Zoonoses

Objectives
1. To define zoonotic infections and examples of pathogens
that causes zoonoses.
2. To know the major viral, bacterial, parasitic and fungal
agents that cause zoonoses and their primary virulence
factors.
3. To identify the characteristics of zoonotic and vector-
borne infections.
4. To know the normal reservoir and understand the
mechanisms of transmission; identify complications of
infections by such organisms.
5. To study the prevention, control and diagnosis of zoonotic
diseases.
6. To describe specific emerging bacterial, viral, and parasitic
zoonotic diseases.
Objectives

7. To demonstrate the connection between human and

animal health.
8. Advancement of zoonotic and food borne disease
knowledge for development of better public health policy
and action.
9. Promotion of research, extension and training in
zoonoses.
 Zoonoses
• There are 1415 species of infectious organisms known to be pathogenic
to humans, including 217 viruses and prions, 538 bacteria and rickettsia,
307 fungi, 66 protozoa and 287 helminths.
• Out of these, 868 (61%) are zoonotic in nature.
• The standard definition
‘‘those diseases and infections (the agents of) which are naturally
transmitted between (other) vertebrate animals and man’’.
• 335 emerging infectious diseases identified between 1940 and 2004
• Outbreaks were positively correlated with growing population densities
• 60.3% were zoonoses
• 71.8% of these originated in wildlife
• 80% of agents having a potential bioterrorist use are zoonotic pathogens
• Many of them have a proven link with wildlife
“Between animal and human medicine
there is no dividing line, nor should there
be”.
Founder of Modern Medicine.
Concept of one medicine
While studying Trichinella in 1855 when he
coined the term “zoonosis.”

First used this term in 1855 in his famous

“Handbook of Communicable Disease” to
describe the animal diseases secondarily
transmissible to man.
The word zoonosis (plural zoonoses) is the
combination of two Greek words: Rudolf Virchow
❑ Zoon : animals and (1821-1902)
❑ noson/nosos : disease
World Zoonoses Day - July 6

marks the day, in 1885,

when a young boy received the first
vaccine against rabies—a zoonosis, a
disease caused by a pathogen
transmitted from animals to humans.
• Emerging zoonotic diseases: are those that newly appear in human
populations or have existed previously but are now rapidly increasing in
incidence or geographical range. Examples: Ebola, HIV/AIDS and now
COVID-19
• Epidemic zoonoses: typically occur intermittently and are mostly
domestic in origin. Examples are anthrax, leishmaniasis and Rift Valley
fever. Epidemic zoonoses are often triggered by events such as climate
variability, flooding and other extreme weather, and famines. The overall
health burden of outbreak/epidemic zoonoses is much less than that of
neglected zoonoses, but because epidemic zoonoses cause ‘shocks’ to
food production and other systems, they can significantly reduce the
resilience of affected impoverished communities.
• Neglected Tropical Zoonoses: are mostly domestic in origin, and
continuously present to a greater or lesser degree in certain populations.
These common diseases affect mostly poor populations and are
commonly neglected by the international donor, standard-setting and
research communities alike as well as by national governments. It is likely
that poor detection and surveillance of these diseases diminish their
recognition and hence prioritization by researchers and policymakers.
Historical events

Hubálek and Rudolf , 2010. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-9657-9_3

 Hubálek and Rudolf , 2010. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-9657-9_3
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Susruta._Pen_drawing._Wellcome_
V0006619.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Susruta-Samhita_or_Sahottara-
Tantra_(A_Treatise_on_Ayurvedic_Medicine)_LACMA_M.87.271a-g_(1_of_8).jpg
“Epidemion” (the causes of diseases are in environment)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates#/media/File:Hippocrates.jpg
Susruta (a Brahmin priest in India) and Columella

The spread of fevers is caused by “biting flies”

(an educated Roman farmer):
Hippocrates:
 541–546: 1st plague pandemic (“Justinian”, Byzantine
Caesar; The plague of Justinian or Justinianic plague)
started in Egypt, continued in Palestine, Syria,
Constantinople, and engulfed the whole known world
including Europe (Italy, Spain, France, Germany,
Denmark, England), central Asia and China (an estimated
100 million persons succumbed out of about 142 million
contracting the disease).

1346–1352, 2nd plague

pandemic (“The Black Death”)
in Europe – it started already in

Hubálek and Rudolf , 2010. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-9657-9_3

about 1330 in central Asia,
where almost entire populations
of Tatars and Saracens had
succumbed.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian#/media/File:Plaguet03.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death#/media/File:1346-
1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg
 1759, the first veterinary school in the world
founded in Lyon, France by Claude Bourgelat.
He founded the veterinary college specifically to
combat the cattle plague (also called
the rinderpest),
•1791, The Royal Veterinary College founded in London.
•1817, beginning of pandemic cholera: India → China, Japan, Indonesia,
Russia → Baltic, England, and Ireland, then → North America, Mexico.
•1876, Koch: cultivation of the anthrax agent (Bacillus anthracis) and
detection of its ability to form spores: findings of scientific research of
infectious diseases
•1882, Louis Pasteur: serum against rabies tested on animals.
•1885, Louis Pasteur : antiserum to rabies tested on man.
•1886, Bruce: isolation of the agent (Brucella melitensis) from victims with
“Maltese fever” and its experimental transmission to monkeys.
•1897, Bang: isolation of the agent of livestock brucellosis (Brucella
abortus).
•1903, Negri observed elementary bodies of rabies virus in the CNS of rabid
animals.
•2009, a pandemic of H1N1 swine influenza: as of April 1, 2010, it
encompassed 213 countries and caused 17,483 human deaths.
•2019, COVID-19 pandemic, started in China and spread worldwide
Impact of Zoonoses
 Impact on Human Health
✓ The disability-adjusted life year (DALY) is a measure of overall
disease burden, expressed as the number of years lost due to ill-
health, disability or early death.
✓ Allows for comparison of estimates produced for various health
conditions and for ranking their impacts on the health of a
population under study
✓ A common measurement unit for morbidity and mortality
✓ It has been estimated that in low income countries, zoonoses and
diseases which recently emerged from animals make up 26 % of the
DALYs lost to infectious disease and 10 % of the total DALYs lost.
✓ Globally, an estimated 10.0 million (range, 9.0–11.1 million) people
fell ill with TB in 2018.
✓ The World Health Organisation (WHO) TB statistics for India for
2018 give an estimated incidence figure of 2.69 million cases.
✓ Rabies is estimated to cause 59 000 human deaths annually in over
150 countries, with 95% of cases occurring in Africa and Asia.
Impact on Animal Health
 Health burden – Livestock diseases
Losses Costs/Expenditure
Animal Production Loss
i. Losses due to abortions ❖ Treatment costs
ii. Losses due to temporary infertility ❖ Vaccination/
iii. Losses due to sterility in animals that
aborted preventive costs
Death Loss
❖ Service costs of
i. Peri natal mortality in young animals vaccines
ii. Mortality in adult animals that aborted ❖ Surveillance costs
Animal Product Loss
i. Losses in milk production ❖ Diagnostic costs
ii. Losses in wool production ❖ Animal Identification
iii. Losses in draught power
iv. Losses in carcass weight costs
Forgone production due to fecundity reduction ❖ Health Education
i. Foregone milk
ii. Foregone wool program costs
iii. Foregone draught power
iv. Foregone meat
✓ Animal deaths caused by zoonotic diseases can impose massive
economic losses on the livestock sector of any country. Even if animals
do not die, animal health and productivity can still be negatively
impacted.
✓ Human health and nutrition are also affected due to the reduced
supply of high-protein food of animal origin such as milk, meat, and
eggs. Zoonotic diseases, such as brucellosis, toxoplasmosis, can lead
to infertility, abortion, and weak offspring. This can cause great
economic losses to farmers and to the whole country.
✓ Zoonotic diseases such as BSE, avian influenza, and anthrax can
hamper the international trade of animals and animal products (meat,
milk, and eggs) and byproducts across the globe.
✓ The economy is also tremendously affected due to measures
required for zoonoses control and eradication such as zoonoses
surveillance, diagnosis, isolation and quarantine, restriction on animal
transportation, treatment and vaccination programs, inspection of meat
and milk, and biosecurity.
✓ From 1995 to 2008, the global economic impact of zoonotic outbreaks
has exceeded 120 billion USD.

So: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/8/9/1405
✓ It is noteworthy that the global economy was severely impacted by the
SARS outbreak, which impacted multiple sectors including the tourism
sector. The economic impact of SARS in Singapore, China, Hong
Kong, and Taiwan was severe Moreover, the emergence of the highly
pathogenic avian influenza significantly curtailed tourism to Mexico
and resulted in economic losses to the country. Likewise, India faced
economic losses due to the restriction of tourism that resulted
from the plague outbreak in 1994
✓ BSE is one of the important emerging zoonoses. When outbreaks of
BSE occurred in the UK, most European countries banned importing
British beef.
✓ The recent COVID-19 outbreak has significantly impacted the global
economy. COVID-19 has significantly impacted all sectors of the
society including health and education sectors, financial sectors,
travel and hospitality sectors, and the sports sector. Travel
industry is poised to lose significant revenue due to the pandemic.

So: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/8/9/1405
Classification of Zoonoses
Based upon etiological agent:
• Bacterial zoonoses: Zoonoses caused by bacterial agents e.g. brucellosis, plague,
salmonellosis, anthrax.
• Viral zoonoses: Zoonoses caused by viruses e.g. rabies, influenza, yellow fever.
• Rickettsial zoonoses: Zoonoses caused by rickettsia e.g. Tick typhus, Scrub
typhus
• Parasitic zoonoses: Zoonoses caused by parasites e.g. toxoplasmosis,
leishmaniosis, hydatidosis, taeniosis etc
• Fungal/mycotic zoonoses: Zoonoses caused by fungal agents e.g. histoplasmosis,
cryptococcosis.

Based on terms of reservoir host

• Anthropozoonoses: The infections transmitted from animals to man are termed as
anthropozoonoses. e.g. anthrax, brucellosis, rabies, toxoplasmosis etc.
• Zooanthroponoses: The infections transmitted from man to animals are referred as
zooanthroponoses. The infections are primarily of human origin, e.g. diptheria,
human type tuberculosis etc.
• Amphixenoses: The infection is maintained between both man and animals, which
may be transmitted in either direction, e.g. salmonellosis, E. coli etc.
Based upon the type of life cycle ➢Direct zoonoses
➢Cylozoonoses
➢Metazoonoses
➢Saprozoonoses

Direct zoonoses
The infection transmitted from the infected vertebrate host to a
susceptible vertebrate host (e.g. Man) either by direct contact, by contact
with a fomite or by a mechanical vector). During transmission the agent
undergoes NO developmental and little or no propagative changes e.g.
rabies, brucellosis, TB etc. Also known as Orthozonoses
Cyclozoonoses
The infection requires more than one vertebrate host species in order to
complete the life cycle of the agent. No invertebrate hosts are required.
Type I - Obligatory Cyclozoonoses - Man must be one of the vertebrate
hosts in these cycles e.g. Taenia saginata and T. solium infections.
Type II - Non-obligatory Cyclozoonoses - Man is sometime involved, but
the human involvement is the exception rather than the rule e.g. hydatid
disease.
Metazoonoses: The diseases/infection requires at least one invertebrate
host for the maintenance of the causal agent. Examples: Plague, viral
encephalitis etc. In the invertebrate, the agent either multiplies
(Propagative or cyclopropagative transmission), in which case the
invertebrate also serves as reservoir of infection or the agent merely
develops (developmental transmission). In the metazoonoses there is
always an extrinsic incubation period in the invertebrate hosts before
transmission to another vertebrate hosts is possible.

Depending upon the hosts required, four subtypes of metazoonoses may

be distinguished:
Subtype I- requiring one vertebrate host and one invertebrate host e.g.
yellow fever.
Subtype II - requiring one vertebrate host and two invertebrate hosts e.g.
paragonimosis.
Subtype III - requiring two vertebrate hosts and one invertebrate host e.g.
clonorchiosis.
Subtype IV - representing transovarian transmission e.g. tick borne
encephalitis.
Saprozoonoses: Saprozoonoses are those zoonoses which require a non-
animal site (soil, vegetation, environment) to serve either as a true
reservoir of infection or as a site for an essential phase of development.
Eg. Cryptococcosis and histoplasmosis.
Based on Principal host involved
• Cattle-transmitted zoonoses eg. Brucellosis
• Pig-transmitted zoonoses eg. Taeniosis, Trichinellosis
• Sheep-goat transmitted zoonoses eg. Brucellosis, Listeriosis
• Equine-transmitted zoonoses eg. Glanders
• Dog transmitted zoonoses eg. Rabies
• Fish transmitted zoonoses e.g. Diphyllobothriosis

Based on infection sharing

1. Wild animal-man shared zoonoses eg. Rabies
2. Domiciliated animal-man shared zoonoses eg. Plague
3. Domestic animal- man shared zoonoses eg. Brucellosis

Euzoonoses: In parasitic zoonotic diseases, some authors use this term

to classify diseases having man as definitive host and animals as
intermediate host. eg. Taeniasis
Occupational Health Hazards
Occupational health hazards
✓ Zoonotic diseases may be occupationally-acquired, but are not exclusively
occupational diseases. Zoonoses are occupational health hazards faced by
agricultural, industrial, veterinary, laboratory workers and animal handlers.
✓ A wide variety of communicable diseases and parasitic infections can be
classified as occupational diseases.
✓ Some diseases/zoonoses have significantly higher attack rates on workers in
the course of their occupations than the rest of population.
✓ Workers who may be at risk of zoonotic infections include those who work in:
❖ contact with live or dead infected animals e.g. farmers, veterinarians,
animal removal services, local authority workers, zoo keepers, pet shop
workers;
❖ contact with aerosols, dust or surfaces contaminated with animal
secretions;
❖ animal trade, breeding or slaughtering facilities;
❖ contact with contaminated water or land e.g. outdoor leisure workers,
wastewater treatment workers, construction workers, forestry workers,
landscapers/gardeners;
❖ cleaning or disinfection jobs in contaminated areas;
research laboratories; or
❖ customs officials.
➢ Occurrence of Anthrax in carpet weavers, livestock raisers and
workers working with animal hair in textile industries
Woolsorters’ disease
➢ Leptospirosis in rice field workers
➢ Listeriosis in agricultural workers
➢ Erysipeloid in butchers and fish handlers
➢ Tularemia, trypanosomiasis in hunters
➢ Creeping eruption in plumbers, trench diggers
➢ Kyasanur Forest disease in wood cutters, hunters
➢ Q fever in abattoir and meat rendering plant workers
➢ Yellow fever and tick borne disease in wood cutters
➢ Salmonellosis in food processors
➢ Contagious ecthyma in sheep shearers
➢ Rabies in veterinarians and dog control employees
➢ Brucellosis in veterinarians and dairy farmers
Occupational Zoonoses in Southeast Asia
Farmers working with pigs, chicken, goat, sheep and cows had
occupational exposures to:
• Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
• Leptospirosis
• Streptococcus suis
• Avian influenza H5N1
• Scrub typhus
• Schistosomiasis
• Non-typhoidal salmonella enterica
• Cephalosporin-resistant Escherichia coli
• Hepatitis E virus
• and various respiratory and diarrheal pathogens
Transmission cycles
Zoonotic diseases persist in the nature by propagating through three main
transmission cycles.
Sylvatic cycle
The pathogen is confined to wild vertebrates in forests and propagates among
wild animals. When man enters forest ecosystem (hunters and forest rangers) or
domestic animals stray in the forest, they are likely to be exposed to these
infections. Thus, sylvatic human cycle or sylvatic domestic animal cycle may get
enforced, e.g. kyasanoor forest disease, monkey pox etc.

Synanthropic cycle
The pathogens occur and propagate in domestic animals via synanthropic
animals like rodents, birds and lizards which live in association with humans or
around human dwellings. Man is often exposed to zoonotic diseases
propagating in the synanthropic cycle, e.g. plague, tularemia, etc.
Human cycle:
These infections persist in nature in man to man cycle and can also pass from
man to animals, e.g. human tuberculosis. However, retrograde transmission from
man to animal is rare.
In many cases man is the cul-de-sac for pathogens like Trichinella spiralis which is
known to occur in sylvatic cycle. Nevertheless, the possibility of the parasite
getting into pig-rodent-pig or pig-to-pig synanthropic cycle and then infecting
man through pork cannot be ruled out.
Zoonotic nidus is defined as an ecological niche where potential zoonotic
pathogens are present in the animals along with the suitable vectors or factors
favouring their transmission.
These places are of focal distribution where the flora and fauna supporting the life
of the vertebrate hosts and vectors of pathogens are available.
When man enters into this zoonotic nidus or disturbs the ecology by
deforestation, cultivation, etc. these animal diseases are directed towards man.
Modes of transmission

Zoonoses may be transmitted from the reservoir or source of infection to a susceptible

host in many different ways.
The important modes of transmission are classified into two groups:
• Direct transmission
• Indirect transmission
Direct transmission

1. By direct contact: Certain diseases are transmitted by

direct contact between the source of infection and the susceptible
host, e.g. leptospirosis, pox, dermatophytosis.
2. Droplet infection: Direct projection of droplet spray of saliva
or nasopharyngeal secretions on conjunctiva or mucus
membranes of other host. It is generally seen during sneezing,
coughing or talking, e.g. tuberculosis, common cold, diphtheria.
3. Contact with soil: Exposure of susceptible tissues to disease
agent in soil or decaying matter will cause transmission, e.g.
hookworm infection, tetanus.
4. Bite of an animal: e.g. rabies.
5. Transplacental/vertical transmission: Transmission of infection
from one generation to other i.e. from mother to offspring, e.g.
toxoplasmosis
Indirect transmission
1. Vector-borne transmission: A vector is an arthropod or any living carrier
(e.g. snail) that transmits an infectious agent to a susceptible host.
Transmission by vector may be mechanical or biological.
(a) Mechanical transmission: An infectious agent is mechanically
transmitted and there is no development or multiplication of an infectious
agent on or within the vector, e.g. amoebiasis, cholera.
(b) Biological transmission: An infectious agent undergoes growth and
multiplication in vector and requires an incubation period before it can
transmit the disease. Biological transmission is of four types:
(i) Propagative type: The agent merely multiplies in the vector but does
grow, e.g. plague bacilli in rat fleas.
(ii) Cyclo-propagative type: The agent undergoes both growth and
multiplication in the vector, e.g. malaria parasites in mosquitoes.
(iii) Cyclo-developmental type: The agent undergoes only development
but no multiplication, e.g. microfilaria in mosquitoes.
(iv) Transovarian type: The agent is transmitted from one generation to
other, e.g. tick borne encephalitis.
Vehicle-borne transmission

Vehicle borne transmission implies transmission of an infectious

agent through the agency of water, food (including meat, milk,
fish, fruits and vegetables), blood, serum and other biological
products such as tissues and organs.
Infectious agent may be transmitted mechanically or biologically
through the vehicle, e.g. water – hepatitis A virus, meat -
salmonellosis, Trichinella spiralis, milk - tuberculosis, brucellosis,
fish ¬Diphyllobothrium latum, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, blood -
hepatitis B virus, organ - cytomegalo virus in kidney transplants.
 Air borne transmission

(I) Droplet nuclei. Are the minute particles implicated in the spread of
air-borne infections and formed either by evaporation 'of cough or in
laboratory, slaughterhouse or autopsy room. The droplet nuclei may
remain air borne for long period of time and may be disseminated by
air currents to different places, e.g. tuberculosis, Q-fever.
(ii) Dust. Are larger droplets, which are expelled during talking,
coughing or sneezing and settle down along with dust and cause air-
borne transmission e.g. streptococcal infection, fungal spores.
Fomite-borne infections

Fomite-borne infections: Fomites are particles or substances

capable of transmitting infectious agent.
Fomites include soil, clothes, towels, cups, glasses, spoons, door
handles, lavatory chains, etc., e.g. diptheria, typhoid fever and
skin infections.

Unclean hands and fingers

Hands are most common medium by which pathogenic agents
are transferred to food from skin, food, bowels, etc., e.g.
staphylococcosis, streptococcosis, salmonellosis, colibacillosis.
 Approaches for management of Zoonoses

The basic principles of zoonoses prevention

control and eradication involves:
• Reservoir neutralization
• Reducing contact potential
• and increasing host resistance

Source: DOI: 10.34297/AJBSR.2019.03.000660

Reservoir neutralization

Reservoir neutralization involves preventing spread of infection by removing the

infected individual from the reservoir or by manipulation of the environment
where the reservoir resides.
Three methods used to neutralize the reservoir are
➢ removing infected individual,
➢ rendering infected individuals, “non shedder”
➢ and manipulating the environment.
The removal of infected individual can be accomplished by means of a
❖test and slaughter,
❖and mass therapy.
Infection may be removed from a herd by testing and slaughtering those found
to be infected.
This method has been successfully used to control bovine brucellosis and
tuberculosis as well as equine dourine and glanders.
To be effective, a sufficiently sensitive and specific test is required, i.e. all
infected animals need to be detected by the test if all infection is to be erased
without removing large numbers of false-positive animals.

Source: DOI: 10.34297/AJBSR.2019.03.000660

Reservoir neutralization

Reservoir neutralization
Mass therapy is usually restricted to a local situation in which all potentially
infected animals or people are treated without first testing them to identify
infected individuals.
The cost effectiveness of mass therapy as a control method increases as the
prevalence of infection in the population increases.
For control purposes, the treatment must eliminate infection in carriers, not just
cure clinical illness.
Risks associated with mass therapy, particularly if improperly done, are the
development of resistant strains of infection agents and adverse side effect.
The antibiotic treatment of parakeets imported into the United State, to prevent
human psittacosis, and the prevention of echinococcosis by treating all dogs in a
given geographic area, to break the dog-sheep cycle is example of mass therapy
of animal reservoir.

Source: DOI: 10.34297/AJBSR.2019.03.000660

Reservoir neutralization
Reservoir neutralization
Environmental manipulation is a method of reservoir neutralization designed to
break the chain of transmission between the portal of exit of the infected
(shedder) host and the susceptible host by reducing survival of the agent in vector
of vehicle (food, water, soil, vegetation).
The environment of concern is wherever the agent may be found outside the
vertebrate host.
A limitation is that it is a local measure, effective only in the immediate area
where the control is instituted.
Various parasitic control strategies that provide example of this approach are
proper fecal waste disposal (acting on the portal of exit)
disinfection of fecal wastes
and pasture rotation to decrease exposure of susceptible hosts (portal of entry)
Provision of adequate toilet facilities, coupled with education and supervision to
ensure their use, will prevent the spread of Taenia solium from feedlot employees
to pigs.
Introduction of sterilized males, which has been very effective in eradicating
screwworms, depends upon the life cycle and breeding patterns of the arthropod.

Source: DOI: 10.34297/AJBSR.2019.03.000660

Reducing Contact Potential

Three methods are used:

• isolation and treatment of cases,
• quarantine of possibly infected individuals,
• and population control.
Note the different use of terms,
Isolation - of known cases of infection and Quarantine - of individuals
suspected of having been exposed.
Simply put, isolation is designed to keep the agent in, whereas
quarantine is designed to keep the agent out.

Source: DOI: 10.34297/AJBSR.2019.03.000660

Increasing host resistance
Preventing infection is the ideal, but in many instances, increasing
host resistance may only lessen the severity of disease, without an
equal increase in resistance to infection.
In veterinary medicine, genetic selection for resistance and reducing
stress by improving nutrition or by better shelter is routine
procedure.

Source: DOI: 10.34297/AJBSR.2019.03.000660

Chemoprophylaxis: contrasts with mass therapy in that, in the
latter, medication is administered on the assumption that the
recipient is infected whereas chemoprophylaxis attempts to
prevent infection or at least reduced the severity of the disease.
In contrast to immunization it is passive means of increasing host
resistance, lasting only if the drug lasts.
Immunization
Vaccine is used for two purposes,
to protect susceptible individual from infection or disease
and to prevent transmission of infectious agents by creating an immune
population.
To be most effective in controlling disease, the stimulus of immunization
should be sufficient to prevent infection as well as disease.
In maintenance hosts, no reduction in the reservoir of infection occurs if
only disease is prevented.

Source: DOI: 10.34297/AJBSR.2019.03.000660

Zoonotic disease threats
Zoonotic disease threats include:
• zoonotic disease events and emergencies
• endemic zoonotic diseases
• new or emerging zoonotic diseases
• other threats at the human-animal-environment interface such as
antimicrobial resistance (AMR), food safety, and food security
 The multisectoral, One Health approach
to control zoonoses

Multisectoral means that more than one sector is working together

(e.g. on a joint program or response to an event), but does not imply
that all relevant sectors are working together.
Multidisciplinary means that multiple disciplines are working
together (i.e. in a single ministry or research institute employing
physicians, nurses, veterinarians, epidemiologists, laboratory scientists,
basic scientists, and/or other health professions).
Events, scenarios and locations requiring
coordinated investigation – T. solium cysticercosis
The multisectoral, One Health approach to control zoonoses
• A One Health approach always involves multisectoral collaboration, but
the term multisectoral does not always mean that all relevant sectors,
including the human health, animal health, and environment sectors,
are engaged. Taking a One Health approach means that all relevant
sectors and disciplines are involved.
Benefits of an effectively-implemented multisectoral, One Health approach for
zoonotic diseases
• Response to zoonotic disease events and emergencies is more timely and
effective.
• All sectors have the information they need.
• Decisions are based on accurate and shared assessments of the situation.
• Accountability to each other and to decision makers ensures action by all
sectors.
• Regulations, policies, and guidelines are realistic, acceptable, and
implementable by all sectors.
• All sectors understand their specific roles and responsibilities in the
collaboration.
• Technical, human, and financial resources are effectively used and equitably
shared.
• Gaps in infrastructure, capacity and information are identified and filled.
• Advocacy for funds, policies, and programmes is more effective.
Why multisectoral approaches are required?
Successful public health interventions require the cooperation of human,
animal, and environmental health partners.
Professionals in human health (doctors, nurses, public health practitioners,
epidemiologists), animal health (veterinarians, paraprofessionals,
agricultural workers), environment (ecologists, wildlife experts), and other
areas of expertise need to communicate, collaborate on, and coordinate
activities.
Other relevant players in a One Health approach could include law
enforcement, policymakers, agriculture, communities, and even pet
owners.
No one person, organization, or sector can address issues at the animal-
human-environment interface alone.
Costs and benefits

• Taking a multisectoral, One Health approach to zoonotic diseases makes

the best use of limited resources of money and personnel, improving the
efficiency and effectiveness of zoonotic disease management,  so that
costs are reduced. 
• Results may be measured simply as reduced morbidity and mortality,  or
by cost-benefit analyses using economic data.
Costs and benefits

• In addition to improved public health outcomes, strengthening systems and

coordination across the human health, animal health and environment
sectors can provide a strong return on investment.
• Costs are reduced by avoiding duplication of activities and performance may
improve by improving synergies – e.g. sharing of laboratory facilities by
multiple sectors.
•  Reduced risks from zoonotic diseases also reduce indirect societal losses
such as impacts on livelihoods of small producers, poorer nutrition, and
restriction of trade and tourism that, when included, bring the global costs
of some recent zoonotic disease events to tens of billions of dollars.
• A multisectoral, One Health approach makes it easier to advocate for
interventions that benefit all sectors but impose costs on only one (e.g.,
costs of vaccinating dogs against rabies are borne by the animal health
sector, but provide major public health benefits).
• The value added for each of the sectors can justify investment in this
approach to zoonotic diseases, serve as an advocacy tool, and help policy-
makers understand how costs and benefits are shared across sectors.
The Sustainable Development Goals, zoonotic diseases and the One
Health approach

• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (18), entitled “Transforming

our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”, aim to
eradicate poverty and achieve sustainable development.
• These goals take an integrated approach, stress equity and
sustainability, and are relevant to all countries.
• At national, regional and global levels, indicators for measuring progress
towards achieving the SDGs have become a priority for national
governments.
• Taking a multisectoral, One Health approach for zoonotic diseases that
addresses the interconnectedness of health and its social and economic
determinants aligns with the SDG framework.
• Health is a critical consideration in achieving the 17 goals, and taking a
One Health approach in health activities will support making progress in
achieving the SDGs.
• The SDGs themselves reflect a One Health approach, ensuring that
healthy people and animals live on a healthy planet.
•
INFOSAN encourages a One Health approach to food safety emergency
response

• Launched in 2004, the International Food Safety Authorities Network

(INFOSAN) is a global network of national food safety authorities from
188 Member States, managed jointly by FAO and WHO.
• The goal of INFOSAN is to prevent the international spread of
contaminated food and foodborne disease, and strengthen food safety
systems globally by taking a multisectoral, One Health approach.