S-BIOL316 GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY LECTURE

Module 2: Introduction to Microbiology

MODULE 2-Handout

INTRODUCTION TO
MICROBIOLOGY

https://www.philpoteducation.com/mod/book/view

Biological Sciences Department

College of Science and Computer Studies
De La Salle University-Dasmariñas
Dasmariñas City, Cavite

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Module 2: Introduction to Microbiology

2.0 INTRODUCTION

In this module, you will investigate the amazing diversity of microbial life. You will go back
through time and recognize significant events in the discovery of microorganisms, and the
contributions of different scientists to the field of microbiology. You will also learn the significant
roles microbes play in health, food, and the environment.

3.0 COMPOSITION OF MICROBIAL WORLD

Microorganisms are organisms too small to be seen clearly by the unaided eyes. They are very
small life forms so small that individual microorganisms cannot be seen without magnification.
They include fungi, bacteria, algae, protozoa and viruses. Some microorganisms however, like
the eukaryotic microorganisms are visible without magnification.
The cell is the fundamental unit of life; a single cell is an entity isolated from other cells. Two
fundamental different types of cells exist among microorganisms; they are prokaryotic and
eukaryotic.

5.0 HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF MICROBIOLOGY (Tortora et al. 2018)

5.1 First Observations
The advent of the microscope permitted the studying of microorganisms. The first microscopes
were simple ground glass lenses that magnified images of previously unseen microorganisms.
Among the first to observe this previously unseen and invisible microbial world were Robert
Hooke and Anthony van Leeuwenhoek.

Robert Hooke (1635-1703)

 an English mathematician and natural historian coined the term “cells” to describe the “little
boxes” he observed in examining cork slices with a compound microscope.
 the first to make a known description of microorganisms and recorded in his book
Micrographia.

Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

 a draper and an amateur microscope builder.
 he learned lens grinding as a hobby and made over 100 simple microscopes each capable
of magnifying an image about 300 times.
 the first person to publish extensive and accurate observations of microorganisms.
 known as the father of bacteriology

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5.2 Spontaneous Generation

The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC) was one of the earliest recorded scholars to
articulate the theory of spontaneous generation, the notion that life can arise from nonliving
matter. Aristotle proposed that life arose from nonliving material if the material
contained pneuma (“vital heat”). As evidence, he noted several instances of the appearance of
animals from environments previously devoid of such animals, such as the seemingly sudden
appearance of fish in a new puddle of water
(http://www.sju.edu/int/academics/cas/resources /gppc/pdf/Karen%20R.%20Zwier.pdf).
Italian physician Francesco Redi (1626–1697), performed an experiment in 1668 that was
one of the first to refute the idea that maggots (the larvae of flies) spontaneously generate on
meat left out in the open air (Figure 1). 

Figure 1. Francesco Redi’s (1668) experiment disproving spontaneous generation.

In 1745, John Needham (1713–1781) published a report of his own experiments, in which he
briefly boiled broth infused with plant or animal matter, hoping to kill all preexisting microbes.
He then sealed the flasks. After a few days, Needham observed that the broth had become
cloudy and a single drop contained numerous microscopic creatures. He argued that the new
microbes must have arisen spontaneously
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter /spontaneous-generation/).

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Module 2: Introduction to Microbiology

Figure 2. John Needham’s (1745) experiment supporting spontaneous generation.

Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729–1799) did not agree with Needham’s conclusions, however,
and performed hundreds of carefully executed experiments using heated broth. As in
Needham’s experiment, broth in sealed jars and unsealed jars was infused with plant and
animal matter. Spallanzani’s results contradicted the findings of Needham: Heated but sealed
flasks remained clear, without any signs of spontaneous growth, unless the flasks were
subsequently opened to the air. This suggested that microbes were introduced into these
flasks from the air. In response to Spallanzani’s findings, Needham argued that life
originates from a “life force” that was destroyed during Spallanzani’s extended boiling.
Any subsequent sealing of the flasks then prevented new life force from entering and causing
spontaneous generation
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/spontaneous-generation/).
The debate over spontaneous generation continued well into the nineteenth century, with
scientists serving as proponents of both sides. To settle the debate, the Paris Academy of
Sciences offered a prize for resolution of the problem. Louis Pasteur, a prominent French
chemist who had been studying microbial fermentation and the causes of wine spoilage,
accepted the challenge. In 1858, Pasteur filtered air through a gun-cotton filter and, upon
microscopic examination of the cotton, found it full of microorganisms, suggesting that
the exposure of a broth to air was not introducing a “life force” to the broth but rather
airborne microorganisms.
Later, Pasteur made a series of flasks with long, twisted necks (“swan-neck” flasks), in which
he boiled broth to sterilize it (Figure 3). His design allowed air inside the flasks to be
exchanged with air from the outside, but prevented the introduction of any airborne
microorganisms, which would get caught in the twists and bends of the flasks’ necks. If a life
force besides the airborne microorganisms were responsible for microbial growth within the
sterilized flasks, it would have access to the broth, whereas the microorganisms would not. He
correctly predicted that sterilized broth in his swan-neck flasks would remain sterile as long as
the swan necks remained intact. However, should the necks be broken, microorganisms would
be introduced, contaminating the flasks and allowing microbial growth within the broth.

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Module 2: Introduction to Microbiology

Figure 3. Louis Pasteur’s (1858) experiment disproving spontaneous generation.

Pasteur’s set of experiments irrefutably disproved the theory of spontaneous generation and
earned him the prestigious Alhumbert Prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1862. In a
subsequent lecture in 1864, Pasteur articulated “Omne vivum ex vivo” (“Life only comes from
life”) (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/spontaneous-generation/).
Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902) is credited with several key discoveries. His most widely known
scientific contribution is his cell theory, which built on the work of Theodor Schwann. He was
one of the first to accept the work of Robert Remak, who showed that the origin of cells was
the division of pre-existing cells. Virchow's cellular theory was encapsulated in the
epigram Omnis cellula e cellula ("all cells (come) from cells"), which he published in 1855
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow).

5.3 Golden Age of Microbiology (Tortora et al. 2018)

The Golden age of microbiology began with the work of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch who
had their own research institute. More important there was an acceptance of their work by the
scientific community throughout the world and a willingness to continue and expand the work.
During this period, we see the real beginning of microbiology as a discipline of biology.

1858 - Pasteur finally resolved the controversy of spontaneous generation versus biogenesis
and proved that microorganisms are not spontaneously generated from inanimate
matter but arise from other microorganisms. He also found that fermentation of fruits
and grains, resulting in alcohol, was brought about by microbes and also determined
that bacteria were responsible for the spoilage of wine during fermentation.

1862 - Pasteur suggested that mild heating at 62.8°C (145°F) for 30 minutes rather than
boiling was enough to destroy the undesirable organisms without ruining the taste of the
product, the process was called Pasteurization. This led to the development of the germ
theory of disease. Became known as the “Father of Modern Microbiology / Father of

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Bacteriology.

1867 - Lord Joseph Lister (1827-1912) developed a system of antiseptic surgery designed to
prevent microorganisms from entering wounds by the application of phenol on surgical
dressings and at times it was sprayed over the surgical areas. Because of this notable
contribution, Joseph Lister is known as the Father of Antiseptic surgery.
1876 - Robert Koch worked on finding the causes of some very nasty animal diseases
(first anthrax (1876), and then tuberculosis (1882)). He gave the first direct
demonstration of the role of bacteria in causing disease. He proposed Koch
postulate which were published in 1884 and are the corner stone of the germ theory of
diseases and are still in use today to prove the etiology (specific cause) of an infectious
disease.

Koch’s four postulates are:

1. The organism causing the disease can be found in sick individuals but not in healthy
ones.
2. The organism can be isolated and grown in pure culture.
3. The organism must cause the disease when it is introduced into a healthy animal.
4. The organism must be recovered from the infected animal and shown to be the
same as the organism that was introduced.

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Figure 4. Koch’s Postulate.

The combined efforts of many scientists and most importantly Louis Pasteur and Robert
Koch established the Germ theory of disease. The idea that invisible microorganisms are
the cause of disease is called germ theory. This was another of the important contributions of
Pasteur to microbiology. It emerged not only from his experiments disproving spontaneous
generation but also from his search for the infectious organism (typhoid) that caused the
deaths of three of his daughters.

1877 - John Tyndall made the final blow to spontaneous generation. He conducted
experiments in an aseptically designed box to prove that dust indeed carried the
germs. He demonstrated that if no dust was present, sterile broth remained free of
microbial growth for indefinite period even if it was directly exposed to air. He
discovered highly resistant bacterial structure, later known as endospore, in the
infusion of hay. Prolonged boiling or intermittent heating was necessary to kill these
spores, to make the infusion completely sterilized, a process known as Tyndallization.

1881 - Fanne Eilshemius Hesse (1850 – 1934) one of Koch’s assistant first proposed the use
of agar in culture media. Agar was superior to gelatin because of its higher melting (i.e.
96°C) and solidifying (i.e. 40-45°C) points than gelatin and was not attacked by most
bacteria.

1883 - Elie Metchnikoff (1845-1916) discovered that some blood leukocytes, white blood cells
(WBC) protect against disease by engulfing disease-causing bacteria. These cells were
called phagocytes and the process phagocytosis. Thus, human blood cells also confer
immunity, referred to as cellular immunity.

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1887 - Koch’s another assistant Richard Petri in 1887 developed the Petri dish (plate), a
container used for solid culture media. Thus contribution of Robert Koch, Fannie Hesse
and Richard Petri made possible the isolation of pure cultures of microorganisms and
directly stimulated progress in all areas of microbiology.

1887 – Winogradsky discovered bacterial sulfide oxidation for which he first became renowned,
including the first known form of lithotrophy. His work on nitrogen cycling includes
chemosynthesis and the Winogradsky column.
1890 - Emile Roux (1853-1933) and Alexandre Yersin discovered tetanus (lock jaw)
antitoxin. Only about a week after the announcement of the discovery of tetanus
antitoxin, Von Behring in 1890 reorted on immunization against diphtheria by
diphtheria antitoxin. The discovery of toxin-antitoxin relationship was very important to
the development of science of immunology.

1892 - Dmitri Ivanowski made the first evidence of the filterability of a pathogenic agent, the
virus of tobacco mosaic disease. His work had launched the emergence of virology.

1898 – Beijerinck demonstrated that tobacco mosaic virus is caused by an infectious agent
smaller than a bacterium.
1904 - Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) found that the dye Trypan Red was active against the
trypanosome that causes African sleeping sickness and could be used therapeutically.
This dye with antimicrobial activity was referred to as a ‘magic bullet’.
1910 - Ehrlich in collaboration with Sakahiro Hata, a japanese physician, introduced the drug
Salvarsan (arsenobenzol) as a treatment for syphilis caused by Treponema pallidum.

1935 - Gerhard Domagk experimented with numerous synthetic dyes and reported that
Prontosil, a red dye used for staining leather, was active against pathogenic,
Streptococci and Staphylococci in mice even though it had no effect against that
same infectious agent in a test tube.

1928 - Sir Alexander Fleming discovered a ‘wonder drug’ called penicillin.

A dramatic turn in microbiology research was signaled by the death of Robert Koch in 1910
and advent of World War I. The Pasteur Institute was closed, and the German laboratories
converted for production of blood components used to treat war infections. Thus, came to
an end the Golden Age of Microbiology.

5.4 Modern Developments in Microbiology (Brooks 2013)

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With the advent of electron microscopes, microbiologists were concerned with the agents of
infectious disease, immune response and search for new chemotherapeutic agents and
bacterial metabolism.

1931 – Knoll and Ruska developed the first prototype electron microscope capable of four-
hundred-power magnification.

1941 – Beadle and Tatum proposed the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis. This is the idea
that genes act through the production of enzymes, with each gene responsible for
producing a single enzyme that in turn affects a single step in a metabolic pathway.

1943 – Luria and Delbruck demonstrate that in bacteria, genetic mutation arises in the
absence of selection, rather than being a response to selection.

1944 - Waksman discovered another antibiotic, streptomycin produced by two strains of

actinomycete, Streptomyces griseus 

1944 – Avery, MacLeod and McCarty demonstrated that DNA is the substance that causes
bacterial transformation, in an era when it had been widely believed that it was proteins
that served the function of carrying genetic information. It was first described in Griffith’s
experiment of 1928.

1953 – Watson and Crick completed their DNA model, which is now accepted as the first
correct model of the double-helix
 
1960s – Joseph Gall and Mary Lou Pardue developed radioactively labelled hybridisation
probes. Hybridisation probes are DNA or RNA fragments which can bind to
complementary sequences in the microbial chromosome. More user-friendly
fluorophores replaced the radioactive labels leading to the development of fluorescence
in situ hybridisation (FISH). 
1977 – Carl Woese studied ribosomal genes that led to the first scientifically based tree of life.
His work paved the way for a new method of identifying microbes based on the
nucleotide sequence of the genes encoding the small 16S ribosomal RNA subunit for
bacteria and the 18S rRNA subunit for eukaryotic organisms such as fungi.
1977 – World Health Organization eradicates smallpox
1983 – Luc Montaigner and Robert Gallo - HIV as causative agent of AIDS.
1983 – Kary Mullis developed polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that enables a target stretch of
DNA to be copied thousands or millions of times.

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Figure 5. Phylogenetic Tree of Life.

1984 – Marshall discovered Helicobacter pylori

1995 – First complete genetic sequence of a bacterium is published

One indication of the importance of Microbiology in the 20 th century is the Nobel prize given for
work in Physiology and Medicine (Table 2). About a third of these have been awarded to
scientists working on microbiological problems.

Table 2. Nobel prize awarded for research in Microbiology

Year Scientist Research Year Scientist Research
1901 Von Behring diphtheria 1954 Enders, ability of
Weller & poliomyelitis
Robbins viruses to grow
in cultures
1902 Ross malaria 1958 Lederberg genetic
recombination of
bacteria
1905 Koch tuberculosis 1966 Huggins & demonstrated
Rous that viruses can
cause cancer in
animals

1907 Laveran mosquito is the 1969 Delbruck, Discovered

agent of Hershey & genetic structure

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transmission for Luria and replication

malaria of bacteriophage
1927 Wagner- malariotherapy 1989 Bishop & retroviral
Jauregg to treat late- Varmus oncogenes
stage syphilis
1928 Nicolle epidemic 1997 Prusiner prions
typhus is
transmitted by
lice
1939 Domagk sulfa drugs 2005 Marshall & Helicobacter
Warren pylori 
1945 Fleming, penicillin 2008 Hausen human
Chain & papillomaviruses
Florey
1951 Theiler vaccine for 2008 Sinoussi & HIV
yellow fever Luc
Montagnier
1952 Waksman streptomycin
(Source: https://microbeonline.com/nobel-prizes-awarded-for-research-in-microbiology-and-immunology/)

6.0 SCOPE OF MICROBIOLOGY (Aryal 2019)

Agricultural microbiology – study to combat plant diseases that attack important food crops,
work on methods to increase soil fertility and crop yields etc. Currently there is a great interest
in using bacterial or viral insect pathogens as substitute for chemical pesticides.

Microbial ecology – study of biogeochemical cycles and bioremediation to reduce pollution

effects

Food and dairy microbiology – study to prevent microbial spoilage of food and transmission
of food borne diseases such as botulism and salmonellosis. Use microorganisms to make
foods such as cheese, yogurt, pickles and beers.

Industrial microbiology – study to make products such as antibiotics, vaccines, steroids,

alcohols and other solvents, vitamins, amino acids and enzymes.

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Microbial physiology – study the synthesis of antibiotics and toxins, microbial energy
production, microbial nitrogen fixation, effects of chemical and physical agents on microbial
growth and survival etc.

Microbial genetics – nature of genetic information and how it regulated the development and
function of cells and organisms. Development of new microbial strains that are more efficient in
synthesizing useful products.

Genetic engineering – arisen from work of microbial genetics and molecular biology.
Engineered microorganisms are used to make hormones, antibiotics, vaccines and other
products. New genes can be inserted into plants and animals.

7.0 PHILIPPINE MICROBIOLOGISTS

Although Nobel prize was given for work in Physiology and Medicine working on
microbiological problems, the Philippines also gives credit to local microbiologists whose work
improves health, agriculture and ecology (Table 3).

Table 3. National scientists and academicians awarded for research in Microbiology

Scientist Research Scientist Research
Hilario D.G. Control of Cholera, Manuel M. Vaccine
Lara Typhoid, Dysentery, Garcia
Measles, Diphtheria
Carmen C. Trematodes Jaime C. tuberculosis
Velasquez Montoya
Gregorio T. Blue-green algae Remigio M. Schistosome
Velasquez Olveda
Ernesto O. Schistosome Faustino T. Plant pathology
Domingo Orillo
Benjamin D. Filaria Asuncion K. Biotechnology
Cabrera Raymundo
Veronica F. Virology Jose N. Leprosy
Chan Rodriguez
Romulo G. Nematodes Thelma E. Streptococci

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Davide Tupasi
Edito G. Schistosome
Garcia
(Source: nast.gov.ph)

8.0 KEY TAKEAWAYS

8.1 Microorganisms, which include all single-celled microscopic organisms and the viruses,
are essential for the well-being of the planet and its plants and animals.
8.2 Metabolism, growth, and evolution are necessary properties of living systems. Cells
must coordinate energy production and consumption with the flow of genetic information
during cellular events leading up to cell division.
8.3 Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya are the major phylogenetic lineages of cells.
8.4 Microorganisms can be both beneficial and harmful to humans, although many more
microorganisms are beneficial or even essential than are harmful.
8.5 Robert Hooke was the first to describe microorganisms, and Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
was the first to describe bacteria.
8.6 Louis Pasteur is best remembered for his ingenious experiments showing that living
organisms do not arise spontaneously from nonliving matter. He developed many
concepts and techniques central to the science of microbiology, including sterilization.
8.7 Robert Koch developed a set of criteria anchored in experimentation—Koch’s postulates
—for the study of infectious diseases and developed the first methods for growth of pure
cultures of microorganisms.
8.8 Beijerinck and Winogradsky studied bacteria that inhabit soil and water.
8.9 In the middle to latter part of the twentieth century, basic and applied subdisciplines of
microbiology emerged; these have led to the current era of molecular microbiology.
8.10 Some of the notable National Scientists and Academicians worked on microbiological
problems and were given credits to improve health, agriculture and ecology

9.0 REFERENCES

Aryal S. 2019. Scope and Applications of Microbiology. [Accessed Aug 2020)

https://microbenotes.com/scope-and-applications-of-microbiology/.

Brooks HJ. 2013. Modern microbiology - a quiet revolution with many benefits. Australas Med
J. 6(7):378-381. doi:10.4066/AMJ.2013.1830

National Academy of Science and Technology. National scientists and academicians awarded for
research in Microbiology https://nast.gov.ph

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OpenStax Microbiology. Spontaneous Generation. http://cnx.org/contents/e42bd376-624b-

4c0f-972f-e0c57998e765@4.2.

Spontaneous Generation. OpenStax Microbiology. [Accessed Aug 2020)

http://cnx.org/contents/e42bd376-624b-4c0f-972f-e0c57998e765@4.2.

Tankeshwar A. 2013. Nobel Prizes Awarded for Research in Microbiology and Immunology.
[Accessed Aug 2020) https://microbeonline.com/nobel-prizes-awarded-for-research-in-
microbiology-and-immunology

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