Annabel Tran

Ancient history: Pompeii and Herculaneum

THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND NATURAL FEATURES OF
CAMPANIA
o Pompeii and Herculaneum is located in Campania, a fertile region 200 km south of Rome. The fertile
soil is due to volcanic activity.
o The coastal setting of these towns provided opportunities for trade, and resources from the sea and
resources from the fertile lands.
o Fishing was major industry. A Pompeiian specialty was garum (a fermented fish sauce)
o Pompeii and Herculaneum developed several goods and services
o Herculaneum was on the bay of Naples, and located on a slightly sloping, small volcanic plateau which
fell sheer to the sea.
o Pompeii is at the mouth of Sarno River, close to the bay of Naples on a small natural hill.

RESOURCES
o Wine, olives, olive oil, grain, fish, wheat, and barley. 
Area around Vesuvius was very fertile due to the volcanic soil; this made it ideal for agriculture.
o Bay was abundant with sea life, breeding ground for fish. Fishing was major industry for Pompeii and
Herculaneum
o Pompeii had network of roads to other towns; trading was big part of commercial activity. 

SOURCES TO REMEMBER
o It was described as a ‘flat, but all of its unfruitful, and looks ash- coloured, and it shows pore-like
cavities in masses of rock that are soot- coloured on the surface’
o Campania was described as “the fairest of all regions not only in Italy but the whole world. Nothing
can be softer that its climate: indeed, its flowers twice a year. Nowhere is the soil more fertile”
o Described to be ‘nowhere is the climate gentler...nowhere is the soil richer’

PLANS & STREETSCAPES OF POMPEII & HERCULANEUM

o Pompeii covered 66 hectares surrounded by defensive walls.
o There are four main areas that were developed, the forum, the insulae or blocks fronting the via
Sabiana, region VI and the eastern area.
o There was a Greek influence that can be seen in the layout of the roads and streets that divided the
town.
o Pompeii was surrounded by a series of defensive stone walls with 12 towers and 8 gateways leading
into town.
o Gates were positioned at the end of the main thoroughfares.
o Pompeii demonstrates Roman’s skill in road making. Stones were provided for pedestrians as well as
providing access for wheeled traffic.
o Herculaneum had less traffic and more efficient drainage and sewerage systems.
o Romans had names for highways, and created a legislated law that roads had to be 5m wide.

SOURCES TO REMEMBER
o Through photographs we can see grooves and edges created to give access to wheeled vehicles as well
as footpaths created for pedestrians.
o Giuseppe Fiorelli introduced a system to locate houses and buildings on plans of the area. He divided
Pompeii into nine regions and numbered each separate block or insula within a region

THE ERUPTION OF AD 79 AND ITS IMPACT ON POMPEII AND

HERCULANEUM
o The eruption of Mt Vesuvius resulted in the complete destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum and
surrounding areas.
Annabel Tran

o Animals had been behaving differently the previous days as they were able to sense changes in the
environment.
o Using the stratigraphy, it was established that the eruption occurred in phases. The eruption of
Vesuvius deposited 6 layers of materials as well as 6 pyroclastic surge layers.
o First stage- A cloud of ash and pumice erupted 20km into the air and was described as the “Plinian
phase”. Pliny the younger compared the clouds to a pine tree, rising on a tall trunk and splitting into
branches. The ash and pumice fell onto the streets and buildings of Pompeii for 17 hours. The ash and
pumice were more than 2.7m deep, heavy enough to have caused buildings to collapse. Most
Pompeiians used this opportunity to flee, however people at Herculaneum were not directly affected as
wind carried ash and pumice away from their town.
o Second stage- 6 pyroclastic surges of hot ash and poisonous gases, travelling at speeds of 100km to
300km per hour. The first surge and flow killed those remaining at Herculaneum but did not reach
Pompeii. The second surge dissipated before reaching Pompeii. The third and fourth stage and flows
covered Pompeii, killing those remaining. The fifth and sixth surges completely buried Herculaneum
and Pompeii.

SOURCES TO REMEMBER
o Pliny the younger’s letter to Tacitus recounts the eruption “The cloud was rising from a mountain - at
such a distance we couldn't tell which, but afterwards learned that it was Vesuvius. I can best describe
its shape by likening it to a pine tree. It rose into the sky on a very long "trunk" from which spread
some “branches”. I imagine it had been raised by a sudden blast, which then weakened, leaving the
cloud unsupported so that its own weight caused it to spread sideways. Some of the cloud was white, in
other parts there were dark patches of dirt and ash.

EARLY DISCOVERIES AND THE CHANGING NATURE OF EXCAVATIONS

IN THE 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES
o Pompeii and Herculaneum lay underground for 1600 years before the first ruins were discovered. It
was further 150 years before systematic excavations began.
o Pompeii was discovered in the 1590s
o Early excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum were “treasure hunts” rather than archaeological
excavations. Objects such as statues, columns and wall paintings were removed, without their location
being recorded.
o Weber and La Vega improved excavations.
o A large excavation began in 1805 and 1815 under the rule of the French king, while it was supervised
by the French architect Francis Mazois. There were 1500 men and they made detailed records of the
excavations which was published as Les Ruines de Pompeii

REPRESENTATIONS OF POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM OVERTIME

o Pliny the younger’s written account is the first known representation that provides us with the most
detailed primary evidence.
o From the 18th century onwards, European artists have produced engravings and paintings that portray
elements of his account.

SOURCES TO REMEMBER
o Karl Briullov’s 1830 masterpiece, The Last Days of Pompeii, which was famous in its day, depicts the
terrified inhabitants cowering beneath a sky filled with fire and smoke, or trying to rescue those
crushed by falling masonry.
o A painting by Pierre- Henri de valenciennes in 1813 depicts the eruption of Mt Vesuvius

LIMITATIONS OF SOURCES
o Some gaps in the evidence are due to the nature of the ancient societies, e.g. we know very little about
women of the lower classes. They had few possessions, left no written records and were not written
about by others.
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o Other gaps are due to the destruction of the eruption, e.g. few wooden objects survived in Pompeii, or
the nature of the excavation, e.g. few buildings have been uncovered at Herculaneum.
o Looting and destruction of the sites which have depleted the sources available for drawing conclusions
about some aspects of life

RELIABILTY OF SOURCES
o Pliny the Younger’s letters to Tacitus, for example, are assumed to be reliable eye-witness account of
the eruption of Vesuvius. However, these letters were written from memory many years after the
eruption and may partly be motivated to glorify the role of Pliny the Elder.
o The business and legal documents recorded on wax tablets provide valuable information about such
transactions. The purpose of the documents makes them reliable sources of evidence such as
transactions
o Commemorative inscriptions: useful in providing information about individuals, such as positions in
local government or priesthoods they may have held, but typically they will highlight only positive
aspects of the person being commemorated.

INVESTIGATING AND INTERPRETING THE SOURCES FOR POMPEII AND

HERCULANEUM
The evidence provided by the range of sources
o Streetscapes
o Public and private buildings
o Ancient writers
o Official inscriptions
o Graffiti
o Wall paintings
o Statues
o Mosaics
o Humans, animal and plant remains

THE ECONOMY: ROLE OF THE FORUM, TRADE, COMMERCE, INDUSTRIES,

OCCUPATIONS
o The economy of Pompeii and Herculaneum consisted of trade, commerce, industries, occupations, and
agriculture. All class participated in the economy which can be seen in the graffiti “All Hail, profit”

ROLE OF THE FORUM (FORA)

o The rectangular limestone area was the political, economic and religious centre of Pompeii.
o The forum was a small part of economic life in Pompeii.

TRADE
o Materials were both exported and imported into Pompeii.
o The Sarnus River connected Pompeii to smaller inland towns, thus allowing for trade to occur.
o Evidence of Pompeian goods have been found throughout the roman Empire.

SOURCES/EVIDENCE
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COMMERCE
o Pompeii was a market town that sold agricultural produce.
o Commerce in Pompeii was centred around the public buildings within the forum and the surrounding
areas.
o Herculaneum was not a commercial or trading town, however it was home to shops that served its
population
o There are shops (tabernae) that are attached to most houses Shops can be recognised by a wide
opening onto the street with grooves for where doors or shutters would have been.
o Paintings on walls indicated the names of the shops
o Thermopolia (take away food shops) are identified by the marble-topped bar with dolia for
holding food and drink. As most houses did not have kitchens, these were very popular businesses.
o Asellina employed foreign waitresses, who may have been prostitutes. Customers' debts were scribbled
across the walls and political advertisements were painted on the outside walls.

INDUSTRIES
Wine and olive oil
o Wine and olive were important local industries, both for local consumption for export.
o Rich families made their money from producing wine and olive oil.
o Wine presses were discovered in Villas (villa of mysteries) and large dolia for storage.
o Epigraphic evidence for a variety of wines on sale were found on bar walls and inscriptions
o Forum markets may have housed an olive oil market

Fishing and Garum

o Pompeii produced Garum which was fish sauce
o The garum produced was exported to other parts of Rome as well as Spain and North Africa.
o Pliny the elder described the fish sauce as “ guts of fish and anything else which would have been
discarded, steeped in salt”
o A mosaic of garum was found in the hours of A umbricus Scaurus
o Over 50 bottles of Garum have been found in Pompeii

Cloth Manufacture
o Another industry at Pompeii was cloth manufacture.
o Urine was a source of ammonia that was used as a part of the process.

Bakeries
o Bakeries were common in Pompeii with 40 being identified
o Bread was a staple in the Roman diet.
o The government established “grain dole” this provided poorer citizens with free grain.
o In wealthier houses evidence of private baking was discovered.
o Carbonised loaves of bread have been found both in Pompeii and Herculaneum giving us an
understanding of what the bread was like.

Occupations
o Pompeii had a large community of artisans that included artists, metalworkers, potters and
glassblowers.
o There were tradesmen, wealthy merchants, manufacturers and service industries employing bakers,
innkeepers, bath attendants and brothel keepers.
Annabel Tran

SOCIAL STRUCTURE: MEN, WOMEN, FREEDMEN, SLAVES

Men
o Freeborn men- they were the elite of Pompeii and Herculaneum. They owned local land and engaged in
business. They were able to have the best seats in the theatre and amphitheatre, most statues, and best
tombs
o Freedmen- They went into business and became wealthy. They were unable to join the political office
however they were able to have an influence through priesthood of a cult.

Women
o There is limited evidence when it comes to women as they were infrequently represented in the written
record. The limited evidence of women can be seen through statues, frescos, mosaics, and graffiti.
o Women were unable to vote or hold political positions. They were able to express their political
opinions, this can be seen through electoral graffiti that was written by females.
o Women were able to own slaves and conduct business transactions
o Women were housewives and raised the children.
o Upper class women could write and read
o Prostitutes were primarily female and worked in brothels of Pompeii.
o Evidence of a wall painting from the Villa of Mysteries shows women completing domestics jobs

Slaves
o Slaves made up 40% of the population of Pompeii
o Slaves were used in public baths and commercial businesses. They worked at home, in workshops and
shops that belonged to their owners. They also worked in vineyards and on the fields ploughing and
harvesting
o More highly educated slaves were secretaires and tutors.
o Slaves were bought and sold, this was recorded on wax tablets

LOCAL POLITICAL LIFE: DECURIONES, MAGISTRATES, COMITIUM

Pompeii and Herculaneum were a self-municipality an was organised in accordance with roman law.

Political life in Herculaneum

Men who rose to prominence during the Augustan period are known for their generosity to Herculaneum. They
were able to rise to prominence through paying for public buildings and gave dinners for the decurions and
Augustales. In return they were elected to public office and had buildings named in their honour.

The evidence of elections

The evidence was electoral graffiti that can be seen around Pompeii. Over 1500 notices have been discovered
around Pompeii. These were painted on open wall spaces.
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SOURCES AND EVIDENCE

o Wall of Asselina’s Inn painted with election programmata, Pompeii
o Political inscription, new excavations. One of these is probably linked to an important and wealthy
family of the time, the albucii, owners of the very famous The house the silver wedding.
o Graffiti 1: "I ask you to make A. Vettius Firmus aedile. He is worthy. Caprasia asks with Nymphius,
together with the neighbours. (We) ask you to vote for him."
o Graffiti 2: "The inhabitants of the saltworks district recommend M Cerrinius as aedile."

EVERYDAY LIFE: HOUSING, LEISURE ACTIVITIES, FOOD AND

DINING, CLOTHING, HEALTH, BATHS, WATER SUPPLY, SANITATION

Housing
The excavation of housing allowed for extremely valuable archaeological sources, it allowed for an insight into
the development and changes that took place in housing and urban life. Through housing we can see the levels
of wealth and where certain citizens stood in the hierarchy. E.g poorer residents, such as the shopkeepers and
craftsmen lived in one room apartments or cramped living spaces. While wealthy people constructed elaborate,
multi roomed dwellings.

 Incorporated both residential and commercial facilities e.g. House of Stephanus 🡪 fullery
 Atrium-peristyle house 🡪 wealthy 
 Natural light illuminated rooms in wealthy 
 Atrium: large central room, foyer of the house 
 Impluvium: small pool to catch rainwater 
 Tablinium: branched off atrium, reception room, where master would receive clients 
 Compluvium 
 Peristyle: outdoor garden 
 Triclinium: dining room
 Tabernae: shop attached to house 
 Lararium: household shrine 
 Kitchens, Bedrooms 
o House of the Faun (Pompeii)
 Named after bronze statue of dancing faun 
 Alexander the Great mosaic 
 Fresco found  flora and fauna along Nile River 
 Cover entire insulae 
 House of the Tragic Poet (Pompeii)
 Named after mosaic in Tablinium actors performing Greek drama
 Atrium image of Zeus and Hera 
 Peristyle imaginary garden scene on wall 
 Peristyle fresco of sacrifice of Iphigenia 
 House of the Vettii (Pompeii)
 Named after Vettii brothers 
 Peristyle with fluted Doric columns 
 Atrium fresco of fertility God Priapus 
 Well-preserved lararium 
Architecture can tell us about the standard of living, Greek influences, building materials, class differences
Leisure activities
- Pompeiians and Herculaneum would go to the theatre for leisure to watch gladiators’ fights and
exercise and interact at baths and banquets.
- The amphitheatre at Pompeii seated 25000 people showing us that Pompeiians enjoyed watching the
gladiatorial games.

Food and dining

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Annabel Tran