Proceedings

Proceedingsof ofICMM2003
ICMM2003
Microchannels
Microchannelsand andMinichannels
Minichannels
April
April24-25,
24-25,2003,
2003, Rochester,
Rochester, New
New York,
York,
First International Conference
USA
on USA
Microchannels and Minichannels
April 24-25, 2003, Rochester, New York, USA
ICMM2003-100
ICMM2003-1020
ICMM2003-1021

KEYNOTE PAPER

CONDENSATION FLOW MECHANISMS IN MICROCHANNELS:

BASIS FOR PRESSURE DROP AND HEAT TRANSFER MODELS

Srinivas Garimella
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
garimell@iastate.edu

ABSTRACT coefficients are being developed using the documented flow

mechanisms and the corresponding pressure drop models as
This paper presents an overview of the use of flow the basis.
visualization in micro- and mini-channel geometries for the
development of pressure drop and heat transfer models
during condensation of refrigerants. Condensation flow NOMENCLATURE
mechanisms for round, square and rectangular tubes with
hydraulic diameters in the range 1–5 mm for 0 < x < 1 and D diameter (m)
150 kg/m2-s and 750 kg/m2-s were recorded using unique dP/dx pressure gradient (kPa/m)
experimental techniques that permit flow visualization G mass flux (kg/m2-s)
during the condensation process. The effect of channel L tube length (m)
shape and miniaturization on the flow regime transitions P pressure (kPa)
was documented. The flow mechanisms were categorized Re Reynolds number (dimensionless)
into four different flow regimes: intermittent flow, wavy T temperature (oC)
flow, annular flow, and dispersed flow. These flow regimes U velocity (m/s)
were further subdivided into several flow patterns within UA overall thermal conductance (W/K)
each regime. It was observed that the intermittent and x quality (dimensionless)
annular flow regimes become larger as the tube hydraulic α aspect ratio (channel height/width)
diameter is decreased, at the expense of the wavy flow ∆ change, difference
regime. These maps and transition lines can be used to ω slug frequency
predict the flow regime or pattern that will be established
for a given mass flux, quality and tube geometry. These Subscripts and Superscripts
observed flow mechanisms, together with pressure drop
measurements, are being used to develop experimentally f/b film-bubble interface
validated models for pressure drop during condensation in h hydraulic
each of these flow regimes for a variety of circular and test,i test section inlet
noncircular channels with 0.4 < Dh < 5 mm. These flow test,o test section outlet
regime-based models yield substantially better pressure drop
predictions than the traditionally used correlations that are
primarily based on air-water flows for large diameter tubes. INTRODUCTION
Condensation heat transfer coefficients were also measured
using a unique thermal amplification technique that Heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops for
simultaneously allows for accurate measurement of the low condensation inside tubes are strongly dependent on the
heat transfer rates over small increments of refrigerant different flow patterns that are established at different
quality and high heat transfer coefficients characteristic of regions of the condenser as the fluid undergoes a transition
microchannels. Models for these measured heat transfer from vapor to liquid. Accurate heat-transfer and pressure-

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 drop predictions require an approach that accounts for the
variation in flow patterns as the quality changes. Circular
and noncircular microchannel tubes are being used in a
variety of applications because of the extremely high heat
transfer coefficients that these geometries offer. Coleman
and Garimella (1999) demonstrated in a study on two-phase
flow of air-water mixtures that flow regime transitions in
such geometries are different from those observed in larger
diameter circular tubes. This is because of significant
differences between large round tubes and the smaller
noncircular tubes in the relative magnitudes of gravity,
shear, and surface tension forces, which determine the flow
regime established at a given combination of liquid and
vapor-phase velocities. Thus, extrapolation of large round
tube correlations to smaller diameters and noncircular
geometries could introduce errors into pressure drop and
heat transfer predictions.
Limited research has been conducted on addressing the
effect of tube diameter and shape on flow regimes, pressure
drop and heat transfer coefficients during condensation.
Early attempts at flow regime mapping were conducted on
relatively large tubes using air-water or air-oil mixtures
(Alves 1954; Baker 1954; Govier and Omer 1962).
Mechanistic models for transition criteria (Taitel and Dukler
1976) have achieved limited success in predicting the
available experimental data. The relatively few studies on
flow regime maps for small diameter round tubes have also
primarily used isothermal air-water mixtures (Suo and
Griffith 1964), 1.0 < D < 1.6 mm; (Barnea et al. 1983), 4 <
D < 12 mm). Damianides and Westwater (1988) and
Fukano et al. (1989) showed that the flow regime maps of
Mandhane et al. (1974), Taitel and Dukler (1976), and
Weisman et al. (1979) cannot accurately predict transitions
in small diameter tubes (1 < D < 5 mm). Most of the
research on two-phase flow in small hydraulic diameter
rectangular channels uses tubes of either small (α < 0.50) or
large (α > 2.0) aspect ratios (Hosler 1968; Jones and Zuber
1975; Lowry and Kawaji 1988; Wilmarth and Ishii 1994).
In a study on flow regime maps for 0.125 < α < 0.50 and
11.30 < Dh < 33.90 mm, Richardson (1959) showed that the
smaller aspect ratio suppressed the stratified and wavy flow
regimes and promoted the onset of elongated bubble and
slug flows. Troniewski and Ulbrich (1984) proposed
corrections for the Baker (1954) map based on the single-
phase velocity profiles in rectangular channels for
horizontal and vertical channels with 0.09 < α < 10.10 and
7.45 < Dh < 13.10 mm. Lowry and Kawaji (1988) studied
rectangular geometries with Dh < 2.0 mm and 40 < α < 60
in vertical upward flows and concluded that the Taitel and
Dukler (1976) model was not valid for narrow channel flow.
Wambsganss et al. (1991) reported flow patterns and flow
regime transitions in a single rectangular channel with
aspect ratios of 6.0 and 0.167 and Dh = 5.45 mm through
flow visualization and dynamic pressure measurements.
Wambsganss et al. (1994) extended this work to develop
criteria for transition from slug flow based on root-mean-
square pressure changes. Wang et al. (1997) developed a
2
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two-phase flow pattern map for a 6.5 mm round tube using
refrigerant R134a.
Coleman and Garimella (1999) investigated the effect
of tube diameter and shape on flow patterns and flow
regime transitions for air-water mixture flow in tubes with
small hydraulic diameters (1.3 mm to 5.5 mm). Gas and
liquid superficial velocities were varied from 0.1 m/s to 100
m/s, and 0.01 m/s to 10.0 m/s, respectively. They showed
that while pipe diameter and surface tension may have a
negligible effect on flow regime transitions in tubes with
diameters greater than 10 mm (Mandhane et al. 1974;
Weisman et al. 1979), for smaller tubes these factors play
an important role. Therefore, flow regime maps such as
those developed by Mandhane et al. (1974) based upon data
from larger tubes may not be applicable for a smaller tube
diameter range. It was also shown that the theoretical
results of Taitel and Dukler (1976) and the assumptions
inherent in these analyses may not be valid for small
diameter tubes. It was shown that as the tube diameter
decreases, the transition to a dispersed flow regime occurs
at a higher value of the superficial liquid velocity. Also, the
transition to annular flow occurs at a nearly constant value
of the superficial gas velocity, which approaches a limiting
value as the tube diameter decreases. The stratified regime
is suppressed in small diameter tubes, while the size of the
intermittent regime increases. Thus, this study showed that
the flow patterns and the respective transitions change
significantly with tube diameter and shape.
The above discussion shows that many of these studies
have investigated circular channels with much larger
hydraulic diameters than are of interest in microchannel
applications. The few studies on non-circular geometries
have investigated very large or very small aspect ratio
rectangular channels that approximate flow between parallel
plates, but are not pertinent to the microchannel condenser
tubes being used by industry. The effect of tube diameter
and shape on flow pattern transitions is not well understood,
with conflicting trends reported by different investigators.
Also, most of the studies on small Dh channels have used
isothermal air-water mixtures to simulate two-phase flow.
However, due to the adiabatic flow in these studies, the
results are not directly applicable to phase-change
situations.
To address the deficiencies in the literature documented
above, a comprehensive study of condensation of refrigerant
R134a in several different circular and noncircular channels
of varying hydraulic diameters (0.4 mm < Dh < 4.91 mm)
was initiated by the author’s group in 1997 over the mass
flux range 150 < G < 750 kg/m2-s, and quality range 0 < x
< 1. The study started with the documentation of flow
mechanisms in nine different tubes of round, square and
rectangular cross-sections tubes with 1 < Dh < 4.91 mm.
With the flow mechanisms thus established, pressure drop
measurements were conducted on these and other circular
and noncircular (square, rectangular, triangular and other
shapes) channels with hydraulic diameters as small as 0.4
mm over a range of flow rates that covered each of the
documented flow regimes. In addition, unique experimental

Figure 1 Test Facility Schematic
techniques were developed to measure heat transfer
coefficients in these same channels for the entire range of
refrigerant quality and mass flux mentioned above. An
overview of this research and the significant results follows.
FLOW REGIME MAPPING
Experimental Approach
The test facility (Figure 1) used to conduct the flow
visualization experiments was designed with the express
purpose of recording flow patterns during the actual
condensation process of the refrigerant. The facility and the
experimental procedures are described in greater detail in
(Coleman and Garimella 2000a, b; Coleman and Garimella
2003). A brief summary is provided here. Subcooled liquid
refrigerant is pumped through a tube-in-tube evaporator, in
which steam is used to boil and superheat the refrigerant.
The superheated vapor is partially condensed to the desired
quality using a set of water-cooled pre-condensers.
Refrigerant exiting the pre-condensers enters the test
section, which is a counterflow tube-in-tube heat exchanger,
with refrigerant flowing through an inner glass tube of the
cross-section of interest, and air flowing through the space
between this inner tube and another transparent outer
plexiglass tube, thus enabling visualization of the respective
flow regimes. Heat transfer between the cold air and
refrigerant causes condensation. Compressed air flowing in
the annulus provided a low differential pressure for the
glass microchannel, making it possible to conduct tests at
saturation pressures as high as 1379-1724 kPa. The air flow
rate was varied to accommodate different condensation
loads for different test conditions. The set of post-
condensers downstream of the test section was used to
completely condense and subcool the refrigerant.
Coriolis mass flow meters (±0.15% uncertainty for the
refrigerant, and ±0.2% uncertainty for the air) were used for
the measurement of refrigerant and air flow rates. Cooling
3
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water flow rates were measured using banks of precision
rotameters with a maximum uncertainty of ±2%. Pressure
transducers with uncertainties of ±0.25% of the span were
used to measure refrigerant pressures. All temperatures
were measured using Platinum RTDs. Flow regimes were
recorded using a digital video camera with a shutter speed
adjustable from 1/20 second to 1/10,000 second.
An energy balance on the pre-condenser yielded the
refrigerant quality at the test section inlet, while a similar
energy balance on the post condenser provided the
refrigerant quality at the test section outlet. In addition, a
redundant and independent validation of the change in
refrigerant quality across the test section (∆x) was obtained
from the measured inlet and outlet temperatures and the
flow rate of the air in the test section. Excellent agreement
was found between the measured ∆x and (xtest,i – xtest,o) in all
the experiments. The air flow rate was controlled to
typically yield a refrigerant quality change ∆x of about 0.05,
which ensured recording the variation of flow patterns in
small increments. The average test section quality was used
to represent the recorded flow regimes. This approach was
used for the flow regime maps for all the different
geometries, with nominally ten different refrigerant qualities
(0 < x < 1) for five different mass fluxes (150-750 kg/m2-s)
per tube; i.e., up to 50 data points per tube.
Flow Regime Designation
Digitized frames of the flow visualization video for
each data point were used to identify four major flow
regimes, including annular, intermittent, wavy and
dispersed flow, with the regimes further subdivided into
flow patterns (Table 1.) Detailed descriptions of the flow
phenomena in each of these regimes and patterns are
provided elsewhere (Coleman and Garimella 2000a, b;
Coleman and Garimella 2003). In the annular flow regime,
the vapor flows in the core of the tube with a few entrained
liquid droplets, while liquid flows along the circumference
of the tube wall. The flow patterns within this regime (mist,
annular ring, wave ring, wave packet and annular film)
show the varying influences of gravity and shear forces as
the mass flux and quality changes. The wavy flow regime
used here has often been considered (e.g. Barnea et al.
(1983) as a flow pattern within the annular regime entitled
the wavy-annular flow pattern. Unlike adiabatic flows
(such as air-water mixtures, which have been the focus of
most previous studies), condensing flows are expected to
have a coating of liquid around the whole circumference for
most combinations of mass flux and quality. Consolidating
the different patterns for this entire combination of
conditions into the annular flow regime definition would not
provide adequate insights. Therefore, here, flow patterns
with a significant influence of gravity (vapor flowing above
the liquid, or a noticeable difference in film thickness at the
top and bottom of the tube) and a wavy interface are
assigned to the wavy flow regime. The waves at the liquid-
vapor interface are caused by interfacial shear between the
two phases moving at different velocities. Thus, this regime
 Table 1 Descriptions of Two-Phase Flow Regimes and Patterns

was subdivided into discrete waves of larger structure regimes shown in Table 1 are well documented in the
moving along the phase interface, and disperse waves with a literature and in other work by the author, and are therefore
large range of amplitudes and wavelengths superimposed not described here.
upon one another, as shown in Table 1. The other flow The observed flow mechanisms for each data point
were assigned to a particular flow pattern from among those
shown in Table 1 to develop flow regime maps. In some
800 cases, the flow mechanisms corresponded to more than one
flow regime, typically indicating a transition between the
700 respective regimes. Figure 2 shows the flow regime map
Disperse Waves Annular RIng
Pattern
for the 4.91 mm round tube plotted using the mass flux G,
Mass Flux (kg.m-2s-1)

600 and quality x coordinates. A major portion of this map is

occupied by the wavy flow regime with a small region
rse
e

Mist Flow
where the plug, slug and discrete wave flow patterns
isp

500
D

coexist. The waves become increasingly disperse as the

eto

Wave
quality and mass flux is increased (shown by the arrow in
Plug / Slug Flow

ret

400 Packet
sc

Pattern
Figure 2). The approximate demarcation between discrete
Di

Discrete Waves
and disperse waves is shown by the dashed line in this
300 Annular figure, although this transition occurs gradually. The
Discrete Waves and Plug / Slug Film
different flow patterns within the annular flow regime are
200 also noted in this Figure. Similar flow regime maps were
also drawn for all the other tubes under consideration.
100
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 Effect of Hydraulic Diameter
Quality
Plug and Slug Flow Discrete Waves Annular Film The effect of hydraulic diameter on the flow regime
Disperse Waves Mist maps is shown in Figures 3 and 4. Figure 3, which depicts
the transition from the intermittent regime for the 4 square
Figure 2 Typical Flow Regime Map (4.91 mm tubes investigated, shows that the size of the intermittent
Round Tube) regime increases as Dh decreases, with this effect being
greater at the lower mass fluxes. The large increase in the
4
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Figure 3 Effect of Hydraulic Diameter on the
Intermittent Flow Regime
size of the intermittent regime in the smaller hydraulic
diameter tubes is because surface tension achieves a greater
significance in comparison with gravitational forces at these
dimensions. This also occurs because in square channels, it
is easier for the liquid to be held in the sharp corners,
counteracting to some extent, the effects of gravity. This
facilitates plug and slug flow at higher qualities as the
hydraulic diameter is decreased.
Figure 4 shows that the 4-mm tube map is dominated
by the wavy flow regime (with an absence of the annular
film flow pattern). As Dh is decreased, the annular flow
Figure 4 Effect of Hydraulic Diameter on Annular
Flow Regime
5
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regime appears and occupies an increasing portion of the
map. Thus, for the 4-mm tube, the effects of gravity
dominate, resulting in most of the flow regime map being
covered by the wavy flow regime. As the hydraulic
diameter decreases, the effects of surface tension
increasingly counteract the effects of gravity, promoting and
extending the size of the annular film flow pattern region
instead of the more stratified wavy flow regime. Thus, as
Dh decreases, the wavy flow regime is increasingly replaced
by the annular flow regime, and is non existent in the Dh =
1 mm tube. In addition to the effect on the size of the wavy
flow regime, Dh also affects the flow patterns within the
wavy flow regime. As Dh decreases, the waves are
progressively more discrete, until the entire wavy flow
regime consists of only discrete waves for the 2 mm tube.
Thus, it appears that as Dh decreases, the wavy flow regime
is replaced by the annular film pattern due to liquid
retention in the corners and along the entire circumference.
Furthermore, surface tension stabilizes the waves, which
leads to more discrete waves at small diameters.
Effect of Tube Shape
The effect of tube shape was investigated using the flow
regime maps for six tubes: circular (Dh = 4.91 mm), square
4 x 4 mm (Dh = 4 mm, α = 1), rectangular 2 x 4 mm and 4 x
2 mm (Dh = 2.67 mm,  α = 0.5 and 2), and rectangular 4 x 6
mm and 6 x 4 mm (Dh = 4.8 mm, α = 0.67 and 1.5). Here,
aspect ratio (α) is the tube height divided by the tube width.
Transition lines for the 4 x 4 mm, 4 x 6 mm, and 6 x 4 mm
tubes, as well as the round tube are shown together in
Figure 5. (The corresponding transition lines for the 2 x 4
and 4 x 2 tubes are not shown for the sake of clarity.) The
tubes in Figure 5 are of similar hydraulic diameter (4.0 –
4.91 mm), with the primary difference being tube shape.
This figure shows that the intermittent regime is larger in
the round tube than in the square tube at lower mass fluxes
and approximately the same at higher mass fluxes. The
extent of the intermittent regime for the rectangular tubes is
in between that of the circular and square tubes. The wavy
flow regime is also larger in the round tube. It appears that
the square and rectangular channels help liquid retention in
the corners and along the entire circumference of the tube
leading to annular flow, rather than preferentially at the
bottom of the tube as would be the case in the wavy flow
regime. In the 4 x 6 mm and 6 x 4 mm tubes, the larger
aspect ratio results in a slight increase in the size of the
intermittent regime at the lower mass fluxes, and a small
reduction in the size of this regime at the higher mass
fluxes. However, these effects are small, and it can be
concluded that this transition line is only weakly dependent
on the aspect ratio. The smaller aspect ratio also results in a
larger annular film flow pattern region, which is to be
expected because of the reduced influence of gravity for the
tubes with the smaller height. The smaller aspect ratio
results in a smaller wavy flow regime, which may be
viewed as a corollary to the effect on the size of the annular
film flow region. Within the wavy flow regime, the

800
Mass Flux (kg m-2s-1)
700 Wavy
600
Disperse Wave
500
400
Intermittent
300
Discrete Wave
200
100
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Quality
Major Transitions: Discrete-to-Disperse Wave:
Round (4.91 mm)
Square (4 x 4 mm)
Rectangular 4 (H) x 6 (W) mm
Rectangular 6 (H) x 4 (W) mm
Figure 5 Effect of Tube Shape on Flow Regime
Transitions
transitions between discrete and disperse waves are shown
with the gray lines with symbols. It appears that the discrete
waves are more prevalent in the round tube compared to the
square and rectangular tubes. It was also found that the
smaller aspect ratio results in a smaller wavy flow regime
but with a larger fraction of discrete waves. At the higher
mass fluxes, the effect of the aspect ratio is negligible. In
the 2 x 4 mm and 4 x 2 mm tubes (transition lines not
shown in Figure 5), the slight increase in the size of the
intermittent regime at the larger aspect ratio was found for
all mass fluxes tested. The increase in the annular film
flow pattern region was more pronounced in these smaller
hydraulic diameter tubes, perhaps due to the greater
influence of surface tension. The larger increase in the
annular flow regime at the smaller aspect ratio was
accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the wavy flow
regime; and once again, was more pronounced in this
smaller tube than in the 4 x 6 and 6 x 4 mm tubes.
From the above discussion, it can be seen that while
tube shape (with similar hydraulic diameters) has some
effect on the transitions between the various flow regimes,
the influence of hydraulic diameter is far more significant.
These findings about the flow patterns were used as the
basis for the development of pressure drop and heat transfer
models, as described in the following sections.
PRESSURE DROP MODELS
Experiments
For this part of the study, the flow visualization test
sections were replaced with those designed specifically for
pressure drop measurements. For the two largest diameter
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(4.91 mm and 3.05 mm) tubes, the test sections consisted of
counterflow, tube-in-tube heat exchangers. For the smaller
circular and noncircular channels, the test sections were
fabricated as flat tubes with multiple extruded parallel
Annular channels. Three such tubes were brazed together, as shown
in Figure 6, with refrigerant flowing through the center
tube, and coolant flowing in counterflow through the top
and bottom tubes. This method of using multiple parallel
channels ensured that the refrigerant flow rates used were
large enough to be adequately controlled and measured,
with accurate heat balances around the test loop. The cross-
sections investigated include a variety of shapes as shown in
Figure 6, including tubes with triangular microchannels
fabricated by extrusion as well as by placing a W-shaped
corrugated insert in a rectangular tube. Pressure drops
across the test section were measured using a bank of three
selectable differential pressure transducers, with an
accuracy of ±0.25% of the span.
Analysis
The measurements described above were used to
develop condensation pressure drop models for each flow
regime. As an illustration, a brief summary of the
development of the model for the intermittent regime is
provided here. More extensive descriptions of this model
are available in Garimella et al. (2002a; 2002b). Also,
preliminary pressure drop models for the other flow regimes
are available in Coleman (2000). For the intermittent
regime pressure drop model, the flow regime transition
criteria discussed above were first used to select the data for
each tube that correspond to the intermittent flow regime.
The measured pressure drops were corrected to account for
the effects of deceleration (due to condensation) and the
channel entrances and exits. These extraneous contributions
were estimated using appropriate models from the literature
as well as specifically designed tests. The details of these
tests and calculations are provided in (Garimella et al.
2002a). Thus, the estimates of the deceleration effects were
validated by conducting tests at the same nominal
conditions with and without condensation in the test section.
Similarly, the estimates for the contributions of the end
effects were validated using tests on tubes ranging in length
from 22.5 to 508 mm, with the same entrance and exit
configuration at each length. The agreement between the
correlations and the measurements was very good;
furthermore, the magnitude of these effects compared to the
overall measured pressure drop was quite small. Lastly, for
each tube, single-phase pressure drops were measured over
a wide range of mass fluxes for both the superheated vapor
and subcooled liquid cases. The single-phase pressure
drops were in excellent agreement with the values predicted
by the Churchill (1977) correlation.
Modeling
The approach described above provided a sound data
base of experimental values for the frictional component of
6
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Circular Tubes
Noncircular Tubes
Test Section
Figure 6 Geometries Investigated
the two-phase pressure drop for several tubes over a large
range of conditions. These data served as the basis of
comparison for the theoretical model described here. It can
be seen from Table 1 that in the intermittent regime, the
vapor-phase travels as long solitary bubbles surrounded by
an annular liquid film and separated by liquid slugs. As the
7
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Figure 7 Cross Section of Assumed Flow Pattern for
Intermittent Pressure Drop Model
tube size decreases, surface tension forces at the bubble
interface begin to dominate the gravitational forces and the
bubble tends to a cylindrical shape. The corresponding
“unit cell” used for the development of the model is shown
in Figure 7. In general, the bubble travels faster than the
liquid slug, which implies that there is a continual uptake of
liquid from the film into the front of the slug. These
phenomena were accounted for in the model, which was
developed with the followings assumptions:
C bubble is cylindrical
C no entrainment of vapor in slug or liquid in bubble
(corroborated by flow visualization results)
C length/frequency/speed of bubbles/slugs are constant for
given condition
C no bubble coalescence
C bubble/film interface is smooth
C pressure drop in bubble/film region is not negligible
The total pressure drop for this flow pattern includes
contributions from: the liquid slug, the vapor bubble, and
the flow of liquid between the film and slug as follows:
∆Ptotal = ∆Pslug + ∆Pf / b + ∆Pfilm− slug transition s (1)
A simple control volume analysis (Garimella et al. 2002a,
b) similar to that performed by Suo and Griffith (1964)
showed that the velocity in the liquid slug can be directly
calculated given the overall mass flux and quality. The
results of several investigations (Suo and Griffith 1964;
Dukler and Hubbard 1975; Fukano et al. 1989) suggested
that the bubble velocity for these conditions was 1.2 times
the slug velocity. With this assumption, the diameter of the
bubble, velocity within the film, and relative length of
bubble and slug can all be calculated from a system of
simultaneous equations including a shear balance at the
bubble-film interface. Thus the Reynolds number in the
liquid slug and vapor bubble (based on the relative velocity
at the interface between the bubble and the surrounding
film) could be directly determined. The Churchill (1977)
correlation was then used to calculate the friction factor and
thus the pressure gradient at the respective Reynolds
numbers in the liquid slug and bubble/film regions. A
 For the solution of the above equation, the number of unit
cells per unit length is required, and can be determined from
the slug frequency (which yields the unit cell length).
Several models from the literature for slug frequency were
considered; however, because these models were based
primarily on studies of gas-liquid (instead of vapor-liquid)
flows in large (> 10 mm) diameter tubes, they did not give
satisfactory results. Instead, the following correlation for
slug frequency (nondimensional unit-cell length, or unit
cells/length) based on slug Re and Dh was developed:

 N unit   
 cells   D h 
(
a Reslug )b = ω UD h = Dh  =  (3)
bubble  L tube   L unit 
   cell 

The coefficients a and b were fit using the difference

between the measured pressure drop and the pressure drop
calculated as described above for the slug and bubble/film
regions, i. e., the net pressure drop due to transitions. The
correlation yielded a = 2436.9, b = -0.5601 for all tubes
shown in Figure 6 except the triangular channels (extruded
Figure 8 Comparison of Circular Channel Model and insert). For these triangular channels, the following
Predictions with Measured Pressure Drop correlation, with a = 996.5 and b = -8.33×10-4, yielded
relationship from the literature for the pressure loss better results:
a exp(b Re slug ) = ω
Dh
associated with the mixing that occurs in the uptake of U
(4)
bubble
liquid from the film to the slug was used to estimate the Figure 8 and 9 show the results of the model compared with
pressure loss due to each of these transitions. These the measured data. These figures show that for circular
components of the total pressure drop are shown below: channels (0.5 – 4.91 mm), the predicted pressure drops are
on average within ±13.5% of the measured values, with
     N unit 
∆P  dP 
= 
L
 bubble
  dP   L slug
+  

 + ∆Pone
 cells 
(2) 90% of the predicted results being within ±27% of the
 
L  dx  film  L unit
bubble
  dx  slug  L unit  transition  L 
 
measured values. Similarly, for noncircular tubes (0.42 <
 cell   cell 
Dh < 0.84 mm) the model predicts the measured data on
average within ±16.5%, with 90% of the predicted results
being within ±28% of the measured values.
The effect of hydraulic diameter and shape for a fixed
L/Dh ratio on two-phase pressure drop for the range of
qualities and mass fluxes characteristic of intermittent flow
is demonstrated in Figure 10 using the model described
above. As expected, increasing quality and mass flux, and
decreasing diameter result in an increase in pressure drop.
The above discussion demonstrates the effective use of
flow visualization results for the development of flow
regime-based models for condensation pressure drops in one
flow regime. Models for the other flow regimes are
currently being developed (preliminary versions of these
models are available in Coleman (2000).

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

Experiments

Heat transfer tests were conducted using the same test

sections that were used for the pressure drop experiments.
However, the high heat transfer coefficients and low mass
Figure 9 Comparison of Noncircular Channel Model flow rates in microchannels necessitate additional
Predictions with Measured Pressure Drop modifications to the test facility and test procedures
described above. For the small ∆x required in the test
8
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 25 from the primary loop to the ambient. Also, the heat
G = 750 kg/m2s
20
addition to this loop is minimized by using a recirculation
pump with an extremely low heat dissipation rate, which
for L/Dh = 500

15 was calculated from the pump curves supplied by the

∆P [kPa]

10 manufacturer. With the pump heat dissipation and the

X
X
X
ambient heat loss being small fractions of the secondary
5
X
X
loop duty, the test section heat load is relatively insensitive
0 Dh = 0.5 mm 12 to these losses and gains. It should also be noted that the
Dh = 0.75 mm G = 450 kg/m2s
10
ambient heat loss term compensates for the heat gain due to
Dh = 1.5 mm
Dh = 3.0 mm pump heat dissipation. Local heat transfer coefficients are

for L/Dh = 500

8
X Dh = 5.0 mm
therefore measured accurately in small increments for the

∆P [kPa]
6
entire saturated vapor-liquid region. Additional details of
X
X
4 this thermal amplification technique are provided in the
X
X
X
2 paper by Garimella and Bandhauer (2001).
2.0 0
G = 150 kg/m2s Analysis
1.5
for L/Dh = 500

The thermal amplification provided by this technique

∆P [kPa]

1.0 resulted in uncertainties typically as low as ±2% in the

X measurement of the secondary loop heat duty even at heat
X
0.5
X
X
transfer rates less than 200 W. Combining the errors in the
secondary loop duty, the pump heat addition, and the
X

0.0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 ambient heat loss (even with a highly conservative
Quality uncertainty of ±50% assumed for these terms), the test
section heat duty was typically known to within a maximum
Figure 10 Effect of Mass Flux, Quality and Hydraulic uncertainty of ±10%. With the refrigerant heat duty known,
Diameter on Circular Channel Pressure Drop the condensation heat transfer coefficient was determined
at Constant L/Dh using the applicable thermal resistances. The coolant-side
resistance was determined from correlations available in the
section, the heat duties at the mass fluxes of interest are
relatively small. Calculating this heat duty from the test
section inlet and outlet quality measurements would result
in considerable uncertainties because this would involve the
difference between two similar quality values. Therefore,
the heat duty must be measured on the coolant side, which
must in turn be based on large ∆Ts to minimize
uncertainties. Ensuring large ∆Ts requires low coolant flow
rates. However, this makes the coolant-side thermal
resistance the dominant resistance in the test section,
making it difficult to deduce the refrigerant-side resistance
from the measured test section UA.
These conflicting requirements for the accurate
measurement of heat duty and the refrigerant heat transfer
coefficients were resolved by developing a thermal
amplification technique that decoupled these two issues.
Thus, as shown in Figure 11, the test section is cooled using
water flowing in a closed (primary) loop at a high flow rate
to ensure that the condensation side presents the governing
thermal resistance. Heat exchange between this primary
loop and a secondary cooling water stream at a much lower
flow rate is used to obtain a large temperature difference,
which is in turn used to measure the condensation duty.
The secondary coolant flow rate is adjusted as the test
conditions change to maintain a reasonable ∆T and also
small condensation duties in the test section.
Multiple layers of low conductivity phenolic foam
insulation and small temperature differences between the Figure 11 Illustration of Thermal Amplification
primary coolant and the ambient minimize the heat loss Technique

9
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 Handbook of Single-Phase Convective Heat Transfer
(Kakac et al. 1987). The large coolant flow rate and the
enhancement in surface area (indirect area of about 4.7
times the direct area at an efficiency of 73.2%) provided by
the coolant port walls on both sides of the microchannel
tube resulted in high refrigerant-to-coolant resistance ratios
(between 5 and 30). With this high resistance ratio, even an
uncertainty of ±25% in the tube-side heat transfer
coefficient did not appreciably affect the refrigerant-side
heat transfer coefficient. For much of the data on circular
and noncircular microchannels in this study, the
uncertainties in condensation heat transfer coefficients were
within about 20%. Representative heat transfer coefficients
deduced from the measured data for a square microchannels
with Dh = 0.76 are shown in Figure 12, along with the
respective uncertainties.
Modeling
Development of flow regime-based models for heat
transfer coefficients is underway. Essentially, the data are
divided into the applicable flow regimes, along with regions
of overlap between multiple flow mechanisms. The heat
transfer coefficients are then modeled according to the
applicable flow mechanism, with the associated pressure
drop model providing the basis for flow-related parameters
such as the interfacial shear stress, for example, in the
annular flow regime. Incorporation of the pressure drop
data from these very channels, rather than conventional
models for larger tubes, into the heat transfer models is
yielding better representation of the heat transfer data, and
higher accuracies in the models. In addition, interpolations
between models for adjacent flow regimes are resulting in
20000
G = 150 kg/m2-s
G = 300 kg/m2-s
2
Condensation h (W/m2-K)
G = 450 kg/m -s
10000 G = 600 kg/m2-s
G = 750 kg/m2-s
5000
2000
1000
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Quality
Figure 12 Condensation Heat Transfer Coefficients as
a Function of Mass Flux and Quality for a
Square Channel with Dh = 0.76 mm
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smooth transitions in heat transfer coefficients through the
overlap regions. Preliminary versions of these models are
available in Bandhauer (2002).
CONCLUSIONS
An overview of an ongoing program for the
investigation of condensation flow patterns, pressure drop
and heat transfer in micro- and mini-channels was provided
in this paper. The study included circular and noncircular
channels ranging in hydraulic diameter from 0.4 mm to 4.91
mm for mass fluxes between 150 kg/m2-s and 750 kg/m2-s.
Unique techniques that permitted visualization of the flow
patterns during the condensation process provided a
thorough understanding of the flow mechanisms over this
wide range of mass fluxes across the vapor-liquid dome for
a variety of tube shapes and hydraulic diameters. Flow
regime maps developed from these video recordings showed
that transitions between the various flow regimes occur at
different conditions in microchannels than what would be
expected from maps for conventional geometries available
in the literature. Specifically, it was found that the extent of
the intermittent flow regime increases as the hydraulic
diameter decreases, signifying an increasing influence of
surface tension at the small diameters. Also, the wavy flow
regime progressively decreases and disappears as the
diameter decreases, giving way to the annular flow regime,
signifying a diminishing influence of gravitational forces at
the small diameters. The effect of changing tube shapes
(round, square, rectangular with different aspect ratios) was
also documented. Tube shape, however, was found to be
less significant than hydraulic diameter in determining the
applicable condensation flow pattern.
Pressure drop measurements on a multitude of circular
and noncircular tubes across the vapor-liquid dome were
used, in conjunction with the insights from the flow
visualization studies, to develop experimentally validated
models for condensation pressure drop. In the intermittent
regime, for example, the model accounted for the
contributions of the liquid slug, the vapor-bubble region
surrounded by a liquid film, and the transition regions
between the slug and the bubble. A slug frequency model
was developed, and yielded excellent agreement between
the predictions of the model and the measured data. Similar
measurements of heat transfer coefficients for many circular
and noncircular geometries over a wide range of conditions
were taken. A novel thermal amplification technique was
developed to enable the accurate measurement of these
coefficients in spite of the low heat transfer rates at the
small flow rates and quality increments under consideration.
The technique allowed accurate measurement of heat
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
transfer rates while ensuring that the governing thermal
resistance was on the condensation side, leading to low
uncertainties in the heat transfer coefficients.
Development of additional models for pressure drop,
heat transfer coefficients, and transition criteria based on
nondimensional parameters is underway. It is believed that
10
10 Copyright © 2003 by ASME
 this integrated approach using flow visualization, pressure
drop and heat transfer measurements, and analytical
modeling, will yield a comprehensive understanding of the
condensation process in micro- and mini-channels.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by a research grant from Modine
Manufacturing Company, Racine, WI, and a CAREER
Grant from the National Science Foundation. The author
would also like to acknowledge the contributions of his
graduate students John W. Coleman, Jesse D. Killion, and
Todd M. Bandhauer who contributed immeasurably to this
work. These students were also supported, in part, by the
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-
Conditioning Engineers through Graduate Student Grants-
in-Aid.
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