlement analysis is often limited to ascertaining that the expected settlement would not exceed one
inch ( Realizing that 25mm is too precise a value when transferring this limit to SI-system, some have
argued whether” the metric inch” should be 20 mm or 30 mm !). The actual settlement value and both total
and differential settlements must be evaluated.

Differential Settlement
 Differential settlement can be computed as the difference in settlement between two adjacent points.It
may be estimated as three-fourths of the computed maximum total settlement i.e, maximum total
settlement=40mm; expected differential settlement Δh=3/4 (40) = 30mm.

Differential settlement occurs when adjacent footings are Subjected to unequal settlements.
Settlement for footings on elastic medium can be calculated by the following equation.

Maximum differential settlement should be calculated and tested for during design stages to avoid
redesign of the footings.

Compaction
Compaction is the process of mechanically densifying a soil. Densification is accomplished by pressing the soil particles
together into a close state of contact with air being expelled from the soil mass in the process. Compaction, as used
here, implies dynamic compaction or densification by the application of moving loads to the soil mass

ADVANTAGES OF SOIL COMPACTION

Certain advantages resulting from soil compaction have made it a standard proce-dure in the construction of earth
structures,such as embankments, subgrades, and bases for road and airfield pavements. No other construction process
that is applied to natural soils produces so marked a change in their physical properties at so low a cost as compaction
(when it is properly controlled to produce the desired results).

Principal soil properties affected by compaction include—

 Settlement.
 Shearing resistance.
 Movement of water.
 Volume change.

Depth of Soil Investigation

The site investigation should be carried to such a depth that the entire zone of soil or rock affected by changes caused by the
structure or construction will be adequately explored. The following recommendations are provided as guidelines:

 A commonly used rule of thumb for minimum depth of boreholes is to extend the boreholes to such a depth that the net
increase in soil stress under the weight of the structure is less than 10% of the applied load, or less than 5 % of the
effective stress in the soil at that depth, whichever is less. A reduction in the depth can be considered if bedrock or dense
soil is encountered within the minimum depth. In the case of very compressible normally consolidated clay soils located at
depth, it may be necessary to extend boreholes deeper than determined by the 10 % and 5 % rules.

 The minimum borehole depth beneath the lowest part of the foundation generally should not be less than 6 m, unless
bedrock or dense soil is encountered at a shallower depth.

 If rock is found the borehole should penetrate at least 3 m in more than one borehole to confirm whether bedrock or a
boulder has been found.

 AS per DEWA specification the depth of bore hole is 20m & 25mm as per FEWA specification from the ground level,

 The number of bore hole in both the specification is 4

Field Test (In-situ Test)

 In-situ shear strength tests

 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)

 Vane Shear Test (VST)

 Dilatometer Test (DMT)

 Pressure meter Test (PMT)

Settlement test

 Plate Load Test

Standard penetration test

The standard penetration test (SPT) is an in-situ dynamic penetration test designed to provide information on the
geotechnical engineering properties of soil.

The test uses a thick-walled sample tube, with an outside diameter of 50 mm and an inside diameter of
35 mm, and a length of around 650 mm. This is driven into the ground at the bottom of a borehole by blows
from a slide hammer with a weight of 63.5 kg (140 lb) falling through a distance of 760 mm (30 in). The
sample tube is driven 150 mm into the ground and then the number of blows needed for the tube to penetrate
each 150 mm (6 in) up to a depth of 450 mm (18 in) is recorded. The sum of the number of blows required for
the second and third 6 in. of penetration is termed the "standard penetration resistance" or the "N-value". In
cases where 50 blows are insufficient to advance it through a 150 mm (6 in) interval the penetration after 50
blows is recorded. The blow count provides an indication of the density of the ground, and it is used in many
empirical geotechnical engineering formulae.

Purpose
The main purpose of the test is to provide an indication of the relative density of granular deposits, such as
sands and gravels from which it is virtually impossible to obtain undisturbed samples. The great merit of the
test, and the main reason for its widespread use is that it is simple and inexpensive. The soil strength
parameters which can be inferred are approximate, but may give a useful guide in ground conditions where it
may not be possible to obtain borehole samples of adequate quality like gravels, sands, silts, clay containing
sand or gravel and weak rock. In conditions where the quality of the undisturbed sample is suspect, e.g. very
silty or very sandy clays, or hard clays, it is often advantageous to alternate the sampling with standard
penetration tests to check the strength. If the samples are found to be unacceptably disturbed, it may be
necessary to use a different method for measuring strength like the plate test. When the test is carried out in
granular soils below groundwater level, the soil may become loosened. In certain circumstances, it can be
useful to continue driving the sampler beyond the distance specified, adding further drilling rods as necessary.
Although this is not a standard penetration test, and should not be regarded as such, it may at least give an
indication as to whether the deposit is really as loose as the standard test may indicate.

The usefulness of SPT results depends on the soil type, with fine-grained sands giving the most useful results,
with coarser sands and silty sands giving reasonably useful results, and clays and gravelly soils yielding results
which may be very poorly representative of the true soil conditions. Soils in arid areas, such as the Western
United States, may exhibit natural cementation. This condition will often increase the standard penetration
value.

The SPT is used to provide results for empirical determination of a sand layer's susceptibility to earthquake
liquefaction, based on research performed by Harry Seed, T. Leslie Youd, and others.

Dynamic Test
Dynamic testing of soil and rock involves three ranges: low frequency (generally less than 10 hz) cyclic
testing, resonant column high frequency testing, and ultrasonic pulse testing (Table 4.15). The dynamic
tests are used to evaluate foundation support characteristics under cyclic or transient loadings such as
machinery, traffic, or 64 Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual earthquakes. For earthquake loading, a
primary concern is often liquefaction. Young's modulus (Es)' shear modulus (0), and damping characteristics
are determined by cyclic triaxial, cyclic simple shear, and resonant column tests as shown

Plate Load Test

Stone Column
 Soil Improvement by Stone Column
FUNCTIONS AND USES

Stone column improves the shear strength of the subsoil to increase the bearing capacity. It improves the
stiffness of subsoil to decrease settlements. It has the ability to carry very high loads since columns are ductile.
It is more economical than piling. Rapid consolidation of subsoil is facilitated in stone column. Immediate
increase of shear strength and friction angle of treated soil occurs. There is no waiting period after installation
unlike PVD. Embankment construction can begin soon after installation. When installed in a uniform grid
pattern it ‘homogenizes’ variable soil properties, thereby reducing the potential for differential settlement

DISADVANTAGES

Sensitive clays do not adequately regain shear strength. Due to this, ground improvement by stone column
cannot be achieved in clays with sensitivity greater than 4. Stone columns when installed at a distance of less
than 3.66m can cause high lateral pressures and displacement of adjacent structures. Severe cracks could be
seen in structures close by the stone column site due to the vibrations of 30-50Hz. Stone column installation in
extremely cohesive clays and silts is suitable only if preloading facility is available, especially for storage tank
construction

Soil

Subsurface soils whose undrained shear strength range from 7 to 50 kPa or loose sandy soils including silty or
clayey sands represent a potential class of soils requiring improvement by stone columns. Subsurface
conditions for which stone columns are in general not suited include sensitive clays and silts (sensitivity > 4)
which lose strength when vibrated and also where suitable bearing strata for resting the toe of the column is
not available under the weak strata.

Treatment depth

The treatment depth with stone column for a given soil profile should be so determined that the stone
columns extend through the most significant compressible strata that contribute to the settlement of the
foundation. Average depth of stone column accomplished in India may be around 15m, although with
equipment modification, higher depths beyond 20 m are now becoming widespread.

Area of treatment

Stone columns work most effectively when used for large area stabilization of the soil mass. Their application
in small groups beneath building foundations is limited and is not being used. Thus, large loaded areas which
apply uniform loading on foundation soils, such as beneath embankments, tank farms and fills represent a
major area of application

This technique involves the improvement of weak soils by the installation of densely compacted columns made
from gravel or similar material with a vibrator. The displacement process reinforces all soils in the treatment
zone and densifies surrounding granular soils.

Common uses

 Reduce foundation settlement

 Increase bearing capacity, allowing reduction in footing size

 Increase stiffness
  Increase shear strength

 Reduce permeability

 Mitigate potential for liquefaction

 Permits shallow footing construction in treated fills

 Very effective for sand compaction and land reclamation

Process

In the top-feed process, the vibrator penetrates to the design depth using the vibrator’s weight and vibrations,
as well as air jets located in the tip. The stone (crushed stone or recycled concrete) is then added at ground
level to the space created around the vibrator. The stone falls through the space to the vibrator tip, and fills
the void created as the vibrator is lifted a few hundred millimetres. The vibrator is then lowered, densifying
and displacing the underlying stone. This vibro replacement process is repeated in lifts until a dense stone
column is constructed to the ground surface.

The bottom-feed process is similar, except that the stone is fed to the vibrator tip through an attached feed
pipe. Pre-drilling of dense strata may be required for the vibrator to penetrate to the design depth.

Bottom Feed Method Where a high water table or weak soils are present the collapse of the bore hole is
much more likely when the vibroflot is withdrawn. In these conditions the purposebuilt Bottom Feed system is
used to ensure integrity of the stone column from top to bottom. The vibro rig is fitted with a hopper which
feeds stone into a tremie pipe running down the length of the vibroflo

Carbon footprint is much less than with

comparable piling solutions. In addition, recycled
aggregate can sometimes be used within the
stone columns

What are the methods of soil improvement?

1. Soil replacement
2. Preloading
3. Preloading with vertical drains
4. Water removal by trenching technique

2.
5. Vibro-compaction
6. Electro-osmosis
7. Dynamic compaction
 8. Vibro-replacement
9. Vibro-displacement
10. Geosynthetics
11. Thermal method of soil improvement
12. Grouting
What is dynamic compaction method?

Dynamic compaction is an efficient and cost-effective soil improvement technique that uses the dynamic effect
of high energy impacts to densify weak soil.
The dynamic effect is generated by dropping a static weight (15-40 tones) from a defined height (10-30 m).

What is grouting in ground improvement techniques?

Grouting is the injection of grout into the ground to fill underground voids, joints, and fractures and
consequently improve the soil strength. Read more about it he
Pile Foundation
Premability