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Formation of The Elements and Nuclear Reactions
Formation of The Elements and Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Reactions
Elements are Formed in Different Ways in our
Universe
Nucleosynthesis
• Nucleosynthesis is the process of element (nuclei) formation.
• Three types: Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Stellar (star) nucleosynthesis
Supernova nucleosynthesis
• Today, only stellar and supernova nucleosynthesis are
occurring in our universe.
• Element formation in our universe relies on nuclear fusion
reactions.
(fusion = come together)
Nuclear Fusion
• In nuclear fusion, smaller nuclei collide together
to make larger nuclei, and energy is released in
the form of electromagnetic radiation.
• Requires extremely high temperatures and
pressures beyond those found on or within
Earth. However, these temperatures and
pressures are found inside stars and did occur
during the initial formation of our universe
(during the Big Bang event).
• Fusion involves only the nuclei of atoms. At the
temperatures at which fusion can occur, matter
exists as a plasma. This is the state of matter
where the electrons have been stripped off of
the atoms. Plasma is basically a super high
energy, electrically charged gas.
• When nuclei collide, some of the mass of the
nuclei is converted to energy by Einstein’s
famous equation, E=mc2. Nuclear fusion
releases a lot of energy per gram of material;
much more energy than is released by burning a
comparable amount of wood, coal, oil, or
gasoline!
The Big Bang
• The Big Bang Theory is the most widely
accepted scientific theory about the origin of
the universe. It is supported by multiple lines
of evidence.
• The “Big Bang” was a phenomenally energetic
explosion that initiated the expansion of the
universe.
• At the moment prior to the Big Bang explosion,
all matter and energy were compressed at a
single point (a singularity – a point of infinite
density).
• We do not know what was before…..?
• The universe has been expanding ever since,
with galaxies moving farther and farther apart.
• Using the rates of expansion measured in the
universe and astronomical distances, the age
of the universe can be calculated back to the
time of the Big Bang. The age of the universe
is calculated at about 13.7 billion years old. By
contrast, our Sun and its surrounding planets
(i.e. our Solar System) is 4.65 billion years old.
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
• All Hydrogen and most Helium in the universe was produced
during the Big Bang Event, starting ~100 seconds after the
explosion. A small amount of Lithium was also produced.
Oxygen Mg, Si, S, P 1.5 billion K 10 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses
Nuclear
bullet
Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the release of energy,
in the form of energetic particles and
waves, from the nuclei of unstable
(radioactive) isotopes. Radioactive
atoms undergo fission-type reactions
in order to try to become more stable
nuclei with lower energies.
Radioactive atoms are called
radioisotopes.
• The nuclei of unstable, radioactive
isotopes have the wrong ratio of
neutrons to protons (n/p). Generally,
it is too high. When n/p of an isotope
falls between 1 to 1.5, the nucleus is
stable (within the “Band of Stability”
on a n0 vs. p+ plot). Outside of that
range, nuclei tend to be unstable and
break apart over time. This “breaking
apart” of unstable nuclei over time
and the accompanying release of
nuclear particles and energy is called
radioactive decay.
Types of Radioactive Decay – Alpha Decay
In alpha decay, an unstable
nucleus releases two
neutrons and two protons.
This is called an alpha ()
particle. It is equivalent to a
4 He nuclei. Energy is also
2
released in the process.
• Fission
Making two or
more smaller
nuclei from a
larger nucleus
Important Symbols Used in Nuclear Equations
• To write a nuclear
reaction, you Particle How written in a nuclear reaction
must remember Proton 1 1
how to read and p or H
use isotope 1 1
symbol notation Neutron 1
n
0
Electron 0 0
(Beta particle) e or β
-1 -1
• You must know
Alpha Particle 4 4
the symbols used (Helium nuclei) or He
for various 2 2
subatomic
particles like Gamma Particle or
Ray (a massless packet of pure
protons,
electromagnetic radiation, a form of
neutrons, etc.
energy)
Balancing Nuclear Reactions
Check the math on
these examples of
nuclear equations to
238 U
92
see if the sums of the
mass numbers and
the atomic numbers
32 P are the same on each
15
side of the
equations.
10 B
5 Can you figure out
which equations are
fission and which are
fusion?
Transmutation
Transmutation is a general term for the changing of chemical element
or isotope to another by changing the number of protons and/or
neutrons. Fusion and fission reactions both qualify as transmutations.
The bombardment of a nucleus by a nuclear bullet in order to change it
into another element also counts as transmutation.
Synthetic Elements
• Elements with atomic numbers Z ≥ 93
are synthetic (man-made)
• These elements have been made in
particle accelerators, either by
smashing smaller nuclei together or
else by shooting nuclear bullets at
large nuclei.
• These elements are all radioactive.
They decay over time to more stable
elements, releasing radiation (particles
and energy) from their nuclei. Some
have very short half-lives and have
only existed for fractions of a second.
• Some synthetic elements have uses for
mankind. Americium (Am) is used in
smoke detectors. Others have no
current use but were made during
basic research to better understand
atomic nuclei and the forces that hold
them together. The heaviest synthetic
element has an atomic number of 118.
It has no uses at present.