Fermi energy distribution function

Fermi energy level in semiconductor

 Hall Effect

• If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a

potential difference will generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to
both magnetic field and current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect and
potential difference generated (voltage) is called Hall voltage. In solid state
physics, Hall effect is an important tool to characterize the materials
especially semiconductors.
• It directly determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given
sample.
Current (charges are in motion) is flowing
through sample. Charges will experience force
Fm due to magnetic field.

Where q is unit charge, v is drift velocity, B is applied magnetic field

Due to Fm charges will accumulate at the opposite

faces of the sample. As charges get separated
Voltage will developed (Hall voltage). Due to this
charges will experience force FE due to developed
electric field whose direction (FE) is opposite the Fm
.At equilibrium condition
FE = Fm
&!
!"# = !% %=
'
&! = "#' w is width of sample.
 ( (
"= = Since * = '+
)!* )!'+
I is current flowing in sample
Putting the value of drift velocity in Hall voltage expression n is charge concentration
A is cross sectional area
t is thickness of sample
#'( #(
&! = "#' = =
)!'+ )!+

,!#( 1
&! = ⟹ ,! =
+ )!

&!+
,! = RH is Hall coefficient
#(
RH unit (SI) is m3/c
If RH < 0 then electrons are majority charge carriers (n type semiconductor)

If RH > 0 then holes are majority charge carriers (p type semiconductor)

! = #$% 0 is conductivity
% 1 Mobility (drift velocity / electric field)
!=
&/ e is unit charge
% = &/ !
 Solar Cell
Solar cells, also called photovoltaic cells, convert the energy of light
into electrical energy using the photovoltaic effect

The photovoltaic effect occurs in solar cells. These solar cells are composed
of two different types of semiconductors - a p-type and an n-type - that are
joined together to create a p-n junction.

Incident photons are absorbed by a photovoltaic cell. When light of a suitable

wavelength is incident on these cells, energy from the photon is transferred to
an atom of the semiconducting material in the p-n junction (depletion region).
Specifically, the energy is transferred to the electrons in the material. This
causes the electrons to jump from valence band to conduction band. This
leaves behind a "hole" in the valence band. This movement of the electron as
a result of added energy creates two charge carriers, an electron-hole pair.