ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING • Defined as a substance that cannot be Elements • Neutron has a mass same as a Proton

-Basic Electricity, Magnetism and Circuits decomposed any further by chemical _______.
action. • _________ has a positive charge of a Proton
• Greek word that means a particle too Atom hydrogen nucleus.
• An invisible force that can produce heat, Electricity small to be subdivided. 0.16 x 10-18 C,
light, and motion. • Semiconductors have _____ electrons 4 • Charge of electron, in orbital shells negative
• The force for _________ is an attraction or Motion in the outermost ring.
repulsion between electric charges. • ____ Electrons in the outside ring is a 8 0.16 x 10-18 C,
Electric stable structure. • Charge of proton, in nucleus. positive
• The basic form for a quantity of electricity. Charge Molecule
• A group of two or more atoms.
None
Compound • Charge of neutron, in nucleus.
• The closed path for the movement of Circuit • A group of two or more elements.
charges. 9.108 x 10-28 g
• The smallest unit of a compound with Molecule • Mass of electron, orbital shells.
Electron and
• Two basic particles of electric charge. Proton the same chemical characteristics. 1.672 x 10-24 g
8 • Mass of proton, in nucleus.
• Atomic number of oxygen.
• _______ is the smallest amount of electric Electron • Mass of neutron, in nucleus.
1.675 x 10-24 g
charge having the characteristic called • In 1913, ________ proposed our Niels Bohr
negative polarity. present planetary model of the atom • Mechanical force of attraction or
Positive • A new idea of nuclear atom was Lord Rutherford repulsion between charges is the Static Electricity
• The proton is a basic particle with developed by _________. fundamental method by which
Polarity
________. Max Planck and electricity makes itself evident.
• The quantum theory of radiation was
• Is it true or false that the neutral condition Albert Einstein 6.25 x 1018 C
True developed by ________. • Value of a coulomb.
means equal positive and negative
charges? • This gives the number of protons or Atomic Number • The analysis of static charges and Electrostatics
• The smallest particle of the basic Atom
electrons required in the atom for their forces.
elements that form solid, liquids, gases each element. Q or q
• Atomic number of hydrogen is 1 • The symbol of electric charge.
we know as physical substances.
Nucleus ______. Charles A.
• Central mass of an atom • The planetary electrons are in K, L, M, N, O, P, Q • A French physicist who measured the
Coulomb
force between charges
• Proton is _______ times heavier than 1840 successive shells.
an electron. 8 • A dielectric with positive electric
• Maximum electrons in Q shell. 0
• Electrons that can move freely from one Free electrons charge of 2C has 12.5 x 1018 electrons
atom to the next. • ____ Shell is the closest to the K added. What is its charge then?
• Electrons that can move easily from Conductor nucleus. • An American physicist who measured Robert A. Millikan
atom to atom in a material. • The number of electrons in an Electron Valence the extremely small force of electron
Silver incomplete outermost shell. and proton.
• The best conductor. • A completed outer shell has a valence Zero • One coulomb is equivalent to 6.25 x 1018
• A material with atoms in which the Insulator
of _______. __________ electrons.
electrons tend to stay in their own 4 • __________ refers to the possibility of Potential
• Carbon has a valence of __.
orbits. doing work.
• An insulating material and also can Dielectric • The number of outer electrons is • The result of work done in separating Charge
store electric charges. considered __________, as these Positive Valence electrons and protons.
• A material that conducts less than the electrons are in addition to the stable • A measure of work needed to move Volt
Semiconductors shells.
metal conductors but more than the an electric charge.
insulators. • __________ indicate magnetic Subshells 1 joule of work per
• Practically all transistors are made of Silicon properties of atom. coulomb of
_________. • _________ is electrically neutral Neutron • One volt equals to ___________
charge
without any net charge.
• The potential difference between two Electric Current
of current flow also reverses? Magnetic Units Conversion
charges forces a third charge to
move. • _______ Produces voltage by means Generator Quantity SI cgs Relation
• The value of the charge moves at the One Ampere of a conductor rotating in a magnetic
rate of 6.25 x 1018 electrons flowing field.
past a given point per second. • An element that is often used as a Cesium Flux Weber Maxwell 1 Wb =108 Mx
• The ampere unit of current was Andre M. Ampere source of photoelectrons. (ø) (Wb) (Mx)
named after __________. Cathode Flux Density Tesla Gauss 1T= 104 G
• The emitting electrode. (β) T(Wb/m2) G(Mx/cm2)
• A measure of how intense or Current/Amperage
concentrated the electron flow is. Magnetomotive Ampere-turn Gilbert 1A-t=1.2157 Gb
Anode
• It is used to collect emitted electrons. force (mmf) (A-t) (Gb)
• Current multiplied by time is Charge
Field Strength Ampere- Oersted 1A-t/m=0.01257
equivalent to a ________. • The quantity unit of electrons or Coulomb
(H) turn/meter Oe(Gb/cm) Gb/cm
• The charge of 5 C moves past a given 5A protons
point in 1s. How much the current? • Potential difference between two Voltage
Electron unlike charges.
• The most common charge. Materials According to Permeability
• Opposition that reduces amount of Resistance
• Vacant space where an electron is Hole charge current Ferromagnetic
missing. magnets
• Material that attracts pieces of iron.
• Type of current of Ion.
Ion current ▪ With very high relative permeability from 50 to
Air gap 5000
• Space between magnets
• An atom that has either lost or gained Ion ▪ Examples: alnico, cobalt, iron, nickel, steel, ferrites
one or more valence electrons to Alnico Paramagnetic
become electrically charged. • Permanent magnet used in speakers
• The opposition which limits the Resistance • Temperature where materials loss Curie Temperature ▪ With relative permeability slightly greater than 1
amount of current that can be their magnetism ▪ Examples: aluminum, chromium, manganese,
produced by the applied voltage. flux
Ohm • Magnetic lines of force platinum
• The practical unit of resistance. Non- Magnetic
Magnetic flux
Conductance
• The opposite of resistance. • Magnetic lines per unit area. density ▪ With permeability equals to space or vacuum
George Simon permeability which is equals to 4π x 10-7 H/m
• A German physicist who named after • Property that concentrates the Permeance ▪ With relative permeability equals to 1
Ohm magnetic flux
the unit of resistance Diamagnetic
Reluctance
Ernst Van • It is the reciprocal of permeance
• A European inventor who named after ▪ with relative permeability slightly less than 1
Siemens
the unit of conductance. ▪ examples: antimony, bismuth, copper, gold,
• The current that flow through the load Load Current mercury, silver, zinc
resistance.
ELECTONIC CIRCUITS
• The motion of positive charges in the Conventional
opposite direction from the electron Current
flow. Georg Simon
• Similar characteristic of a Direct Heating Effect • He discovered the Ohm’s Law. Ohm
Current and Alternating Current
Hertz • It is used to determine the amount of Ohm’s Law
• Unit for cycle per second. electric power in the circuit.
60 hertz • True or false: Ohm’s law applies to both True
• Frequency used in most homes. DC and AC circuits.
• Is it true when the polarity of the True
applied voltage reverses, the direction
• The ohm’s law is equal to V=IR proportional must produce heat in order to do its job. Power
__________________. Dissipation
• In Ohm’s law, increase in voltage is Decrease Nonlinear
_________ in current. • This type has a nonlinear volt-ampere
resistance 0.24 calorie of
Directly
characteristic. • 1 watt during the time of 1sec is equivalent
heat energy
to __________.
proportional; • Whether the resistor is linear is not, the
• The current is _______________ to volts current is ________ for more resistance,
Less
inversely VI; I2R; V2/R
and ______________ to the resistance. with applied voltage constant. • Power is equivalent to __________.
proportional
Watt • The calculations that can be used for just Ohm’s Law
• The unit of electric power.
Direct about all types of circuits.
• The voltage is ______________ to current James Watt
proportional
and resistance. • He discovers the unit of electric power. (1736-1819) • The algebraic sum of the voltage sources Zero
Inversely and IR voltage drops in any closed path
• The resistance is ______________ to proportional; • It equals the work done in one second by One watt of must total ________.
current and _____________ to the one volt of potential difference in moving power • At any point in a circuit the algebraic sum Zero
voltage. proportional
one coulomb of charge. of the currents directed in and out must
Power total ________.
• It is the amount of current through a one- One ampere • It is the time rate of doing work. Gustav R.
ohm resistance that has one volt of
Electric • Creator of Kirchoff’s Law Kirchoff
potential difference applied across it. • It is the time rate at which charges is
• It is the potential difference across a one- forced to move by voltage.
power
One volt • The algebraic sum of the currents entering Kirchoff’s
ohm resistance that has one ampere of
current through it. 764 Watts or and leaving any point in a circuit must Current Law
• It is the amount of opposition in a • 1 horse power is equal to____________. 550 ft lb/s equal the algebraic sum of the currents out (KCL)
resistance that has a V/I ratio of 1, One ohm of that point.
allowing one ampere of current with one • One horse power is approximately equal to ¾ kW • Consider all currents into a branch point as Positive;
volt applied. ____________. __________ and all current directed away Negative
• 1 milli-ampere multiply by 1 kilo ohms is 1 volt • It is the power used during a period of Work from that point as ____________.
equal to __________. time. Kirchoff’s
• 1 micro-ampere multiply by 1 mega-ohm is 1 volt 1watt second • It is really the basis for the practical rule in Current Law
equal to _________. • One joule is equal to ________ parallel circuits that the total line current
must equal the sum of the branch currents. (KCL)
• 1 milli ampere is equal to 1000 µA 1
_______________. • One watt is equal to ___________. joule/second • Go around any closed path and consider Kirchoff’s
• The formula which states that V and I are Ohm’s Law any voltage whose negative terminal is
directly proportional for any value of R. Voltage Law
6.25 x 1018 eV reached first as a negative term and any
• In ohm’s law, increases of volts will Increase • One joule is equal to ________ coulomb voltage whose positive terminal is reached (KVL)
__________ the current. • This is a unit commonly for large amounts Kilowatt-hour first as a positive term.
Volt-ampere of electrical work or energy. Loop
• Any closed path is called __________.
• It shows how much current the resistor characteristic • The amount is calculated simply as the
allows for different voltages. graph product of the power in kilowatts multiplied Kilowatt-hour Sigma “Σ”
• The Greek letter which means “sum of”.
by the time in hours during which the
• In a volt-ampere characteristic graph, the Current power is used. • When a loop does not have any voltage Zero
value in y axis or ordinate is values • It is produced when current flows in a source, the algebraic sum of the IR voltage
_______________. resistance because friction between the Heat drops alone must total ________.
• In a volt-ampere characteristic graph, the Voltage moving free electrons and the atoms • Using the Kirchoff’s law, first indicate the Current
value in x axis or abscissa is values obstructs the path of electron flow. ___________ and mark the voltage Directions
_____________. • It is generated by the source of applied Power polarity across each resistor.
voltage and consumed in the resistance in Principal
• In ohm’s law, voltage and current are Directly • It is a branch point where currents divide
the form of heat. Node
__________. or combine.
• It is desirable because the component Electric
 Branch amplify or rectify. components arms at a time.
• These currents are used for specifying the • In the Δ-to-Y conversion, each arm of the
Current
voltage drops around the loops.
• These are components such as Active
wye is found by taking the ________ of the Product
• A branch point in which the voltage drops Node transistors, semiconductors diodes, and two adjacent sides in the delta and dividing
Components by the sum of the three sides of the delta.
specify the currents. electron tubes in which are never bilateral
Loop and often are not linear. • When all the resistor values are equal in a balanced
• Solving the __________, we can calculate • Named after M. L. Thevenin, a French Thevenin’s network, it is _________.
Equations
the unknown branch currents. engineer, this theorem is very useful in Theorem
Mesh simplifying the voltages in a network.
• It is the simplest possible closed path. • It states that the entire network connected Closed
Thevenin’s • When it is desired to concentrate magnetic
• It is assumed to flow around a mesh Mesh Current to two terminals can be replaced by a Magnetic
Theorem lines within a magnet, however, the
without dividing. single voltage source VTH in series with a Loop
magnet can be formed as ___________.
single resistance RTH.
• The number of meshes equals the number Mesh
• To calculate VTH, find ______ across the Voltage Toroid or
of _________, which is the number of currents
open terminals. • It is made in the form of a doughnut. Ring Magnet
equations required.
• To calculate RTH, ____________ the Short-circuit
• In each mesh equations, the algebraic Applied
sources V1 and V2. Iron
sum of the voltage drops equals the voltage
• To calculate VTH, find ______ across the Voltage • It is often used for the core.
____________.
open terminals. • This type of electromagnet has maximum
Pattern of Ring Magnet
• To calculate RTH, ____________ the Short-circuit strength in the iron ring, with little flux
• The advantage of mesh currents is the algebraic sources V1 and V2. outside.
______, without the need for tracing any signs for the • Named after E. L. Norton, a scientist with Norton’s Leakage Flux
branching currents. voltages Bell Telephone Laboratories, this theorem • The small part of the field in the air.
Theorem
is used for simplifying a network in terms Protect
• The only positive IR voltage in a mesh is Total of currents instead of voltages. permanent
for the ____ of each mesh current in its Resistance • It states that the entire network connected Norton’s • The principle of the closed magnetic ring is
magnet in
own mesh. to two terminals can be replaced by a used to ______.
Theorem storage.
• It is just a combination of components, Network
single current source IN in parallel with a
such as resistances interconnected in a single resistance RN.
way to achieve a particular end result. • Any components directly across the two • It maintains the strength of the permanent Keeper
Wire Jumper magnet as it becomes magnetized by
Network terminals are also short-circuited by the
• It usually provides shorter methods of _________. induction to form a closed loop.
Theorems
solving the circuit than the Kirchoff’s law. • It says that any network can be Thevenin’s • In terms of molecular structure, iron atoms Domains
represented by a voltage source and Theorem are grouped in microscopically small
• This theorem is very useful because it Superposition arrangements called ____.
extends the use of Ohm’s Law to circuits series resistance.
Dipole
that have more than one source. • It says that any network can be Norton’s • Each domain is an elementary ________,
magnet
• In a network with two or more sources, the Superposition
represented by a current source and shunt Theorem with two opposite poles.
current or voltage for any components is resistance.
Theorems • In crystal form, the iron atoms have
the algebraic sum of the effects produced • It is a specific example of the general Parallel
by each source acting separately. Norton domains that are _______ to the axes of
principle that any voltage source with its
Voltage the crystal.
series resistance can be converted to an Conversion
• Each __________ can have any number equivalent current source with the same
Divider
of series resistances. resistance in parallel.
• It means that current is proportional to the Linear • This theorem provides a shortcut for Millman’s
applied voltage finding the common voltage across any
Theorem
• It means that the current is the same number of parallel branches with different
Bilateral voltage sources.
amount for opposite polarities of the
source voltage. • In the Y-to-Δ conversion, each side of the Cross
• There are components that doesn’t Passive delta is found by first taking all possible Products
_____ of the arms of the wye, using two
 REVIEW QUESTIONS 3. The coil length
11. Very few metals are now used in their pure state. A mixture of two or more 4. The number of layers of windings in the coil
1. One of the earlier capacitor constructions is the leydan jar for storing metals or a mixture of metal and another material is called? (November, 2003) 5. The type of core material
electrical charges for a long period of time. So called leydan because it was a. Alloy a. 1,2,3 and 4 only
developed in the University of Leiden in 1746 by whom? b. Colloid b. 1,2,3 and 5 only
a. Pieter van Musschenbroek c. Compound c. 1,2,3,4 and 5
b. Cleve Antoine Marraf d. Amalgam d. 1,2,4 and 5 only
c. Jaime Licuanan 12. Which of the following statement is true for metals? (November, 2003) 22. Inserting a soft iron core into a coil has what effect on the inductance of
d. Charles Coulomb a. An increase in the temperature does not affect the resistance the coil? (November, 2003)
2. Protons are about____ heavier than electrons. b. An increase in temperature lowers the resistance a. Increase inductance
a. 1800 times c. An increase in temperature increases the resistance b. Decrease inductance
b. Less than thrice d. An increase in temperature doubles the resistance c. Does not affect the inductance
c. Less 13. It exhibits positive temperature coefficient (April, 2004) d. None of these
d. Twice a. Conductor 23. Which of the following characterizes inductance? (April, 1998)
3. In the periodic table, all elements are arranged in the order according to b. Glass a. Tends to oppose DC
their c. Semiconductor b. Tends to oppose change in current
a. Atomic number d. Superconductor c. Tends to oppose change in voltage
b. Valence 14. Which material has more free electrons? (November, 1999) d. Opposes all frequencies equally
c. Nucleus a. Mica 24. What law in electronics where an induced current will be in such a
d. Characteristics b. Dielectric direction that its own magnetic field will oppose the magnetic field that
4. What do you call the subatomic particle that has a mass approximately c. Insulators produces the same?
equal to that of the proton, but it has no electrical charge? (April, 2004) d. Conductor a. Electromagnetic law
a. Atom 15. Which of the following is not a good conductor of electricity (April, 2004) b. Norton’s law
b. Proton a. Silver c. Lenz’s law
c. Electron b. Copper d. Maxwell’s law
d. Neutron c. Aluminum 25. What is the unit of magnetic flux in SI system?
5. The nucleus of an atom is made up of_____ (April, 2004) d. Mica a. Weber
a. Protons and electrons 16. An insulator is a substance that b. Maxwell
b. Electrons only a. Offers a resistance to current flow c. Tesla
c. Electrons and neutrons b. Offers a low resistance to current flow d. Gauss
d. Protons and neutrons c. Absorbs electricity 26. Materials with permeabilities slightly less than that of free space are
6. Refers to the atom that losses an electron (November, 2003) d. Forms a condenser referred to as
a. Positive ion 17. The total resistance of two similar wire conductors connected in parallel is a. Diamagnetic
b. Negative ion _____. (November, 1999) b. Ferromagnetic
c. Emf a. Same resistance of 1 wire c. Non-magnetic
d. Neutron b. Double the resistance of 1 wire d. Paramagnetic
7. What is the symbol for carbon dioxide? (November, 2005) c. One half the resistance of 1 wire 27. Solve for flux density (in gauss) from a magnetic flux of 5,000 Mx through
a. CO d. Resistance of 1 wire multiplied by 4 a perpendicular area of 2 cm x 5 cm.
b. C2O 18. A rheostat is a device that regulates the strength of an electric current by a. 5,000 G
c. CO2 (November, 2003) b. 500 G
d. Co2 a. Increasing the magnetic field in the circuit c. 10,000 G
8. The definite discrete amount of energy required to move an electron from b. Varying the voltage in the circuit d. 50 G
lower shell to another shell (November, 1999) c. Varying the resistance in the circuit 28. What is the law that determines polarity of an induced voltage?
a. Negative energy d. Varying the current in the circuit a. Norton’s law
b. Positive energy 19. The reciprocal of capacitance is called________(November,1995) b. Thevenin’s law
c. Quantum a. Elastance c. Lenz’s law
d. Quanta b. Permitivitty d. Faraday’s law
9. The force between two magnetic poles in relation to their pole strength c. Permeability 29. The natural magnet refers to (November, 1999)
is________ (November, 1999) d. Conductance a. Steel
a. Not related 20. Which of the following describes the action of capacitor (April, 1998) b. Soft iron
b. Inversely proportional a. Converts AC to DC c. Magnesia
c. Directly proportional b. Creates a DC resistance d. Lodestone
d. Independent c. Stores electrical energy 30. It is the air space between poles of magnet .
10. How are static charges created? (November, 2003) d. Opposes change in current flow a. Air gap
a. By motion 21. The following are the factors that affect the inductance of a coil (April, b. Vacuum
b. By friction 2004) c. Free zone
c. By immersion 1. The number of turns in a coil d. Free space
d. By conduction 2. The diameter of a coil
 ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING Armature Reaction
- When the generator is loaded, the armature conductor carries
-Energy Conversion, Resonance and Filters-
current and hence current carrying conductors produce a magnetic
E = 4.44 f N  k d k p  10 - 8
volts
flux of its own which affects the flux created by the main poles where: E – total generated voltage, volts
I. GENERATORS N – no. of turns per coil
- are rotating electrical machines that convert mechanical energy
input to usable electrical energy.
Losses in DC Generator
 - flux per pole, maxwells
1. Copper Loss
- Losses due to current in the various windings of the machine. kd – distribution factor
Main Parts
a. Yoke i. Armature copper loss kp – pitch factor
- It is cylindrical in shape to which even number of poles is bolted. ii. Field copper loss note: for full pitch winding, kp = 1
iii. Brush contact loss for concentric winding, kd = 1
b. Pole and Pole Shoe 2. Iron Loss.
- Support the field coil and spread the flux over large area. - Magnetic or core losses.
c. Field Winding
i. Hysteresis loss III.MOTORS
- The source of flux ii. Eddy Current loss. ▪ are rotating electrical machines that convert electrical
- The current flowing through this winding can be controlled to control 3. Mechanical Losses. energy into mechanical energy
the flux passing through the machine. i. air friction of rotating armature ▪ it has a reverse operation with generators
ii. bearing friction
d. Armature iii. brush friction Counter EMF of Motors
- A cylindrical core
- Made of sheet steel laminations and insulated from each other by a
thin layer of paper and varnish to reduce iron losses. P N Z
II. ALTERNATORS Ec =  10 - 8
60 a
e. Commutator - Machines designed to generate alternating currents.
- Cylindrical in shape and consists of segments of hard drawn copper. where: Ec – back emf or counter emf, volts
Operating Principle
A mica strip insulates each segment from each other. Windings of P – no. of poles (always an even no.)
When the rotor rotates, the stator conductors are cut by the
armature and terminated on it. magnetic flux, hence they have induced emf produced in them.  - flux per pole, lines or maxwells
- Commutator is responsible in converting the generated AC voltage
in the armature to DC Because of the magnetic poles are alternately N and S poles, they N - speed of rotation of the armature, rpm
- Commutation is the reversal of current in the coil when the coil induced an emf and hence current in the armature conductors, which Z - total number of active conductors
passes through the brush position first flow in one direction and then in the other. Hence, an alternating a - no. of parallel paths
emf is produced in the stator conductors whose frequency depends
f. Brushes on the number of poles moving past in a conductor in one second and Mechanical Power Output
- Used to connect the external circuit to the armature. whose direction is given by Fleming’s right-hand rule.
Generated Voltage of a DC Generator (EMF) 2  NT 2  NT
- This is the voltage generated across the armature of the DC HP = HP =
33,000 44760
generator
Where: HP – horsepower
PNZ Frequency of the Generated Voltage
Eg =  10 - 8 N- no. of turns,rpm
60 a T-torque,N-m
where: Eg – generated voltage/induced voltage P rpm
P - no. of poles(always even number) f= hertz Speed Regulation
 - flux per pole, lines or maxwells 120 ▪ percentage rise in the speed of the motor when the
N – speed of roration of the armature,rpm where: f – frequency, hertz mechanical load is removed
Z – total number of active conductor P – no. of poles , rpm – speed of rotation
N NL − N FL
a- no. of parallel paths %NR =  100%
Generated Voltage of an Alternator N FL
where: NNL – no-load speed 2. Normal Charge
NFL – full-load speed j. Motor Converter 3. Equalizing Charge
- an induction motor and a synchronous converter mechanically and 4. Floating Charge
electrically coupled 5. Fast Charge
- Converts ac to dc.
IV. APPLICATIONS OF GENERATORS AND MOTORS Most Commonly Used Cells
a. Amplidyne k. Motor Generator Primary Cells
- Trade name for rotating amplifiers - a converter consisting of an ac motor directly coupled to a dc Type Voltage(V) Remarks
- It is a quick response dc generator, the output of which is controlled generator
by a very small field power Carbon -Zinc 1.5 Used for flashlights and
- From the name itself, rotating amplifier, it is a power amplifier; it is toys; low cost and low
l. Static Converter
most suitable for use as an exciter in a closed loop control system. current capacity
- a converter based on electronic devices of the semiconductor,
Zinc – Chloride 1.5 Higher current capacity
mercury arc or gaseous type, usually in combination with a
b. Brushless Generator transformer. Manganese 1.5 Hydroxide Electrolyte and
- A generator employing silicon rectifiers as static commutation V. BATTERY Alkaline high current capacity
devices Silver Oxide 1.5 Hydroxide electrolyte
- An assembly of voltaic primary or secondary cell.
- It is of particular value as aircraft generator, difficulties having been Lithium 2.8 Long life, high cost
experienced with sliding contacts under conditions of high running
speed, dry rarefied air and wide temperature range. Primary cells
- Chemical action is not reversible.
c. Dyna-motor
- another name for rotary transformer Secondary cells
- Also known as accumulators or storage batteries. VI. RESONANCE
- A composite machine having a single magnet frame but two
separate armature windings, one acting as a generator and the other
as a motor, and independent commutators. a. Acid cells - Resonance occurs at a particular frequency when the inductive
- Uses acid as an electrolyte. reactance and the capacitive reactance are of equal magnitude
d. Rototrol b. Alkali cells - it is a condition where the current is in phase with the voltage
- a single-stage rotating amplifier relying on the use of positive - Uses alkali as an electrolyte - during resonance, the circuit power factor is unity
feedback.
Local Action Resonant conditions:
e. Magnicon - The continuous dissolution of the zinc rod even when the cell is not 1. The current I is in phase with the applied voltage in an RLC circuit.
- trade name for rotating amplifiers with cross field excitation connected to the external circuit This implies that
- This is due to impurities present in commercial zinc. The impurities Imag[Zeq] = Imag[Yeq] = 0
f. Magnetohydrodynamic Generator form small tiny cells, which are short circuited by the main body of the
- a device for converting thermal energy into electric by breaking a zinc rod 2. The magnitude of the equivalent impedance (or admittance) is
stream of hot ionized gas - Can be minimized by using amalgamated zinc. either
- It is also known as plasma hydrodynamic generator. a. MINIMUM – for series resonance or
Polarization b. MAXIMUM – for parallel or anti-resonance
g. Electrohydrodynamic Generator - The collection of hydrogen bubbles on the surface of the copper
- a generation device in which a stream of gas is ionized, the positive plate
ions being carried away by the stream while the electrons are Effects of Polarization:
collected by an electrode ring causing a current to flow through a wire a. The bubbles act as insulators and hence increase the internal 1. SERIES Resonance
between the ring and a collecting grid. resistance of the cell.
b. Sticking H2 ions on the +ve plate exert a repulsive force on the - at resonance the circuit acts as a low impedance and frequency
h. Metadyne Generator other H2 ions coming towards the Cu plate. Minimized by
selective network
- trade name for rotating amplifier surrounding the cathode by depolarizers, which oxidizes H2
- It is similar to the nature of amplidyne. bubbles as soon as they are produced
Charging the Battery 1
i. Metadyne Converter Resonant Frequency, fr (Hz) =
- a machine similar to metadyne generator with the supplementary set - Process of reversing the current flow through the battery to restore 2 LC
of brushes connected to an external dc supply so that the output the battery to its original position
power does not require any appreciable mechanical power input to - There are five types of charges
1. Initial Charge where: L – inductance(H)
the transformer.
 C – capacitance (F) L
▪ At resonance, the circuit acts as a high impedance and C= Tuning capacitance (C)
Characteristics of Series Resonance a frequency selective network R 2 + (2fr L )2

▪ XL =XC 1
Resonant Frequency,fr (Hz)= 2
▪ Circuit impedance(Z) is minimum 2 LC 1 1 R
fr = −   Resonant Frequency,fr (Hz)
2 LC  L 
where: L – inductance(H)
▪ Current (I) is maximum C – capacitance (F) L
Characteristics of a Theoretical Parallel Resonant Circuit Z= Dynamic Impedance (Z), 
RC
▪ Circuit impedance(Z) is maximum
Z=R
▪ Total Current (I) is minimum
VII. FILTER
- It is a circuit designed to pass desired frequencies and reject or
attenuate undesired frequencies

Classifications According to Design

a. Butterworth Filter
▪ A filter with a very flat amplitude response in the
passband
▪ Butterworth approximation is maximally flat
approximation because the passband attenuation is
zero

Roll-off rate = 20n dB/decade

Roll-off rate = 6n dB/octave
Where n – order of filter
▪ Z is resistive
▪ At freq>fr, Z is inductive ▪ Z is resistive b. Chebyshev Filter
▪ At freq < fr, Z is capacitive ▪ At freq>fr, Z is capacitive ▪ Rolls off faster in the transition region than a
▪ At freq < fr, Z is inductive Butterworth filter
▪ Ripples and overshoot appear in the passband of the
Quality factor/ Figure of Merit (Q) frequency response
n
▪ it refers to the “goodness” of a reactive component.
▪ In series circuit: the voltage magnification factor at the Number of Ripples = 2
time of resonance
Practical Parallel Resonant Circuit c. Inverse Chebyshev Filter
Q = Reactive Power/Active Power
▪ Need for flat passband response as well as fast roll-off
▪ It has a flat passband response and rippled stopband
XL XC response
Q= =
R R ▪ Roll-off rate in the transition region is comparable to the
roll off rate of Chebyshev filter
▪ Monotonic means that the stopband has no ripples
1 L
Q=
R C d. Elliptic Filter
▪ Need for the fastest possible roll-off in the transition
region
PARALLEL Resonance
 ▪ Also known as the CAUER filter b. 1000 c. 90.9%
▪ Optimizes the transition region at the expense of the c. 10 d. 10%
passband and stopband d. 0.1 11. Where does voltage generated in a dc generator depend?
3. What is the voltage regulation when the full load voltage is the 1.Field resistance
e. Bessel Filter same as no-load voltage assuming a perfect voltage source?(Nov. 2. speed
▪ A filter that has a linear phase characteristics and no 1999) 3. flux
overshoot on the output with a pulse input a. 100% 4. Field current
▪ It has a flat passband and Monotonic stop band similar b. 10% 5. Armature resistance
to Butterworth approximation c. 1% a. 1, 2 and 3 only
d. 0% b. 2 and 3 only
4. In dc motors, the emf developed which opposes to the supplied c. 2, 3, and 4 only
Step voltage. d. 1, 3 and 5 only
Type Passband Stopband Roll-Off
response a. Residual emf 12. Generators are often preferred to be run in parallel because of
Butterworth b. Coercive emf ________.
Flat Monotonic Good Good c. Induced emf 1.Great reliability
Chebyshev Very d. Counter emf 2.Meeting greater load demands
Rippled Monotonic Poor 5. What will happen to a dc series motor when its load is removed? 3.Higher efficiency
Good
Inverse a. the motor will stop a. 1,2 and 3
Very b. the motor speed remains the same b. 1 and 2 only
Chebyshev Flat Rippled Good
Good c. the torque remains the same c. 1 and 3 only
Elliptic d. the motor will over speed d. 2 and 3 only
Rippled Rippled Best Poor 6. The armature of a DC generator is laminated to ____________. 13. DC generator preferred for charging automobile batteries is
a. Reduce the bulk _______.
Bessel
Flat Monotonic Poor Best b. Provide passage for cooling air a. Shunt generator
c. Reduce eddy current losses b. Long shunt compound gen.
Filter Approximations d. Insulate the core c. Series generator
7. The loss in DC generator that varies with the load is ___________. d. Any of these
Order of Filter (n) a. Copper loss
▪ Order of a passive filter (symbolizes by n) equals the b. Eddy current loss 14. The purpose of providing dummy coils in a generator is
number of inductors and capacitors in the filter c. Hysteresis loss ________.
▪ If a passive filter has two inductors and two capacitors, d. Windage loss a. To reduce eddy current losses
n =4 8. In DC generator, the cause of rapid brush wears maybe b. To enhance flux density
The order of an active filter depends on the number of _____________. c. To amplify voltage
RC circuits (called poles) it contains, n = number of 1. Severe sparking d. To provide mechanical balance for the rotor
capacitors 2. Rough commutation surface
3. Imperfect contact
4. slots disorientation
a. 1, 2 and 3 only
b. 1, 2 and 4 only
c. 2, 3 and 4 only
d. 1, 2, 3 and 4
REVIEW QUESTIONS 9. Which of the following components of a DC generator plays vital
1. A 4-pole DC generator with duplex lap winding has 48 slots and role for providing direct current of a DC generator?
four elements per slot. The flux per pole is 2.5 x 106 Maxwells and it a. Dummy coils
runs at 1500 rpm. What is the output voltage? b. Commutator
a. 60 c. Eye bolt
b. 360 d. Equalizer ring
c. 225
d. 120 10. Find the voltage regulation of a generator when full load voltage is
2. Find the frequency in kilocycles per second in the armature of a 10 110V and the no load voltage is 120V.
pole, 1200 rpm generator? a. 1%
a. 100 b. 9.09%
 ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
-SEMICONDUCTORS, DIODES and TRANSISTORS-
ELECTRON TUBES
THERMIONIC EMISSION is caused when metallic substances are heated to
high temperatures. Electrons liberated by thermonic emission provide the
conduction currents of vacuum tubes.
A DIODE VACUUM TUBE is composed of two elements: the cathode and the
plate.
The CATHODE is the electron-emitting element of a tube. Cathodes are
usually composed of special materials that are heated either directly or
indirectly.
A TRIODE is basically a diode with a control grid mounted between the plate
and the cathode. The control grid gives the triode the ability to amplify signals.
TRANSIT TIME is the time required for electrons emitted by the cathode to
reach the plate. Because transit time in a vacuum tube is considerably less
than the speed of light, vacuum tube operation is affected at high frequencies.
TETRODES were developed to compensate for the effects of interelectrode
capacitance. Placing a positively charged screen grid between the control grid
and plate has the effect of adding a capacitor in series with the capacitance
that exists between the control grid and plate.
SECONDARY EMISSION of electrons from the plate is caused by the
acceleration of electrons by the screen grid. This causes the performance of a
tetrode to be degraded. In addition to reduced amplitude, the output signals
become noisy.
PENTODES do not suffer from the effects of secondary emission. This is
because a negatively charged suppression grid placed between the screen
grid and plate forces any electrons emitted back to the plate.
BEAM-POWER TUBES are also used as power amplifiers. In addition to the METALLIC RECTIFIER or dry-disc rectifier is a metal-to-semiconductor
in-line grid arrangement, beam-power tubes use a set of negatively charged device that acts just like a diode in that it permits current to flow more readily
beam-forming plates. in one direction than the other.
PLANAR TUBES have their plates and grids mounted parallel to each other.
DIODE RATINGS are the limiting value of operating conditions of a diode.
Because of their planar construction, they can handle large amounts of power
at uhf frequencies. Operation of the diode outside of its operating limits could damage the diode.
Diodes are generally rated for: MAXIMUM AVERAGE FORWARD CURRENT,
GAS-FILLED TUBES contain a small amount of gas that ionizes and reduces PEAK RECURRENT FORWARD CURRENT, MAXIMUM SURGE CURRENT,
the internal resistance of the tubes. Because of this, gas-filled tubes can and PEAK REVERSE VOLTAGE.
handle relatively large amounts of power while maintaining a constant voltage
drop across the tube. II. SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES
COLD-CATHODE TUBES lack heaters or filaments and, therefore, do not use
thermionic emission. Instead, a voltage potential applied across the tube 1. ZENER DIODE
causes the internal gas to ionize. Once ionization has occurred, the voltage
drop across the tube remains constant, regardless of increased conduction. ▪ Diode designed to operate in the reverse breakdown region
a. Zener Breakdown
The CRT is a special-purpose tube that has the unique ability to visually ▪ When the breakdown voltage is below 5 volts
display electronic signals b. Avalanche Breakdown
▪ When the breakdown voltage is above 5 volts
2. POINT CONTACT DIODE
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
▪ Semiconductor diode having fine wire whose point is permanent
DOPING is the process by which small amounts of selected additives, called contact with the surface of a wafer of a semiconductor material such
impurities, are added to semiconductors to increase their current flow. as Silicon, Germanium or Gallium Arsenide
Semiconductors that undergo this treatment are referred to as EXTRINSIC ▪ The fine wire is called cat-whisker
SEMICONDUCTORS.
3. SCHOTTKY DIODE
An N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR is one that is doped with an N-TYPE or donor
impurity (an impurity that easily loses its extra electron to the semiconductor
▪ Also known as Surface Barrier Diode
causing it to have an excess number of free electrons).
▪ Also known as hot-carrier diodes
▪ This type of diode has no depletion layer which eliminates the
A P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR is one which is doped with a P-TYPE or
stored charges in the junction
acceptor impurity (an impurity that reduces the number of free electrons
▪ A rectifying metal semiconductor junction such as gold, silver and
causing more holes).
platinum.
▪ Typical forward voltage drop is typically around 0.25 V to 0.3 V
The SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE, also known as a PN JUNCTION DIODE, is a
▪ ESBAR(Epitaxial Schottky Barrier)
two-element semiconductor device that makes use of the rectifying properties
of a PN junction to convert alternating current into direct current by permitting 4. VARACTOR (varicap)
current flow in only one direction.
▪ Voltage-variable capacitor
JUNCTION BARRIER is an electrostatic field that has been created by the ▪ When this diode is reversed bias, the width of the depletion layer
joining of a section of N material with a section of P material. Since holes and increases with the reverse voltage
electrons must overcome this field to cross the junction, the electrostatic field ▪ The key idea is that the capacitances is controlled by voltage
is commonly called a BARRIER. Because there is a lack or depletion of free ▪ Used foe electronic tuning, harmonic generator and parametric
amplifier
electrons and holes in the area around the barrier, this area has become
Symbol:
known as the DEPLETION REGION.
5. TUNNEL DIODE
FORWARD BIAS is an external voltage that is applied to a PN junction to
reduce its barrier and, therefore, aid current flow through the junction ▪ Also known as Esaki diode
▪ Type of diode that exhibit the phenomenon known as negative
REVERSE BIAS is an external voltage that is connected across a PN junction resistance
so that its voltage aids the junction and, thereby, offers a high resistance to the ▪ Negative resistance implies that an increase in forward voltage
current flow through the junction. produces a decrease in forward current for a certain part.
 ▪ Utilizes a heavily doped material and therefore have so many ▪ Operated in reverse bias condition The COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION (CE) is the most frequently used
electrons. ▪ A window let light to pass through the package of the junction. configuration in practical amplifier circuits, since it provides good voltage,
If The incoming light produces free electrons and holes producing current, and power gain.
larger reverse current
Negative ▪ Dark current is the reverse current flowing through the photodiode
Resistance The COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION (CB) is mainly used for impedance
when there is no incident light
region matching, since it has a low input resistance and a high output resistance. It
also has a current gain of less than 1. In the CB, the input is applied to the
Tuneling emitter, the output is taken from the collector, and the base is the element
Current TRANSISTORS
common to both input and output.
Vf
0
A TRANSISTOR is a three or more element solid-state device that amplifies
by controlling the flow of current carriers through its semiconductor materials The COMMON-COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION (CC) is used as a current
driver for impedance matching and is particularly useful in switching circuits.
Tunnel Diode Charactristics Curve
The THREE ELEMENTS OF A TRANSISTOR are (1) the EMITTER, which The CC is also referred to as an emitter-follower and is equivalent to the
gives off current carriers, (2) the BASE, which controls the carriers, and (3) the electron-tube cathode follower. Both have high input impedance and low
COLLECTOR, which collects the carriers output impedance.
6. BACK DIODE

THE CLASS OF AMPLIFIER OPERATION is determined by the portion of the Amplifier Type Common Common Common
▪ Conducts better in the reverse (-0.1 V) than in the forward (+0.7
V) direction input signal for which there is an output. Base Emitter Collector
▪ Designed such that its high current flow takes place when the
junction is reversed bias There are four classes of amplifier operations: class A, class AB, class B, and Input-output θ 0º 180º 0º
class C. relationship
7. PIN Diode
▪ Positive –Intrinsic-Negative Diode Voltage Gain high medium low
▪ The intrinsic material between the P and N layer offers
impedance at microwave frequencies being controlled by low
frequency signals Current Gain low medium high
▪ Used in microwave switches
Power Gain low high medium
8. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
▪ In a forward biased LED, free electrons cross the junction and fall Input Resistance low medium high
into holes. As these electrons fall from higher to a lower energy
level, they radiate energy goes off in the form of heat. But in a
LED, the energy is being radiated as a light Output high medium low
▪ Commonly used Gallium Arsenide, Gallium Arsenide Phosphide Resistance
and Gallium Phosphide
▪ GaAs LEDs emit infrared (IR) radiation which is non invisible,
GaAsP produces either red or yellow visible light and GaP emits
red or green visible light. TRANSISTORS ARE IDENTIFIED by a Joint Army-Navy (JAN) designation
▪ Red is the most common color of LEDs printed directly on the case of the transistor. If in doubt about a transistor's
▪ Electroluminescense is the process involved when large surface
markings, always replace a transistor with one having identical markings, or
area on one layer of one semiconductive material permits the
photons to be emitted as visible light consult an equipment or transistor manual to ensure that an identical
▪ Irradiance is the power per unit area at a given distance from a replacement or substitute is used.
LED source expressed in mW/ cm2.
9. LASER DIODE CUTOFF occurs when the base-to-emitter bias prevents current from flowing
in the emitter circuit.
▪ Term laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of 2 N 130 A
radiation For example, in the PNP transistor, if the base becomes positive with respect
▪ Laser light is monochromatic meaning it consists of a single color to the emitter, holes are repelled at the emitter-base junction. This prevents First modification
and not a mixture of colors current from flowing in the collector circuit. Identification number
▪ Laser light is also a coherent light meaning single wavelength Semiconductor
▪ Laser diode pn junction is formed by two layers of doped gallium SATURATION occurs in a PNP transistor when the base becomes so
Number of junctions (Transistor)
arsenide
negative, with respect to the emitter, that changes in the signal are not
10. PHOTODIODE
reflected in collector-current flow.
An AMPLIFIER is a device that enables an input signal to control an output
signal. The output signal will have some (or all) of the characteristics of the
input signal but will generally be larger than the input signal in terms of
voltage, current, or power
COUPLING is used to transfer a signal from one stage to another.
DIRECT COUPLING is the connection of the output of one stage directly to
the input of the next stage. This method is not used very often due to the
complex power supply requirements and impedance-matching problems.
RC COUPLING is the most common method of coupling and uses a coupling
capacitor and signal-developing resistors.
IMPEDANCE COUPLING uses a coil as a load for the first stage but
otherwise functions just as RC coupling. Impedance coupling is used at high
frequencies
TRANSFORMER COUPLING uses a transformer to couple the signal from
one stage to the next. Transformer coupling is very efficient and the
transformer can aid in impedance matching.
NEUTRALIZATION in an RF amplifier provides feedback (usually positive) to
overcome the effects caused by the base-to-collector interelectrode
capacitance
A DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER is any amplifier with an output signal dependent
upon the difference between the input signals. A two-input, single-output
difference amplifier can be made by combining the common-emitter and
common-base configurations in a single transistor
A DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER has two possible inputs and two possible
outputs. The combined output signal is dependent upon the difference
between the input signals.
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET)
▪ Unipolar device because they operate only with one type of
charge carrier
▪ Voltage controlled device where the voltage between two of the
terminals (gate and source) controls the current through the
device.
▪ Major feature is very high input resistance
a. Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
▪ Operates with a reverse-biased PN junction to control current in
the channel
▪ Square law device because of the relation of ID and VGS
2
 VGS  MOSFET has a negative VGS
ID IDSS  1 −  JFET/D-MOSFET
 
=
▪ because of the presence of an insulated gate then it is sometimes
called IGFETs
▪ MOSFETS differs from JFET in that it has no PN junction
structure
▪ It has two basic types, D –MOSFET and E – MOSFET
Depletion MOSFET (D-MOSFET)
▪ The drain and source are diffused into the substrate material and
connected by a narrow channel adjacent to the insulated gate
▪ It can be operated in two modes-the depletion mode or the
enhancement mode and sometimes called
depletion/enhancement mode MOSFET
▪ It can be operated with a zero, positive or negative gate-source
voltage
▪ Normally operated in the depletion mode
Enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET)
▪ operates only in the enhancement mode
▪ has no depletion mode
▪ it has no structural channel
▪ it has no IDSS parameter
▪ for an n-channel type of this device, a positive gate voltage above
threshold induces a channel by creating a layer of negative
charges (inversion layer) in the substrate portion that is adjacent
to the SiO2 layer.
▪ An n-channel E-MOSFET has a positive VGS while a p-channel E-
transfer ▪ The conductivity of its channel is enhanced by increasing the gate

 VGS(off)  to source voltage

characteristics
▪ Can be n-channel or p-channel
Drain
A PHASE SPLITTER provides two output signals that are equal in amplitude
but different in phase from a single input signal. Phase splitters are often used
▪ For gate voltage below the threshold, there is no channel to be
formed
▪ If configured as a switch, this device is normally off
▪ LD MOSEFT, VMOSFET and TMOSFET are EMOSFET
Drain technologies developed for higher power dissipation

N-channel

P-channel
to provide input signals to a push-pull amplifier. Gate p p Gate n n

A PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER uses two transistors whose output signals are

added together to provide a larger gain (usually a power gain) than a single
Source Source
transistor could provide. Push-pull amplifiers can be operated class A, class
AB Types of JFET, Its
Structure and Parts
VIDEO AMPLIFIERS must have a frequency response of 10 hertz to 6 Operation of JFET
megahertz (10 Hz 6 MHz). To provide this frequency response, both high- ▪ JFET is always operated with the gate-source PN junction
and low-frequency compensation must be used. reversed biased
Reverse biasing of the gate-source junction with negative voltage produces a
PEAKING COILS are used in video amplifiers to overcome the high-frequency depletion region along the PN junction which extends into the n-channel and
limitations caused by the capacitance of the circuit. thus increases its resistance by restricting the channel width

SERIES PEAKING is accomplished by a peaking coil in series with the output- b. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
signal path.
▪ second category of the field effect transistor
 ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING b. Voltage Shunt Feedback
-FEEDBACKS, OSCILLATORS and MICROELECTRONICS- Input Impedance (Zif) Types Of Oscillators
Zi 1. RC OSCILLATORS
Z if = ▪ Oscillators whose feedback is an RC network
1 + A
I. FEEDBACK
▪ A method of returning a portion of the output signal into the input a. Phase Shift Oscillator
end using a feedback network Output Impedance (Zof) ▪ An RC oscillator that makes use of 3 RC circuit as feedback
▪ Usually applied in control systems Zo network
▪ One in which a fraction of the amplifier output is fed back to the Z of = ▪ Each of the three RC circuits in the feedback loop can provide a
input 1 + A
maximum phase shift approaching 90 degrees.
▪ Oscillation occurs at the frequency where the total phase shift
1. POSITIVE FEEDBACK c. Current Series Feedback through the three RC circuits is 180˚
▪ Regenerative feedback or regeneration Input Impedance (Zif)
▪ The feedback signal taken from the output is in phase with the 1 0.41
Z if = Z i (1 + A) ▪ Resonant frequency = =
input signal 2RC 6 2RC
▪ If the feedback voltage or current is so applied to increase the
input voltage or current Output Impedance (Zof)
▪ Application: oscillators Z of = Zo(1 + A) b. Wien Bridge Oscillator
▪ An RC oscillator that uses a Wien Bridge circuit as its feedback
Vi
+ Vo network
Vs A d. Current Shunt Feedback
1
+ Input Impedance (Zif) ▪ Resonant Frequency =
Vf Af =
A
Zi 2RC
 1 − A Z if =
1 + A 2. LC OSCILLATORS
▪ Oscillator whose feedback is an LC network
Output Impedance (Zof) ▪
2. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
▪ Degenerative
Z of = Zo(1 + A) a. Hartley Oscillator
▪ An oscillator with a tapped inductor
▪ If the feedback signal is combined 180 degrees out of phase with
1
the input signal ▪ Resonant Frequency =
▪ If the feedback voltage or current is so applied to reduce amplifier 2 L t C
input II. OSCILLATORS
▪ Application: amplifier circuits
▪ Where Lt = L1 +L2
Vi ▪ circuit that generates repetitive waveform at a certain frequency
+ Vo
A
which maybe sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal with only a DC supply
Vs b. Colpitts Oscillator
A at the input.
-
Af = ▪ Using a positive feedback with a transistor, electron tube,
▪ Uses a tapped capacitor in its feedback
Vf 1 + A magnetic amplifier or other amplifying device produce the
▪ Approximate frequency of oscillation is established by the values
 of C1,C2 and L
oscillations
1
▪ Resonant Frequency =
2 LC t
3. AMPLIFIER FEEDBACK TOPOLOGIES

a. Voltage Series Feedback oscillator Vout c. Clapp Oscillator

DC
Input Impedance (Zif) ▪ An improvement of Colpitts oscillator and
designed for a more stable oscillation
Z if = Z i (1 + A)
1
Output Impedance (Zof) Criteria to Sustain Oscillation Resonant Frequency =
Zo 1. Positive Feedback must be employed 2 LC t
Z of = 2. Barkhausen Criterion must be satisfied
1 + A ▪ The loop gain must be equal to unity (βA = 1) 3. Other LC Oscillators
 a. Armstrong Oscillator
▪ Type of LC feedback oscillator that uses transformer coupling to
fed back a portion of the signal voltage
▪ It is sometimes called a “tickler” oscillator in reference to the
transformer secondary
b. Pierce Oscillator
▪ Crystal-controlled oscillator
▪ The most stable and accurate type of feedback oscillator that uses
piezoelectric crystal in the feedback loop to control the frequency
▪ Crystal can be quartz, rochelle salt and tourmaline
▪ Operates in the principle of piezoelectric effect
▪ Piezoelectric effect is a crystal property that is when a changing
mechanical stress is applied across the crystal to cause it to
vibrate, a voltage develops at the frequency of mechanical
vibration
Ls
3. MONOLITHIC IC’s PREPARATION
Cm
Cs
Rs
Symbol Electrical Equivalent
III. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (IC)
▪ A complete electronic circuit in which both the active and passive
components are fabricated on an extremely tiny single chip of a
silicon
▪ First developed by Jack S. Kilby in 1958
1. SCALE of INTEGRATION
a. Small Scale Integration (SSI)
▪ The no. of circuits contained in an IC package is less than 30
b. Medium Scale Integration (MSI)
▪ The no. of circuits per package is between 30-100
c. Large Scale Integration (LSI)
▪ Circuit density is between 100-100 000
d. Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
▪ Circuit density is in excess of 100 000 – 10 000 000
e. Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI)
▪ No. of circuits per package is between 10 million to 1 billion
f. Super Large Scale Integration (SLSI)
▪ No. of circuits per package is in excess of 1 billion
2. CLASSIFICATION of IC’s by STRUCTURE
a. Monolithic Integrated Circuits
▪ Monolithic means single stone
▪ All circuit components are fabricated inseparably within a single
continuous piece of Si crystalline material
b. Thick and Thin Film IC’s e. Isolation Diffusion
▪ Only passive components are formed through the thick and thin ▪ wafer is subjected to a P-type diffusion process by which N-type
film techniques on the insulating surface layer is isolated into islands on which components are fabricated
Thin Film IC’s Si02
▪ Resistors and conductors are formed by varying the width and
thickness of the film and by using materials of different resistivity
P N P N P
▪ Capacitors are produced by sandwiching an insulating oxide film
between two conducting films
Thick Film IC’s P substrate
▪ Printed thin film circuits
▪ Silk screen printing techniques are employed to create the desired
circuit pattern on the surface of a substrate
f. Base and Emitter Diffusion
c. Hybrid or Multichip IC’s
▪ P-type base is diffused into the N-type layer which itself acts as a
▪ Are formed by either interconnecting a number of individual chips collector
or by combination of thin film or monolithic IC techniques
g. Pre-Ohmic Etch
▪ For good metal contact with diffused layers, N+ regions are
a. Wafer Preparation diffused into the structure
▪ A P-type Si bar (ingot) is taken and cut into thin slices called
wafers h. Metallization
▪ Czochralski Method is one of the most popular process in ingot ▪ Process involve in making interconnections and providing bonding
growth pads around the circumference of the chip
i. Circuit probing
b. Epitaxial Growth
▪ Each IC on the wafer is checked electrically for proper
▪ An N-type Si layer is grown on the P-type substrate by the performance by placing probes on the bonding pads
introduction of a gas containing phosphorus at 1200°C temperature
j. Scribing and Separating into Chips
▪ Wafers are first scribed with a diamond tipped tool
▪ Wafer is broken down into individual chips containing the
Epitaxial Layer integrated circuits
Substrate
k. Mounting and Packing
▪ IC’s are cemented or soldered to a gold-plated header through
c. Oxidization which leads have already been connected
▪ a thin layer of SiO2 is grown over the N type layer by exposing the
wafer to an oxygen atmosphere at 1000°C temperature l. Encapsulation
▪ A cap is placed over the circuit and sealing is done in an inert
d. Photolithographic Process
atmosphere
▪ involves the selective etching of SiO2 with the help of
photolithographic mask, photo-resist and etching solution
Two Types of Etching
1. Wet Etching – use of nitric (hydrofluoric acid)
2. Dry etching – use of hot plasma gas
IV. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS (OP-AMPS)
Si02 ▪ A very high gain differential amplifier that has very high input
impedance and very low output impedance
▪ The very first op-amp was developed by Fairchild Co.
N layer ▪ Ideal operational amplifier has infinite input impedance, zero
output impedance and infinite gain
P substrate
 +V ▪ Term describing the change in output voltage resulting from 2. Bistable Multivibrator
change in temperature ▪ Basically the Flipflop
Inverting h. Roll-Off ▪ Eccles Jordan Circuit
-
input ▪ It is the reduction of op-amps gain due to increasing operating ▪ Has two stable states and no quasi-stable state
Output frequency
Non-inverting + i. Rise time, Rt 3. Mono-Stable Multivibrator
input ▪ An alternate parameter used to specify the bandwidth ▪ One shot
▪ Has one stable state and 1 quasi-stable state
-V
350 ▪ Its period To = 0.69 RC
OP-AMP Symbol BW (MHz) =
Rt ns
▪ Virtual Ground Principle sates that the differential input voltage
is zero meaning V+ = V-. Simply shows that two inputs are shorted j. Gain Bandwidth Product
but actually not. ▪ A constant parameter which is always equal to the frequency at
which the op-amps open loop gain is unity

Pin Assignments
1 – offset null
2 – inverting input
3 – non inverting input
4 – negative supply
5 – offset null
6 – output
7 – positive supply
8 – no connection
1. OP- AMP SPECIFICATIONS
a. Input Offset Voltage
1 8
2. OP-AMP APPLICATION TIMER CIRCUIT
- 7
2
▪ Used in generation of pulse signals that are triggered by an input
3 6 signals
+
▪ Generation of a clock signal that operates at a frequency set by
5 external resistor and capacitor
4
555 Timer
▪ Made of combination of linear comparators and digital flipflops
OP-AMP Integrated Circuit ▪ The entire circuit is housed in an 8-pin DIP package
8-Vcc
6-Threshold

▪ It is the difference in the DC voltages that must be applied to the

input terminals to obtain equal quiescent operating voltage at the 5Kilo ohms
output terminals +
b. Input Offset Current -
3-Output
▪ The difference in the current at the 2 input terminals 5-Control Voltage Output
5Kilo ohms F/F
c. Common Mode Voltage Gain(Ac) stage
▪ The ratio of the signal voltages developed at either of the two +
output terminals to the common signal voltage applied to 2 input 5Kilo ohms -
7-Discharge
terminals
d. Differential Voltage Gain (Ad) 4-Reset
▪ Ratio of the change in output voltage at either output terminal with 1-ground
respect to the ground to the difference in the input voltages 2-Trigger input
e. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) Vref
▪ The ratio of the full differential voltage gain to the common mode
voltage gain 555 Timer Internal Circuitry

Ad
CMRR = 20 log Applications:
Ac
1. Astable Multivibrator or Clock Circuit
▪ Also term as “free-running”
f. Slew Rate ▪ It has no stable state and has 2 quasi-stable states
▪ Device parameter indicating how fast the output voltage changes ▪ Its period To = 1.38RC
with time
g. Drift
 ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING b. Communicator ▪ Good for robots in light duty, precision applications but does not
-ROBOTICS, MEDICAL ELECTRONICS and INDUSTRIAL ▪ A unit transmitting information and receiving instructions from a offer the speed and strength of a hydraulic drive
remote operator ▪ Used in electronic assembly where precision is required
ELECTRONICS- ▪ Clean –no oil leaks
c. Control Computer/ Controller
▪ The central computer that integrates the activity of several ▪ Lower initial and operating cost compared as compared to
microprocessors hydraulic and pneumatic drive
I. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF ROBOT DEVELOPMENT ▪ Brain of the robot ▪ Less force capability as compared to hydraulic system

1801 d. End effectors 4. Robot’s Manipulator Arm Geometry

▪ Joseph Jacquard invents a textile machine that is operated by
punch cards
1892
▪ In the US, Seward Babbit designed motorized crane with gripper
to remove ingots from a furnace.
1921
▪ First reference to the word robot appears in a play opening in
London entitled “Rossum’s Universal Robots”. The play was written
by Czechoslovakian Karel Capek introduces the word robot from the
Czeck “robota” meaning serf or subservient labor
1939
▪ Isaac Asimov’s science fiction writing introduces robots designed
for humanity and work safely. He formulate the “Three Laws of
2. Axes Control
Robotics”
1946
▪ George Devol patents a general purpose playback device for
controlling machines
1948
▪ Norbert Wiener, a professor of Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) publishes Cybernetics, a book that describes the
concept of communications and control in electronic, mechanical
and biological systems
1951
▪ A tele-operator equipped articulated arm is designed by Raymond
Goertz for the Atomic Energy Commission
3. Drive Systems / Actuations
1954
▪ The first programmable robot is designed by George Devol who
coined the term Universal Automation. Devol is joined by Joseph
Engelberger in 1956 and shorten the name to Unimation and form
the first successful robot manufacturing company
II. ROBOTS
▪ A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move
parts, materials, tools or special devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of a variety of different
tasks.
▪ These multi-purpose machines are generally designed to carry out
repetitive function and be adapted to other functions.
1. Components of a Robot
a. Actuator
▪ Serves as the muscle of the system, produces the motion with
power supplied electrically, pneumatically or hydraulics
▪ Device at the end of the manipulator arm and use to make
intentional contact with an object
▪ Gripper, hooks, scoops
e. Manipulator
▪ Mechanism consisting of several segment or arms
f. Power Supply
▪ Generally some energy storage device such as battery for a
mobile unit otherwise hook up to the power grid
g. Sensor
▪ Usually a transducer of some kind whose inputs are physical
phenomena and whose outputs consists of electronic signals
a. Non Servo Control
▪ Movement of the robots axes is stopped by a hard mechanical
stop placed in the travel path
▪ Non-self correcting and not-self regulating
b. Servo Control
▪ The servo control allows the mechanics of the robot to
communicate with the electronics of the controller.
▪ Equipped with feedback sensors so that controller knows the
exact position of the end effector at all times
▪ self correcting and self regulating
a. Pneumatic Drive
▪ reserved for smaller robots which are limited to simple, fast cycle
and pick place operation
▪ have two to four degrees of freedom
▪ quick response
▪ lower initial and operating cost than a hydraulic system
▪ accurate positioning and velocity control are impossible (requires
mechanical stops
▪ weak force capability
b. Hydraulic Drive
▪ used in larger robots
▪ generally heavy and require large floor space and heavy floor
loadings
▪ great force capability
▪ great holding strength when stopped (will not sag)
▪ intrinsic safe in flammable environments such as paintings
▪ accurate servo type positioning and velocity control can be
achieved
▪ Messy-tends to leak oil even in the periods when the robot is not
in motion
▪ High initial and operating cost
c. Electric Drive
a. Cartesian Coordinates
▪ Uses three perpendicular slides to construct the X, Y and the Z
axes
▪ Rectangular work space or work envelope
▪ Work envelope refers to the space with which the robot can use
its wrist
b. Cylindrical Coordinates
▪ Cylindrical configurations uses a vertical column and a slide that
moves up and down the column
▪ The work space is approximately a cylinder
c. Polar Coordinates
▪ Uses a telescoping arm that can be lowered or raised about a
horizontal pivot which is mounted on a rotating base
d. Articulate Coordinates
▪ This configuration consists of two straight components mounted
on a vertical pedestal
▪ A rotary joint connects one of the straight components to the
pedestal while another joins the straight components
▪ A wrist is attached to the end of the second straight component
and provides several additional joints
5. Wrist Rotation
a. Yaw axis
▪ Describes the wrist angular movement from the left side to the
right side
b. Pitch axis
▪ Describes the wrist’s rotational movement up and down
c. Roll axis
▪ Describes the rotation around the end of the wrist
6. Degrees of Freedom
▪ Refers to different axes of motion of robotic arm
▪ The movement about one axis is hardware independent of
movement about any other axis.
Total no. of locations = 2n
Where n – degrees of freedom
III. BIOENGINEERING
▪ A developing specialty featuring a multidisciplinary approach to
the solution of problems in medicine and biology
▪ Based on the application of advances in science, engineering and
technology
IEEE 1073: Standard for Medical Device Communication
1. IEEE 1073.31
 ▪ Standard for Medical Device Communications Transport Profile- ▪ Radioisotope is attached to another substance that is injected. ▪ Detects electrical signals from the heart
Connection Mode Inhaled or swallowed M-Mode
▪ Defines the service and requirements for bedside sub network ▪ Reverse of an X-ray because the radiation instead of directed o ▪ Provides a single dimension images that allow accurate
2. IEEE 1073.41 the body, the radiation comes from the inside measurement of the heart chambers
▪ Physical layer, cable connected
▪ Defines cables, connector data rates and bio level encoding g. Bone Scan 2-D echo
▪ Test that can detect changes in bone metabolism or growth ▪ Capable at displaying a cross sectional slice of the beating
MEDICAL DEVICES and EQUIPMENTS ▪ It identifies cancer, infections of the cause of unexplained bone heart, including the chambers, valves and the major blood
pain such as break that didn’t show up on X-ray vessels that exist from the left and the right ventricle
1. DIAGNOSTIC EQUIPMENTS ▪ Done by seeing how a radio active isotope which work as a
“tracer”
▪ Medical imaging equipment b. Electroneurogram (ENG)
a. Radiography (X-RAY) ▪ Detects electrical signals from the nerves
h. Ultrasound (Sonography)
▪ Art and science of using ionizing radiation to provide images of
tissues, organs,bones and vessels that comprise the body ▪ Uses high frequency sound waves to “echo” off the body and c. Electromyogram (EMG)
▪ The first body imaging test create a picture of it
▪ Assess the health of the muscles and the nerves controlling the
▪ X-Rays was discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen in 1895 ▪ Organs being examined by the ultrasound are kidneys, the liver
muscles
▪ Consist of electromagnetic radiation like light but behaves a and spleen, the brain, the female pelvis and the hips
▪ A needle electrode is inserted through the skin into the muscle.
shorter wavelength The electrical activity detected by the electrode is inserted through
▪ Penetrate on the body and formed image on the film 2. THERAPEUTIC EQUIPMENTS the skin into the muscle
Myelogram
▪ An X-ray test of the spine a. Cardioversion d. Electroencephalogram (ECG)
Arthrogram ▪ Process of restoring the heart’s normal rhythm by applying a ▪ Detects the electrical signals from the brain
▪ X-ray of joint usually the knee or hip controlled electric shock to the exterior of the chest ▪ Recorded by 8 to 160 pairs of electrodes attached to the scalp
Flouroscopy ▪ Lower electric level than defibrillator
▪ A moving picture of the body is seen as the test is performed e. Electro-oculogram
and recorded on videotapes b. Pacemaker ▪ Detects the electrical potential from the eyes(retina and cornea)
▪ Evaluates gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system and the ▪ Regulates the beating of the heart
bladder ▪ Natural pacemaker is the sinoatrial (SA) node or sinus node f. Electronystagmogram
Intravenous Pyelogram (IVP) ▪ The artificial pacemaker is a small battery operated device that
▪ A recording of the eye movements
▪ Uses contrast dye to outline kidneys, ureters and bladders helps the heart beat in a regular rhythm

b. Mamography c. Diathermy
▪ Used for detection of breast disease such as breast cancer using ▪ Involves the passage of high frequency alternating current through
low dose X-ray the body tissue
IV. WELDING SYSTEMS
c. CT Scan (Computed Tomography) d. Defibrillator
▪ Obtain multiple cross sectional images of the body by using ▪ A device that administers an electric shock through the chest wall WELDING
special X-rays and computer enhancement to the heart ▪ The process of joining metals usually by heat or sometimes with
▪ High voltage power supply, storage capacitor and electrodes are pressure and sometimes with an intermediate or filler material with
d. Echocardiography primary components high melting point
▪ This procedure uses a special device to detect the sound that is ▪ Uses two electrical pads to stimulate heart beat
reflected from a beating of the heart ▪ Can be manual or automatic
1. BASIC INTERVALS
▪ It is also called “diagnostic cardiac ultrasound” because it uses a. Squeeze Interval
reflected sound waves to “look” directly at your child’s heart
▪ Welding electrode comes forward and engage the metal pressing
against the surface
e. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) ▪ Typical squeeze time is 1 sec
▪ Method of creating images of the inside of opaque organs in living 3. MONITORING EQUIPMENTS b. Weld Interval
organisms as well as detecting the amount of bound water in ▪ Welding transformer is energized, current flows and creates a
geological structures a. Electrocardiogram (ECG) weld
▪ Uses magnetism and radio waves ▪ On heat subinterval is a condition when the current is on
▪ A non-invasive test that records the electrical activity of the-heart
▪ It was invented by a Dutch physiologist Wilhem Einthoven (1860- ▪ On cool subinterval is when the current is off
f. Radioisotope (Nuclear Scan) 1927) ▪ Typical duration (2 – 10 sec)
▪ Number of tests that uses very small quantities of radioactive ▪ Used to measure the rate and regularity of heartbeats as well as c. Hold Interval
materials called radio isotopes to image parts of the body the size and position of the chambers, the presence of any damage ▪ Weld interval is finished
to the heart and the effects of drugs ▪ Electrode pressure is maintained
 d. Release Signal b. Velocity Servo
▪ Welding electrode is retracted ▪ Defined as the angle through which a transmitter rotor is ▪ Same principle of error signal generation as position servo except
e. Standby Interval mechanically turned and simply the transmitter’s mechanical input that the velocity is being sensed rather than the position
▪ The time after release interval to the next start sequence c. Acceleration Servo
b. Control Synchro Systems ▪ Similar to velocity and position servos except that the acceleration
2. POPULAR WELDING PROCESSES ▪ Uses control synchros to control servo systems of the load is being sensed rather than position or velocity
▪ The servo system with the control synchro system is used to move ▪ The tachometer of the velocity loop is replaced with an
heavy loads and control large amount of power with high degree accelerometer
a. Arc Welding
of accuracy
▪ It is simply the use of electric arc to provide heat
Control Transformer 3. DAMPING
▪ Process of utilizing the concentrated heat of an electric arc to join
metal by fusion of the parent metal and the addition of metal to ▪ A synchro device that compares two signals, the electrical signal Time Lag
joint usually provided by a consumable electrode. applied to its stator and the mechanical signal applied to its rotor. ▪ Servo characteristics defined as the time between the input of the
TIG Welding Hence the output is an electrical voltage taken from the rotor signal and the actual movement of the load
winding Damping
▪ Gas tungsten arc welding
▪ ERROR SIGNAL is the name given to the electrical output of the ▪ Used to stabilized a system to minimize or eliminate the problem
▪ An arc is formed between a non-consumable tungsten electrode
control transformer of overshot
and the metal being welded.
▪ Some of its benefits includes superior quality welds, precise
control of heat, free of splatter and low distortion Synchro Capacitor a. Damping Conditions
MIG Welding ▪ A unit containing three delta connected capacitors
▪ Gas Metal Arc Welding
▪ Commonly used high deposition rate welding process.
▪ Referred to as a semiautomatic welding process.
▪ Benefits include all position capability, long weld can be made
Underdamped
without start and stops and minimal post weld cleaning is required
b. Solid State Welding
▪ Group of welding processes which produces coalescence at time
temperatures essentially below the melting point of the base
materials being joined, without the addition of brazing filler metal.
▪ Sometimes called solid state bonding processes Delta-Connected
c. Resistance Welding Overdamped
Synchro Capacitor
▪ uses the application of electric current and mechanical pressure to
create a weld between two pieces of metal

V. SYNCHROS Overdamped
VI. SERVO
▪ Takes as excessive amount of time to reach synchronization
1. SYNCHRO and its SYSTEM Underdamped
1. CONTROL SYSTEM
▪ Synchro resembles a small electric motor in size as well as in ▪ Provides instant response to an error signal but results in the load
appearance and it operates like a variable motor a. Open Loop Control System
oscillating about the point of synchronism
▪ Synchros are used primarily for the rapid and accurate ▪ Controlled directly by an input signal
transmission of data as well as control device in servo systems ▪ It has no feedback and therefore less accurate
b. Methods of Damping
▪ Synchros are designed for use on either a 115 volt or a 26-volt b. Closed Loop Control System
power source. ▪ Can respond and move loads quickly
▪ With greater accuracy Friction Clutch Damping
▪ Operating frequencies includes either 60 or 400 Hz
▪ Electromagnetic theory forms the basis for all synchro operations ▪ Has an automatic feedback system that informs the input the ▪ Simplest type of damping
desired movement has taken place Magnetic Clutch Damping
SYNCHRO SYSTEMS ▪ Magnetic coupling uses a magnetic field o draw friction plates
2. SERVO SYSTEM together to produce damping
▪ Consist of two or more synchros electrically connected
▪ Classified as closed-loop system Error-Rate Damping
▪ Method of damping that anticipates the amount of overshot
a. Torque Synchro System
a. Position Servo ▪ Corrects the overshot by introducing a voltage in the error
▪ Uses torque synchros that are very functional in moving light detector that is proportional to the rate of change of the error
loads ▪ Control the position of the load
▪ In AC position servo, the amplitude and phase of the AC error signal
Correspondence
signal determine the amount and direction the load will be driven
▪ The term given to the positions of the rotors of a synchro
transmitter and a synchro receiver when both rotors are on 0˚ by ▪ Potentiometer is one of the simplest position sensor device and is
the same angle generally used because of its small size, high accuracy and VII. GYROS
output which can either be AC or DC
 GYROSCOPE ▪ The angular degrees of an AC cycle during which the SCR is Anode
▪ Applied to any rapidly spinning object turned on
▪ A functional gyroscope is constructed and mounted SCR’s Firing Delay Angle (FDA)
▪ Rate Gyros are specially mounted so they are free to precess in ▪ Angular degrees of an AC cycle that elapses before SCR is turned Anode Gate
only one direction and are used to measure angular rates on (determine on and off)
Cathode Gate
2. Triac
▪ Triode AC
▪ A three-terminal device used to control the average current flow to Cathode
a load SCS turn off time is 1 – 10 μsec
▪ Can conduct current in either direction when it is turned on so it is
called a bidirectional triode thyristor
▪ Acts like two SCR’s connected in inverse parallel so that each g. Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
SCR conducts alternately for every half cycle of an AC signal ▪ Break-over type switching device
▪ Gated DIAC ▪ Double-based diode
GYRO ▪ Semiconductor device consisting of thin silicon bar on which a pn
junction acting as emitter is formed near one end
3. BREAK-OVER DEVICES
▪ Operates in the negative resistance region
PROPERTIES ▪ Small thyristors which do not switch the main load current
1. Rigidity ▪ Useful as triggering devices
Intrinsic Stand-off ratio (η)
▪ Tendency of a spinning wheel to remain in fixed position in space a. Shockley Diode
▪ A 4-layer diode constructed like an SCR but without gate terminal
Factors that Affect the Rigidity ▪ Unilateral triggering device for SCR R B1
b. Silicon Unilateral Switch η=
a. weight R B1 + R B2
b. shape ▪ Solid-state device that provides a positive pulse
c. speed of rotation of the rotor ▪ Also a 4-layer diode with a typical break-over voltage of 8 volts
▪ In terms of firing, it has faster rate than Shockley diode Firing Potential (Vp)
2. Precession ▪ Necessary to fire the UJT
▪ Property of a gyro that causes it to tilt in a direction perpendicular ▪ Equal or greater than voltage across emitter and base1
Cathode
to the direction of any outside force
Anode Vp = ηVBB + Vdiode
▪ The direction of precession in a gyro is always 90 degrees from
the direction of the applied force h. Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT)
Gate ▪ Similar operating characteristics as UJT
Components of a Universally Mounted Gyro ▪ Programmable because the internal resistances of UJT are
1. Rotor external for PUT and can be selected to a certain desired
c. DIAC
2. Inner Gimbal response
▪ Diode AC
3. Outer Gimbal ▪ Constructed like a TRIAC but without a gate terminal
4. Base ▪ Used as a trigger for TRIAC circuits
▪ Bilateral trigger diode
▪ Symmetrical trigger diode because its break-over voltage is close
 32 Volts
VIII. THYRISTOR
▪ Solid state devices used as a switch in applications that handles d. Silicon Bilateral Switch (SBS)
larger voltage and currents
▪ Have at least four semiconductor layers ▪ A bilateral or bidirectional break-over device
▪ Two SUS connected back to back in parallel
▪ Popular in low voltage trigger control circuits
1. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
▪
▪ Most commonly used thyristor
▪ Three-terminal device used to control large currents to a load e. Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)
SCR Gate Characteristics
▪ SCR is fired by a short burst of current into the gate typically 0.1 –
50 mA
SCR’s Conduction Angle (CA)
 ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 15. Two cells are connected in series to form a battery. Their internal - maximum current
resistance is 0.1. The internal resistance of the battery will be
-MIXED TOPICS-
- 0.2  32. One ampere hour charge is equivalent to
- 3,600 C
16. On ampere-hour basis the efficiency of a lead acid battery is in the range
1. “the mass of an ion liberated at an electrode is directly proportional to the - 90 to 95 % 33. When water is added to sulphuric acid
quantity of electricity which passes through the electrolyte. “ The statement is - lot of heat is generated
associated with 17. The life of a lead acid battery is expected to be
- Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis - 2 - 5 years 34. The electro-chemical reactions are not reversible in case of
- primary cells only
2. The plates of a lead acid battery are made of 18. Excessive overcharging of a battery may result in
- cast anomonial lead alloy - increased internal resistance 35. The energy in a lead acid battery is stored in the form of
- loss of water - chemical energy
3. In a lead acid battery, separators are provided - excessive gassing
- to avoid internal short circuits 36. The electrolyte in a Leclanche cell is
19. The indication of the state of charge of a battery is best given by - aqueous solution of ammonium chloride
4. Container of a lead acid battery is made of - specific gravity of electrolyte
- moulded hard rubber 37. The electrode for a battery must be
- ceramics 20. Common impurity in battery electrolyte is - a good conductor of electricity
- celluloid - lead sulphate
38. For a discharged lead acid battery, the specific gravity of the acid is
5. Filters in a lead acid battery are provided 21. Open circuit voltage of a fully-charged lead acid is - 1.12
- to facilitate flow of gases - 2.5 V
39. Even when not in used, a lead acid battery should be recharged once in
6. In case of a lead acid battery, during discharging 22. The capacity of storage battery is expressed as - 6 weeks
- both anode and cathode become PbSO4 - the number of cells it contains
40. The specific gravity of acid is checked with the help of
7. In lead acid battery, during charging 23. On watt hour basis the efficiency of a lead acid battery is in the range - hydrometer
- specific gravity of acid increases - 70 to 85 %
41. Sedimentation in lead acid batteries occurs due to
8. The condition of a fully charged lead acid battery can be ascertained by 24. What is the arrangement to get the maximum current in 3 ohms resistance - overcharging at high rate
- voltage in case of 24 cells, each of internal resistance 2 ohms?
- specific gravity - 4 cells in series with six rows in parallel 42. The term trickle charge is associated with
- gassing - lead acid batteries
25. Trickle charge is required for
9. The value of specific gravity of acid when a lead acid battery is fully - lead acid batteries 43. When a battery is being charged, the terminal voltage decrease with
charged is - nickel iron cells - Increasing temperature
- 1.285 - primary cells
44. When a battery is being discharged, the terminal voltage decrease with
10. The active materials on the positive and negative plates of a fully charged - decreasing discharge rate
26. A wet battery cover in case of lead acid battery indicates
lead acid battery are
- excessive gassing during charging
- lead peroxide and pure lead 45. The ampere hour capacity of a battery used on cars is
- leaky seals at covers
- overfilling of the battery - 30-60 Ah
11. A floating battery is one
- which supplies current intermittently and also during off cycle gets 46. The ampere hour capacity of a battery used in truck is
27. Internal resistance of a battery is due to
charged - 100-150 Ah
- surface contact resistance
12. Which cells has reversible chemical reaction? 47. Which test is used to ascertain whether the battery plates are defective or
28. The emf of a storage battery depends upon
- lead acid not?
- nature of electrodes
- cadmium test
13. Manufacturers normally specify that the lead acid battery should not
29. The internal resistance of a dry cell is of the order of
remain discharged for more than 48. Which of the following is the common voltage of automobile batteries?
- 24 hours - 0.2 - 0.4 
-2V
14. During charging, the electrolyte of a lead acid battery become 30. Proper charging for lead acid battery is
- 1/8 of rated ampere hour capacity 49. Cells are connected in parallel to
- stronger - increase the current capacity
31. For a group of cells when internal resistance of the group is equal to the
external resistance due to the load, the battery will give 50. Which laws find application is electrolysis?
- Faraday’s laws - open 85. Iron core material of inductor use in radio at high frequencies
- Ferrite
51. What is the drawback of special purpose computers? 68. How does an inductor react at low frequencies?
- Lack of versatility - short 86. Color of the positive plate of a fully charge lead acid cell
- Deep Chocolate brown
52. What is the common name for enamel-insulated wire? 69. How does a capacitor react at high frequencies?
- magnet wire - short 87. Commonly used for extending the range of an AC ammeter
- current transformer
53. What is the standard unit of measurement for a round wire cross sectional 70. How does an inductor react at high frequencies?
area? - open 88. What is the most common impurity found in battery electrolyte
- circular mil - ion
71. Shunts are usually made from what alloy?
54. What is the reciprocal of conductivity? - manganine 89. What alloy consists of 55 percent copper and 45 percent nickel
- resistivity - Constantan
72. In the d’arsonval, many turns of fine wire would be used. The coil is wound
55. What is the movement of a aluminum wire away from a point where in an aluminum frame called 90. Who designed microprocessor in 1969?
pressure is applied? - Bobbin - Ted Hoff
- aluminum creep
73. A resistor place in parallel with the meter terminals and used to provide 91. What discovery proved to be the foundation of the development of vacuum
56. A meter used to measure small values of current is called increase range capability tubes?
- galvanometer - meter shunt - Edison effect

57. The discharge of electricity from a conductor with a high potential 74. Mechanical rotation frequency is measured using a device called 92. What type of substrates are used for film and hybrid IC
- Corona - Tachometer - Glass or ceramic

58. A device used to absorb heat and protect heat sensitive components 75. What equipment uses a calibrated resonant circuit to measure frequency? 93. What amplifiers are bias so that the collector current is cut off during one
during soldering - Wavemeter half of the input cycle
- heat sink - Class B
76. What device undergoes changes in resistance as changes in power
59. What wave is compose of infinite number of odd harmonics in phase with occur? 94. What is the faithful reproduction of a signal in an amplifier?
the fundamental wave? - bolometer - Fidelity
- square wave
77. Audio frequencies can be measured by the process known as 95. A light controlled variable resistor
60. The ability of resonant circuit to operate continuously because of stored - Zero beating - photo diode
energy
- flywheel effect 78. What is the other term for zero beating? 96. Transistors are identified by a _____ designation printed directly on the
- Heterodyning case of the transistors
61. What is the condition of the diode in a series limiter when an output is - Joint Army Navy
develop? 79. The rotation frequency of recording devices can be measured by the used
- conducting of a 97. What type of coupling is useful in impedance matching?
- Stroboscope - transformer coupling
62. A resonant circuit is often called
-tank circuit 80. Air gap in the iron core of an inductor prevents 98. What class of operation has the highest fidelity?
- core saturation - class A
63. Other name for non-sinusoidal oscillator
- relaxation oscillator 81. A cross connection between two conductors in a multi conductor cable 99. What is the most common cause of electron tube failure?
may be located by the used of - open filament
64. Which oscillator uses a tickler coil for feedback - Varley Loop
- Armstrong 100. What is added to a sawtooth generator to produce a trapezoidal wave?
82. Conductor with the lowest resistivity at 273 K - Resistor
65. What is the identifying feature of a colpitts oscillator? - Copper
- Tapped capacitor 101. What is a VOM?
83. Nichrome is commonly used for - A combination of ohmmeter, milliammeter and voltmeter
66. The ability of the filter to distinguish between low and high frequencies and - heater coils
to eliminate unwanted signals 102. A iron vane is used to measure
- discrimination 84. Insulator most affected by heat - AC and DC
- PVC
67. How does a capacitor react at low frequencies?
103. An instrument used to measure the voltage generated by human body 120. Calculate the sensitivity of a voltmeter with a full scale deflection of 100 136. Is the force which sets up or tends to set up magnetic flux in a magnetic
parts in relation to the action of the human heart micro ampere. circuit.
-ECG -10 kohms/V -magnemotive force

104. Find the voltage drop develop across D’ Arsonval meter movement 121. What materials are meter pointers normally made? 137. Is the name given to that property of a material which opposes the
having an internal resistance of 1 kohm and full deflection current of 150 -Aluminum creation of magnetic flux in it?
micro ampere -reluctance
-150 mV 122. A device that is used to measure current without opening the circuit
-Clamp probe 138. It is the reciprocal of reluctance and implies the case of readiness whit
105. What test instrument will you use to make a modulated envelope visible? which magnetic flux is developed.
-Oscilloscope 123. Which of the following is a dc bridge that is very useful for making -reluctivity
extremely accurate voltage measurements?
106. What is the common type of meter movement? -Potentiometer bridge 139. The flux that does not follow the intended path in a magnetic circuit is
-D’ Arsonval called
-leakage flux
107. How is an ammeter connected to the circuit under test? 124. Which meter is the most expensive?
-In series -Dynamometer 140. The ratio of the total flux (flux in iron path) to the useful flux(flux in air
gap) is called
108. At what point on a meter movement are the most accurate readings 125. What is the reduction in the power rating of a device because of an -leakage factor
taken? increase in temperature?
-Midscale -power derating 141. Comparing electric and magnetic circuit, the current electric circuit is
analogous to which parameter of magnetic circuit?
109. Which of the following cannot be easily measured with a simple meter 126. What is the typical forward voltage drop of a LED? -flux
circuit? -1.5 volts
-Impedance 142. May be defined as that pole which when places in air from a similar and
127. What is one major application of a tunnel diode? equal pole repels it with a force of 1/4 Newtons
110. ______ is a measure of consistency of measurement Oscillator ,amplifier -unit pole
-Precision
128. Coherent light has 143. The phenomenon by which a magnetic substance becomes magnet
111. Other measurement an ohmmeter can make beside resistance Single wavelength when it is placed near a magnet is called.
-Circuit continuity -magnetic induction
129. The term used to describe sudden reverse conduction of an electronic
112. Electrical property measured by an ammeter component caused by excess reverse voltage across the device? 144. The space outside the magnet where its poles have a force attraction or
-Current Avalanche repulsion on a magnetic pole is called
-magnetic field
113. An ideal voltmeter should have ______ resistance 130. What is the typical voltage rating available in zener diode?
-Infinite -2.4 to 200 volts 145. The total number of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field is called
-magnetic flux
114. A common laboratory Multimeter cannot measure 131. A high power, low frequency diode is normally______than a low power,
-Frequency high frequency diode. 146. The lagging effect between flux density of the material and the
-larger magnetizing force applied is called
115. An ohmmeter can be made using -hysteresis
-ammeter and a battery 132. _____is usually used as a stable reference voltage in a linear voltage
regulator. 147. A law establishing the fact that the algebraic sum of the rises and drops
116. An instrument that measure small amounts of current and its based on -zener diode of the mmf around a closed loop of a magnetic circuit is equal to zero.
the electromagnetic principle -Amperes Circuital Law
-Galvanometer 133. It is the AC component of a rectified signal
-ripple 148. The unit of magnetomotive force
117. How do you increase the range of a voltmeter? -Amperes-turn
-Through multiplier 134. It is the required voltage across the junction diode before the forward
current can flow significantly 149. Flux density is measured in
118. In measuring high resistance values such as insulators, we normally -threshold voltage -Tesla
used a/ an
-Megger 135. How many capacitors are used in a diode-capacitor halfwave voltage 150. If a right handed bottle-opener cork screw is assumed to be along the
doubler? conductor so as to advance in the direction of current flow, the motion of its
119. Which type of meter requires its own power source? -2 handle will indicate the direction of magnetic flux produced around the
-Ohmmeter conductor is known as
-Cork Screw rule
151. A computer software that defeats a world champion in chess
-Deep Blue

152. Another name of secondary storage

-Auxiliary

153. An American that built a computer in 1946 that uses binary numbers and
stores information.
-John Von Neumann

154. Apple Computer launch with a $1.5 million commercial product during the
1984 Super Bowl.
-Macintosh

155. Computer device Douglas Engelbart invent in 1963.

-mouse

156. A device, tool, gripper, or hand located at the end of a manipulator and
used to perform work or movement on some object
- end effector

157. A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move

materials, parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed
motions, in order to perform various tasks.
-industrial robots

158. Materials where meter pointers normally made.

-Aluminum

159. SCARA stands for Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm, a

particular design developed in the late 1970’s by
-Hiroshi Makino

160. Most poular country level domain

-.uk

161. UK developed a robot that has the ability to recognize the gender of
women and men. It is consider as the most gender aware robot.
-Doki

162. Pi is accurately calculated to 1241100000000 decimal place by what

computer?
-MPP Computer

163. This robot has the record of being the most emotionally responsive robot
according to Guiness World of Records
-Kismet

164. The word gyroscope was first coined by a French Scientist in 1852
named
-Leon Focult