U1.

INTRODUCTION OF RESEARCH STUDIES

● CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCHER

a) QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH VS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

This distinction refers, in essence, to the fact that quantitative research works
with numerical data that is mainly analysed statistically whereas qualitative
research involves working with non-numerical data that is not primarily
analysed by statistical methods.

Dörnyei states that the contrast between quantitative and qualitative studies is
based upon 3 main issues: ideological orientation of the research,
categorization of the world and way in which individual diversity is presented.

b) MIXED-METHOD RESEARCH

There are studies which are not either fully quantitative or completely
qualitative, but a mixture of them.

c) LONGITUDINAL vs CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH

According to the time invested in gathering data, the research study can be
divided in cross-sectional vs longitudinal, whether they are carried out in a
short period of time (less participants) or in longer periods (large number of
participants).

In a cross-sectional study you collect data from a population at a specific

point in time. Researchers can look at age, gender, incomes, but cannot
consider past data as this would be outside of the parameters of this type of
research. However, there is a downside to this type of research, which is the
inability to provide a definitive relation between cause and effect relation.

In a longitudinal study you repeatedly collect data from the same sample over
an extended period of time. The main advantage is that researchers can
make notes of the changes, make observations and detect any changes in
the characteristics of their participants. As a result of the nature of the study, it
can establish a proper sequence of the events that occurred. These types of
studies are more likely to suggest a cause-and-effect relationship.

U2. KEY ISSUES BEFORE LAUNCHING A RESEARCH STUDY

● CRITERIA TO ACHIEVE QUALITY STANDARDS

Quality standards vary depending on the type of research.

 a) Quantitative research: It requires at least the achievement of 2 essential
quality standards: reliability and validity.

*Reliability -> In other words, the extent to which a research instrument

consistently has the same results if it is used in the same situation on repeated
occasions. Indeed, replication is an essential part of any inquiry, even though
sometimes is difficult to get as no group of participants is identical.

*Validity -> Dörnyei. Research validity (internal and external validity): includes the
whole research process. Researchers hope that the results of the
study reflect what they believe they do.
How can RESEARCH VALIDITY be proved? By keeping to a minimum all the
potential variables or factors that could affect the results.

-> Dörnyei. Measurement validity: the extent to which the data or

results of a research method represent the intended variable.

b) Qualitative research: Credibility (internal val.), transferability (external val.),

dependability (=reliability) and confirmability (=objectivity).

According to Dörnyei, three strategies are essential of a qualitative research:

* Build up an image of researcher integrity with principles

* Carry out validity/reliability checks during research
* Practice strategies based on the research design

c) Mixed-methods research: Applying mixed methods provide more

comprehensive information of the phenomenon studied. However, the
combination implies that the quality standards concerning each paradigm
must be met.

● DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION OF VARIABLES

Variables are events that may vary over individuals and sometimes over time too
(sex, language proficiency, motivation, language ability, nationality, self-esteem,
intelligence, first language…)

a) Independent variable: variable manipulated to see whether it has an effect or not on

the dependent variable.
b) Dependent variable: variable observed to see what effects, if any, have the other
variables on it.
c) Control variable: Variable that is kept neutral or constant by the researcher, so that it
has no effect on the study.
d) Moderator variable: Variable that indicates WHEN or UNDER WHAT CONDITIONS a
particular effect can be explained.
e) Intervening variable: A hypothetical “third” variable that specifies HOW or WHY a
particular effect or relationship occurs.
 ● CONTEXTUAL FACTORS IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS RESEARCH

Brown & Rodgers categorised contextual factors that may influence the research:
international/national, professional, institutional, local and personal.

● ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS

1. Avoid any physical or mental harm to the participants in the research project.
They should try to benefit participants in some way.
2. Right to privacy
3. Informed consent (legal matters)
4. Deception is when a researcher gives false information to subjects or
intentionally misleads them about some key aspect of the research.

U3. FORMULATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS

● IDENTIFY AND CHOOSE A RESEARCH TOPIC

● REVIEW PREVIOUS RESEARCH LITERATURE
● NARROW THE TOPIC TO FOCUS ON THE RELEVANT ISSUES
● FORMULATE AN ANSWERABLE QUESTION
● STATE HYPOTHESES OF EXPECTED OUTCOME

U4. SEEKING THE ANSWER: DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES (1)

● DATA IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS: QUALITATIVE, QUANTITATIVE AND

MIXED-METHODS
● DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES:
○ QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: SAMPLING PROCEDURES AND DATA
COLLECTION TECHNIQUES (ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY, CASE STUDIES,
INTERVIEWS, INTROSPECTIVE METHODS, RESEARCH JOURNAL)
○ QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: SAMPLING PROCEDURES AND DATA
COLLECTION TECHNIQUES (QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEYS,
EXPERIMENTAL AND QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES, WEB-BASED
STUDIES)
○ MIXED-METHODS RESEARCH: CLASSROOM RESEARCH (CLASSROOM
OBSERVATION, UPTAKE SHEETS AND ACTION RESEARCH)

U5. SEEKING THE ANSWER: DATA CODING AND ANALYSIS

● DATA CODING:
○ How to code all kinds of research data?
○ How much to code?
○ When to code?
○ Quantitative research: selecting statistical software, storing data in the
computer, data screening and cleaning, data manipulation and data reduction.
○ Qualitative research: transcribing data, pre-coding and coding.
○ Mixed-methods research: data transformation.

● DATA ANALYSIS
 ○ Qualitative research: analytical tools, data interpretation and conclusion
drawing
○ Quantitative research: descriptive statistics and inferential statistics
○ Mixed-methods research: extreme case analysis, typology/category
development, multiple level analysis

U6. REPORTING RESEARCH RESULTS

● DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS: Quantitative, qualitative and mixed-methods

research

No matter the method you used, the final sections of the research should include
possible interpretations of your results, indications of the research limitations and
making suggestio ns to improve further work), as well as concluding remarks.

○ Quantitative research:
Results can be presented and interpreted in two different sections, or in the
same section under the label ‘discussion’. Even though there’s no agreement
on which information should be included in this part, Mackey and Gass
suggest some of the following elements:

A) A summary of the results in relation to the hypothesis or research

questions
B) A provision of possible reasons to aid readers understand the results
C) A comparison of results to those obtained in previous studies
D) Comments on the significance and implications or consequences of
the results within a specific theory or methodology, to integrate the
results into a known framework.

Sometimes the conclusions are presented in a separate section to avoid too

many parts at the end of the research report. Conclusions typically include a
summary of the research findings and comments of the limitations of the
study (contextual concerns, effects of the material on the results and role of
setting, among others), opening the door to further research on the matter.

○ Qualitative research:

Qualitative research is more open than quantitative investigation in terms of

organisation and division of the final stages of a research.

A) The result section should be a balance between the data presentation

and the researcher’s own interpretations of the results.
B) If a separate discussion section is offered, it should provide further
information related to literature review in the first part of the study.
C) The report should end with conclusions in which you should include
the same elements as mentioned for quantitative studies.
 ○ Mixed-methods research: If you consider your research as mainly quantitative
or qualitative, when dealing with this final sections of a mixed-methods
research, you should include all information needed to provide the best
explanation of your data.

● WRITING UP REPORTS

It is extremely important to take into consideration the needs and expectations of the
audience when reporting a research study, because it is only when the project is
known by the community that it becomes meaningful.

Regarding language, the research study should follow the appropriate format of
academic writing: communicate your results as well as being part of your
investigation. Using style manuals, such as APA, will help with the organization of the
contents and structure. You can also check applied linguistic journals which include
guidelines for publication. Or, you can also check other works related to yours and
see how they are presented.

When writing the reports for mixed-methods, one of the key challenges is the
successful integration of quantitative and qualitative data during analysis and
interpretation.