Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-023-01732-5

RESEARCH

Coastal‑hinterland exchange during the Late Bronze Age and the Early

Iron Age across the northern Ḥajar mountains: the case of marine
shells at Masāfī 5 (Emirate of Fujairah, United Arab Emirates)
Kevin Lidour1,2 · Maria Paola Pellegrino3 · Julien Charbonnier3

Received: 28 October 2022 / Accepted: 6 February 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
Archaeological investigations conducted since 2006 at Masāfī (hinterlands of the Emirate of Fujairah, UAE) have led to the
discovery of several architectural entities organised around the local palm grove and in use from the Bronze Age onwards.
The whole complex constitutes an important site for understanding the regional protohistory in Eastern Arabia, in particular
regarding the development of oasis agriculture as well as copper mining and metallurgy. The site of Masāfī 5 has revealed
the presence of an ancient settlement organised on a series of terraces which have been occupied during the Late Bronze Age
(1600–1300 BCE) and at the beginning of the Iron Age (1300–300 BCE). Domestic and potential metallurgical activities at
the site have been evidenced by the presence of fireplaces and furnaces that could have been used for copper smelting. The
site economy is also documented by faunal remains, including those of domesticated mammals and a substantial amount of
marine shells.
The results of the present study highlight that marine molluscs were not only exploited as seafood at Masāfī 5 but also for
their shell, which was used both as tools and raw material for the production of adornments, including polished plaques of
mother-of-pearl and Conus rings. Use-wear analyses have shown the use of shell tools for processing vegetal fibres—we
suggested that date palm fibres (i.e., leaflets and leaf sheath) were exploited and used. Coastal-hinterland exchange across
the region during the Bronze Age and the Iron Age (3rd-1st millennia BCE) is discussed in light of the present results.

Keywords  Arabia · Neolithic · Zooarchaeology · Marine shells · Shell technology · Use-wear analysis

Introduction

The Masāfī area

The present-day city of Masāfī is located between the emir-

* Kevin Lidour ates of Raʾs al-Khaimah and Fujairah, in the northern United
lidour01@gmail.com; kevin.lidour@unican.es Arab Emirates (UAE). This city has developed over several
Maria Paola Pellegrino millennia as a strategic passageway linking the western UAE
mariapaola.pellegrino@archaios.fr coastline, bordering the Arabian Gulf, to the Sea of Oman
Julien Charbonnier through the Ḥajar mountains (Fig. 1). Since its old past,
julien.charbonnier@archaios.fr the Masāfī area has also benefitted from the proximity of
1
mining (Goy et al. 2013) and water resources (Charbonnier
Instituto Internacional de Investigaciones Prehistóricas et al. 2017, 2020; Purdue et al. 2019), rising to the role of an
(IIIPC) de Cantabria, Universidad de Cantabria. Avenida de
los Castros, 52, 39005 Santander, Spain important centre for the development of both copper metal-
2 lurgy and oasis agriculture from the Middle Bronze Age
UMR 7041 Archéozoologie & Archéobotanique: Sociétés,
Pratiques Et Environnements (AASPE), Museum National (c. 2000–1600 BCE) to the end of the Iron II (c. 1000–600
d’Histoire Naturelle (MNHN), 55 Rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, BCE) or the beginning of the Iron III (c. 600–300 BCE).
France Masāfī hosts the springs of three major wadis, namely Wādī
3
Archaïos, 20 Rue Des Gravilliers, 75003 Paris, France Ḥām, Wādī ʿAbādilah, and Wādī Sījī, which respectively

13
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 29   Page 2 of 21
Fig. 1  Left, the satellite view of the northern UAE with the locations of the main Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age sites. Right, the average travel
durations (on foot) from Masāfī 5 to the eastern coast (as calculated by Google Maps). Images: Landsat/Copernicus, © Google, 2020
flow through the regions of Fujairah, Dibbā, and Dhaid
(Benoist 2013).
The Masāfī area has been investigated for more than
15 years by a team of the French Archaeological Mission
in the UAE (French Ministry of Foreign Affairs) succes-
sively led by A. Benoist (2006–2016) and J. Charbonnier
(2016–2020) in partnership with the Fujairah Tourism and
Antiquities Authority. This archaeological operation was
focused on studying the occupation and the exploitation of
mountain territories during the Bronze Age and the Iron
Age.
Investigations conducted at Masāfī since 2006 have led
to the discovery of several architectural remains organ-
ised around the palm grove with complementary functions
(Fig. 2A). The whole complex thus constitutes a major site
for the understanding of the regional protohistory in Eastern
Arabia. It includes, for the Iron Age, collective buildings
probably used as a centre of power (Masāfī 1), a fortified
settlement (Masāfī 2), and a shrine dedicated to serpent dei-
ties or deities that took the form or had for attribute a snake
(Masāfī 3) (Benoist et al. 2012a; 2012b; Benoist 2013).
Comparable evidence of cultic activities has been previ-
ously documented at Bithnah (Emirate of Fujairah, UAE)
(Benoist 2007).
Older settlements (Masāfī 4 and Masāfī 5) have been
discovered in the periphery. According to preliminary sur-
veys, Masāfī 4 seems to have been in use during the Middle
Bronze Age and the Iron Age whereas Masāfī 5 is dated
essentially from the Late Bronze Age and the beginning of
the Iron Age.
Between 2016 and 2019, the Masāfī operation has been
included in the project OASIWAT (ANR-16-CE27-0008)
13
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29
led by L. Purdue (CNRS, UMR 7264), which was focused
on studying the past exploitation and evolution of the oases
of Southeast Arabia since the Bronze Age until the pre-
sent. Geoarchaeological investigations have shown that the
oasis of Masāfī has been exploited since about 1600 BCE,
throughout the entire Late Bronze Age, Iron Age I and II/
early III until its abandonment which has been situated dur-
ing the seventh–sixth centuries BCE. It has been evidenced
that, during the Iron Age, the oasis was irrigated by shallow
wells and canals redirecting the runoff water from the east-
ern hills down to the fields (Charbonnier et al. 2017: 54–67;
Charbonnier et al. 2020: 494–495). It contrasts with the falaj
(pl. aflaj) system developed in the oases of the foothills of
the western Ḥajar—such as al-ʿAin (Emirate of Abu Dhabi,
UAE) and Thuqaibah, in the al-Madām area (Emirate of
Sharjah, UAE).
Masāfī 5
­ 2)
Masāfī 5 is located on the top of a large rocky hill (100 m
overlooking the actual Masāfī palm grove. The site is pre-
served mainly on the northern half of the hill whereas a great
part of the southern slope has been bulldozed in the recent
past (Fig. 2B). During a first survey in 2010, the team dis-
covered remains of dry-stone walls exposed on the surface
over about 80 m long on an East–West axis. Scatterings of
Late Bronze Age and Iron I pottery sherds have been col-
lected—radiocarbon dating has confirmed this chronological
attribution (Table 1).
In 2011, a trench was dug in the south-eastern corner
of the preserved part of the site. This first operation has
exposed the remains of a terrace consisting of a series of
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29 Page 3 of 21  29

Fig. 2  A Map of the Masāfī area showing the different archaeologi- graph: T. Sagory); C General map of Masāfī 5 showing the different
cal sites investigated by the team (Topography: É. Régagnon and areas excavated. Credits: French Archaeological Mission in the UAE
C. Calastrenc); B Kite photography facing the northern slope of (CAD: A. Havé and J. Charbonnier)
Masāfī 5 in 2011 and showing the trench opened in area D (photo-

13
 29   Page 4 of 21 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
Table 1  Quantification (NISP) Masāfī 5 phasing Chronology
of mollusc shells by phases
(total NISP = 250). Radiocarbon Phase IA Late Bronze Age
dating has been performed on
Phase IB Late Bronze Age
charcoal samples retrieved from
the archaeological contexts Phase IC Iron I
Phase ID Iron I
Phase II Iron I
Phase III Iron I-II
Overburden
compacted occupation layers delineated by retaining walls
build with dry-stones. Further structures have been discov-
ered in the central and the north-western part of the slope
during the following field seasons conducted in 2014 (Degli
Esposti and Benoist 2015), 2017, 2018, and 2020. The
site was therefore divided into four areas: A, B, C, and D
(Fig. 2C). Most of the structures and finds are concentrated
in Area B, where a succession of five terraces has been iden-
tified. The remains of a very poorly preserved additional
terrace—registered as terrace 0—were found in 2020 at the
bottom of the slope. However, it has not been included in
the present study. A series of post-holes have been found in
the south-western part of Area C, suggesting the presence
of architecture built in light materials (possibly using wood
or palm ribs). Domestic and potential metallurgical activi-
ties are indicated by the presence of many fireplaces and
furnaces that could have been used for copper smelting. It is
to note that slags and various products in copper alloy have
been found during the excavations, including a few arrow-
heads and a small blade which could have been used either
as a scraper or a razor. Other noticeable artefacts include
ground stone tools, fragments of a soft stone vessel show-
ing incised decorations as well as a great amount of pottery
sherds attributed to the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.
Different phases of occupation have been described at
Masāfī 5 (Table 1): phases IA and IB correspond to the Late
Bronze Age, with radiocarbon dating indicating an occu-
pation c. 1600–1500 BCE; phase IC is situated within the
beginning of the Iron I c. 1350–1300 BCE. The absence of
Iron II pottery within the assemblages of phases ID and II
suggests an occupation restricted to the Iron I timespan (i.e.,
c. 1300–1000 BCE) (Pellegrino 2022). Some Iron II pottery
has been however found within phase III, corresponding to
the abandonment of the site and the collapse of many struc-
tures (ibid).
The faunal remains retrieved from the floor deposits
consist mainly of mollusc shells (NISP = 230; 96.2% of the
whole faunal assemblage) whereas only 9 fragments (3.8%)
of mammal bones have been recorded. No comparable
assemblage of mollusc shells has been retrieved so far in the
other sites of Masāfī—only 27 specimens reported from Iron
13
(2023) 15:29
Radiocarbon dating NISP
1683–1509 cal. BCE (UF 872) 49
1565–1430 cal. BCE (C1436) 56
1431–1264 cal. BCE (UF 493); 1412– 14
1209 cal. BCE (UF 433)
- 4
- 28
- 86
13
Age contexts at Masāfī 1, being mostly terrestrial gastropods
(Decruyenaere et al. 2022: Fig. 4). The study of the Masāfī
5 shell assemblage is the aim of the present paper.
A substantial part of the mammal bones (NISP = 375)
studied by K. Decruyenaere (MNHN, UMR 7209) came
from the fill of a 6 m deep Late Bronze Age pit (C1421)
located on the top of the hill, in the south-eastern part of
Area C (Fig. 2C). In comparison, only 20 mollusc shells
have been registered from this feature—only 5.1% of its
whole faunal assemblage. The terrestrial mammal assem-
blage consists of the remains of three incomplete small cat-
tle (Bos sp.) and three incomplete caprinids—including two
sheep (Ovis sp.). Most of the remains consist of fragments
of limbs showing some cutmarks apparently linked to disar-
ticulation processes. Given the absence of skulls, mandibles,
and the greatest part of the ribs and the backbone, Decruy-
enaere et al. (2022) have discussed a potential ritual deposit.
Indeed, the deposit of butcher’s cuts in pits and cenotaphs
has been already reported from ritual contexts at the Iron
Age sites of Bithnah (Skorupka et al. 2013) and Thuqaibah
(Del Cerro 2013).
Masāfī 5 also provided the first evidence of water man-
agement for the Late Bronze Age period in South East Ara-
bia: a well (WS064) dating from this period (1415–1230 cal.
BCE) was identified in one of the geoarchaeological test pits,
about 500 m northeast of the site (Charbonnier et al. 2020:
486). Archaeobotanical evidence points towards the cultiva-
tion of date palm (Phœnix dactylifera) and jujube (Ziziphus
spina-christi) (Degli Esposti and Benoist 2015: 65).
Overall, excavations at Masāfī 5 allowed to identify the
remains as those of a village with dwellings made of perish-
able materials and erected on top of stone-built terraces. The
site economy was mainly based on agriculture and breeding.
Material and methods
The material study is derived from 56 samples correspond-
ing to 53 distinct stratigraphic units (UF). The richest sam-
ples are #488 (UF 437, terrace IV in Area B, phase IB) with
20 shell fragments, #467 (UF 453, terrace I in Area B, phase
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29 Page 5 of 21  29
II) with 17 shell fragments, #470 (UF 446, terrace V in Area
B, phase III) with 15 shell fragments, #465 (UF 449, terrace
V in Area B, phase IB) with 12 shell fragments, #535 (UF
481, surface layer in Area D) and #563 (UF 813, fill of the
pit C1421 in Area C, phase IB) with 11 shell fragments each.
Samples #496 (UF 462, a rubble layer situated below the
surface deposits in Area D), #505 (UF 464, terrace I in Area
B, phase II), and #579 (UF 471, terrace IV in Area B, surface
deposits) have provided 10 shell fragments each. The other
47 samples have provided less than 10 shell fragments each.
The Late Bronze Age is well represented, with a total of
105 shell fragments: 49 for phase IA and 56 for phase IB
(Table 2). A total of 46 shell fragments are attributed to the
Iron I: 14 for phase IC, 4 for phase ID, and 28 for phase II.
Phase III returned 86 shell fragments, which could be attrib-
uted to Iron I-II mixed layers. Most of the material came
from Area B (NISP = 163), where it is quite well distributed
among the different terraces—apart from terrace III which
is quite poor (only 5 fragments). In Area C (NISP = 37), a
total of 20 shell fragments are coming from the pit C1421
where a great amount of mammal bones have been recov-
ered as well. Note that 5 specimens were found in the layer
associated with the post-holes (UF 489) in the south-western
corner of Area C. Most of the mollusc shells found in Area
D (NISP = 37) are coming from surface layers.
Taxonomic identifications were conducted according to
the methods of comparative anatomy, according to species
descriptions from Bosch et al. (1995), and using the ref-
erence collection of the National Natural History Museum
(MNHN) of Paris (France). Taxonomy and nomenclature
follow the updated authoritative classification of the World
Register of Marine Species (WoRMS Editorial Board 2023).
Quantifications include the NISP which stands for the “num-
ber of identified specimens”, the MNI for the “minimum
number of individuals”, and the WISP for the “weight of
identified specimens”. MNI quantifications are calculated by
combining the frequency of anatomical parts with laterality
(Chaplin 1971).
The degree of fragmentation was estimated following a
four-grade scale (regarding the whole body shell for gastro-
pods and a complete valve for bivalves): class 1. < 50% pre-
served; class 2. C. 50% preserved; class 3. More than 50%
preserved; class 4. Almost complete (c. 100%). Anatomi-
cal parts were grouped into three categories: P1 (fragments
with hinges, umbos, or apex); P2 (fragments with ventral
Table 2  Quantification (NISP) Phase IA Phase IB
of mollusc shells by areas
and phases (overburden not Area B 44 23
included)
Area C - 25
Area D 5 8
Total NISP 49 56
margins, siphonal canals, or apertures); P3 (fragments of
valves and body whorls, including the columella, but with-
out the parts included in P1 and P2). The way to refer to the
size of the shell fragments has been standardised. The fol-
lowing size categories are based on the greater measurement
(length or width) of the fragments: small fragment (< 2 cm);
medium fragment (2–5 cm); large fragment (5–10 cm); very
large fragment (> 10 cm).
Use-wear analyses (Semenov 1964) have been conducted
using a Leica DM2500 M optical microscope with 50 × ,
100 × , and 200 × magnifications associated with a Leica
MC190 HD Digital Microscope Camera (with a resolution
of 10 megapixels) (Cuenca Solana et al. 2013: 371). Macro
photographs were also taken using a Leica S8 APO ster-
eomicroscope allowing up to 80 × magnification. Multifocal
pictures were processed using the Leica Application Suite
4.13.0 and the Helicon Focus 8.1.0 software. The identifi-
cation of the materials processed using the archaeological
shell tools is based on comparisons of reference use-wear
produced within an experimental framework (Lidour and
Cuenca Solana in preparation). Reference specimens consist
of shell valves whose ventral margins have been retouched
to produce an efficient cutting edge (see Charpentier et al.
2004): 2 valves of the Asiatic hard clam (Callista umbonella)
(ref. numbers CU03 and CU08) and 1 valve of the violet
asaphis (Asaphis violascens) (ref. number AVR.04) are illus-
trated in the present paper (Fig. 7B, D, F).
Results
Taxonomic spectrum
A total of 250 shell fragments were recorded. It corresponds
to an assemblage of c. 2.4 kg. Both bivalve and gastropod
species are represented. The majority (98.8%) of the speci-
mens belong to marine taxa. Indeed, only 3 specimens corre-
spond to freshwater taxa. The latter include the red-rimmed
melania (Melanoides tuberculata) and an unidentified spe-
cies of mud snail belonging to the genus Hydrobia.
Marine taxa are represented by 16 families, 22 genera, and
23 species (Table 3). Bivalves include ark shells (Arcidae),
bittersweet clams (Glycymerididae), true oysters (Ostrei-
dae), sunset clams (Psammobiidae), pearl oysters (Pteriidae),
thorny oysters (Spondylidae), and venus clams (Veneridae).
Phase IC Phase ID Phase II Phase III Total
13 - 28 55 163
1 4 - 7 37
- - - 24 37
14 4 28 86 237
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Table 3  Table of identified NISP MNI WISP (g)

shells from Masāfī 5.
Quantifications in NISP, MNI, Bivalvia Arcidae Anadara Anadara antiquata 2 2 13.7
and WISP
Anadara uropigimela 7 6 71.52
Anadara sp. 10 8 47.79
Mosambicarca Mosambicarca erythraeonensis 1 1 6.95
ind Iid 2 1 12.67
Glycymerididae Glycymeris Glycymeris livida 2 2 22.45
Glycymeris sp. 1 1 1.45
Ostreidae Saccostrea Saccostrea cuccullata 1 1 6.53
Psammobiidae Asaphis Asaphis violascens 14 10 65.55
Pteriidae Pinctada Pinctada persica 72 22 1153.85
ind ind 5 1 3.69
Spondylidae Spondylus Spondylus spinosus 1 1 2.99
Spondylus sp. 1 1 19.85
Veneridae Callista Callista erycina 18 16 174.95
Callista sp. 3 2 10.62
Circenita Circenita callipyga 1 1 5.28
Marcia Marcia cf. opima 2 2 7.75
Marcia sp. 2 2 9.6
Periglypta Periglypta puerpera 2 1 7.86
Tivela Tivela ponderosa 1 1 8.56
ind ind ind 3 - 12.41
Gastropoda Bursidae Tutufa Tutufa bardeyi 4 3 34.45
Conidae Conus Conus cf. virgo 1 1 4.33
Conus sp. 10 10 119.7
Cypraeidae cf. Naria cf. Naria turdus 1 1 5.09
ind ind 1 1 2.49
Hydrobiidae Hydrobia Hydrobia sp. 1 1 0.01
Muricidae cf. Indothais cf. Indothais sp. 1 1 2.65
Potamididae Terebralia Terebralia palustris 69 45 492.98
Strombidae Conomurex Conomurex persicus 2 2 12.89
Thiaridae Melanoides Melanoides tuberculata 2 2 1.14
Tonnidae Tonna Tonna sp. 1 1 3.32
Trochidae Trochus Trochus kotschyi 1 1 1.66
Turbinidae Turbo Turbo radiatus 1 1 20.66
ind Ind 3 3 1.69
Vermetidae Thylacodes Thylacodes variabilis 1 1 2.4
Grand total 250 156 2371.48

Gastropods include frog shells (Bursidae), cones (Conidae),
cowries (Cypraeidae), murex and rock shells (Muricidae),
swamp whelks (Potamididae), true conchs (Strombidae),
tun shells (Tonnidae), top shells (Trochidae), turban shells
(Turbinidae), and worm shells (Vermetidae) (Fig. 3).
According to MNI, the assemblage is dominated by the
giant mangrove whelk (Terebralia palustris) (29.6%), the
black-lip pearl oyster (Pinctada persica, formerly known as
Pinctada margaritifera in the area study) (13.2%), venus
clams (Callista spp.) (11.8%)—mostly the red venus (Cal-
lista erycina)—ark shells (11.2%), and the violet asaphis
(Asaphis violascens) (6.6%) (Table 4).
Area B has provided the most diversified assemblage
although dominated by fragments of giant mangrove whelk,
black-lip pearl oyster, and venus shells (Table 5). Area C
is represented mainly by contexts associated to pit C1421,
where we noticed the prevalence of the black-lip pearl oyster
and a deficit in the proportion of the giant mangrove whelk.
Conversely, Area D is similar to Area B.
The great variation of the NISP makes it difficult to com-
pare the taxonomic spectra between the different phases—
phases IC and ID have provided only a small number of
shell fragments (Table  6). We can however observe the
importance of the black-lip pearl oyster during phase IA in

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Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29 Page 7 of 21  29
comparison to the other phases. It is also to note that Conus
shells are particularly present during phase III. The other
main taxa are attested in comparable proportions during the
different phases, in particular the giant mangrove whelk,
the consumption of which seems to have remained central
during all the site occupation.
Anatomical distribution and fragmentation
For the venus clams and the violet asaphis, the shell frag-
ments generally include the hinge or a part of the ventral
margin (Fig. 4; Table 7). The ventral margins are more fre-
quently recorded than hinges and umbos for ark shells. In
contrast, for pearl oysters, most of the fragments recorded
are small and belong to the central part of the valve. The
giant mangrove whelk shells are highly fragmented: their
fragments belong mainly to the body whorl and the lower
body—which are the strongest part of the shell. Conversely,
for the Conus sp., the spires are mostly recorded whereas
fragments of the siphonal canal are little represented, and
those of the body whorls are absent.
The shell fragmentation is quite high: more than half of
the entire valve or the gastropod body is absent for 86% of
cases (class 1 of fragmentation)—it reaches 100% of cases
for giant mangrove whelks (i.e., no specimens are complete).
Shell fragments are mostly medium-sized, measuring
between 2 and 5 cm (65.8% of the NISP). Small (< 2 cm)
and large (5–10 cm) fragments are almost equally repre-
sented: 14.8% and 18.9%, respectively. Only one specimen
belongs to the largest size category (> 10 cm): it is an almost
complete valve of black-lip pearl oyster (#398, floor 848,
Terrasse IV in Area B, phase IA). In the present study, the
size of the shell fragments did not impact the identification
process—although the only 3 bivalve fragments that have
not been attributed taxonomically are all measuring less than
2 cm. Therefore, it only represents 8.1% of the small frag-
ment category.
Surface modifications
Only 9 shell fragments show traces of charring—blackened
surfaces (carbonisation) are more than likely due to a pro-
longed exposure to fire or burning coals. It represents less
than 4% of the total NISP. The concerned shell fragments
mostly belong to the giant mangrove whelk (6 specimens),
suggesting that this species was cooked and consumed as
food at the site. Other burnt shells were attributed to a violet
asaphis (1 specimen), an ark shell (Anadara sp.) (1 speci-
men), and an unidentified bivalve fragment (1 specimen).
Two bittersweet clam valves contain traces of coloured
pigments (probably metal oxide-based) (Fig. 5): one show-
ing a blue-green pigment from sample #464 (UF 440, ter-
races I–II in Area B, phase III) and the other one showing
a deep black pigment coming from sample #478 (UF 424,
terrace IV in Area B, phase III). Other small shells could
have been used as containers for cosmetics since they have
no dietary value; for instance, a small ark shell valve from
sample #456 (UF 451, Terrace III in Area B, phase IB)
where the potential presence of pigments is more doubtful.
Residue analyses are still ongoing to this day.
Marine erosion traces were observed with no doubt on
4 shell fragments (1.6% of the total NISP): an ark (Ana-
dara sp.), a thorny oyster (Spondylus spinosus), a cowry
(cf. Naria urdus), and a rock shell (Indothais sp.). Marine
erosion traces can greatly vary from one shell to another,
depending mostly on how much time has passed since the
mollusc died. It however indicates that some shells of the
assemblage could have been collected when washed up
on the seashores to be used as tools or raw materials for
adornments.
Human-made modifications have been identified on at
least 26 shell fragments (11% of the total assemblage). It
remains unclear for further 19 specimens. The various cat-
egories of modifications include:
– Four fragments of pearl oyster valves show distinctive
traces of controlled breakages (made by hammering).
No specific traces suggest that oyster shells were used
as tools such as scrapers or borers. On another hand, 7
specimens show polished edges and surfaces (Fig. 6C);
– Most fragments of Conus shell show controlled break-
ages (direct percussion) made for detaching the spire
from the body whorl. Six spires have been drilled, includ-
ing 3 examples abraded through their apex (Fig. 6A).
Abrading surfaces are also often present on their edges,
sometimes creating facets (visible on 3 specimens). Only
one specimen of spire shows distinctive abrading traces
on its upper side;
– Scalar retouches were observed on the ventral margins
of 5 specimens of violet asaphis and 3 specimens of red
venus clams (Fig. 6B). Experimentations suggest that
scalar retouches are made by an abrupt direct percussion
on the edge of the margin by using a hardstone pebble
(Lidour and Cuenca Solana in preparation);
– Abraded edges linked with an activity as a tool have been
recorded on the ventral margins of 3 specimens of violet
asaphis, and 4 specimens of red venus clams (Fig. 6B).
It remains more uncertain for 13 fragments of unworked
ark shell valves since marine erosion tends to produce
the same traces (Fig. 6D). Indeed, some specimens which
look to have been used did not show any scalar retouches.
In 2021, use-wear analyses have been undertaken in
order to document the activities linked with the human-
made modifications observed on the shells. Unfortunately,
in most cases, the surface of the shells was too altered
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 29   Page 8 of 21 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29

to allow the observation of microtraces—which has been The specimen labelled AV01 came from rubble layers (UF
linked to weathering or taphonomic processes. Only three 473) in the south-western part of Area C (Fig. 7A); AV02
specimens of violet asaphis showing scalar retouches from UF 449 which is associated to phase IB on terrace V
have provided enough preserved micro use-wear traces.

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 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29 Page 9 of 21  29
◂Fig. 3  Sample of archaeological marine shells from Masāfī 5: 1.
Polished left valve of the black-lip oyster, Pinctada persica; 2–3.
Polished fragments of black-lip oyster valves; 4. left valve of the red
venus (Callista erycina) showing scalar retouches on its ventral mar-
gin; 5. Left valve of the ark shell Anadara antiquata showing abrad-
ing surfaces on its ventral margin; 6–7. Fragments of ark shells (Ana-
dara sp.) showing potential traces of abrasion; 8–9. Right valves of
the violet asaphis (Asaphis violascens) showing scalar retouches on
their ventral margins; 10–11. Body whorl fragments of the giant man-
grove whelk (Terebralia palustris); 12 and 14. Apertures and sipho-
nal canals of the giant mangrove whelk (Terebralia palustris); 13.
Columella fragment of the giant mangrove whelk (Terebralia palus-
tris); 15. Apex of the giant mangrove whelk (Terebralia palustris);
16–19. Conus sp. spires at different stages of the production of shell
rings; 20. Lower body whorl (with the siphonal canal) of a Conus sp.
detached through direct percussion as a production waste; 21. Frag-
ment of an almost achieved Conus sp. ring; 22. Complete shell of
the turban snail (Turbo radiatus). Images: K. Lidour and M. P. Pel-
legrino; scale: 1 cm
(Area B) (Fig. 7C); AV03 from rubble layers (UF 446) on
terrace V (Area B) (Fig. 7E).
In all cases, the traces develop on both sides of the valve,
along the retouched ventral margin. The micropolish is bet-
ter visible when the valve is set almost flat on the microscope
stage, with a perpendicular incident light ray. It indicates an
important contact between the active area and the material
worked.
In the case of AV01 and AV02, the micropolish shows
a wide extension from the margin towards the inner valve;
it is bright, and its pattern is fairly closed. It is developing
following the original uneven microrelief (initially produced
by the knapping—still slightly visible on Fig. 7A), affecting
in a similar way both its lowest and highest areas, indicating
some plasticity or softness of the material worked. However,
this microrelief is progressively disappearing, creating flatter
surfaces with a unified micropolish. Indeed, the microrelief
is extensively abraded, showing the strong abrasivity of the
material processed. Striations are numerous, long, shallow
to moderately deep, and of various thicknesses. They are
parallel and oriented longitudinally to the edge of the valve,
evidencing a cutting or a sawing action. Although little vis-
ible, some striations are also observed along the margin on
the outer valve (Fig. 7C—black arrows), confirming a lon-
gitudinal action affecting both sides.
Comparisons with reference use-wear traces which have
been made experimentally suggest the processing of vegetal
fibres, following a longitudinal motion. Cutting or slicing
leaves, in particular, creates long and moderately deep stria-
tions arranged in parallel and developing longitudinally to
the edge, on both sides of the valve (Fig. 7D). They develop
on wide and flattened surfaces (Fig. 7B), created by a flu-
ent working area between the tool and a pliant and abrasive
material.
In the case of AV03, the micropolish develops more mod-
erately both in extension and in the microrelief, showing a
gradual pattern. This means that abraded areas are visible
(Fig. 7E—white arrows), but they do not lead to the forma-
tion of wide flat surfaces as in the case of AV01 and AV02
– the reliefs can sometimes look slightly domed. The work-
ing surface is thus less fluent and associated with a lesser
abrasivity. The striations produced are thinner, shorter, shal-
low, and concentrated on the high reliefs. They are arranged
in parallel and oriented longitudinally to the edge of the
valve – also present on the outer side of the valve (not illus-
trated here).
Comparisons with reference specimens confirmed the
processing of a moderately pliant vegetal material follow-
ing a longitudinal motion. In the case of sawing or grooving
wood, the contact between the active area and the material
worked is marginal, limited to the highest points of the relief
located close to the edge and not developing further towards
the inner valve – which is not the case here. In practice, the
hardness of the wood makes the active area frequently break,
disrupting the development of the micropolish on wide sur-
faces. Good comparisons have been obtained with speci-
mens used for cutting pieces of ropes made of date palm leaf
sheath (Fig. 7F). The leaf sheath is a fabric-like fibre cov-
ering the trunk of palm trees. This vegetal material shares
features of leaves and wood: harder and less abrasive than
leaves but, at the same time, more pliant than wood which
allows the micropolish to develop in relief. The micropolish
shows a wide extension when the action consists of pro-
cessing the leaf sheath in bulk. Conversely, it is much more
limited when cutting a rope or a thread.
Discussion
Shell‑collection strategies
The giant mangrove whelk inhabits intertidal brackish
environments such as estuaries and, more specifically, man-
groves in the Indian Ocean, where it feeds on fallen leaves
(Houbrick 1991) (Table 8). Large specimens typically occur
on mud, among mangrove roots (Wells 1980). In the UAE,
giant mangrove whelks were, in the past, attested in the
Umm al-Quwain, Jazīrat al-Ḥamrāʾ, and Raʾs al-Khaimah
areas (northern UAE). Nowadays, this species only occurs
in the Eastern province, along the Sea of Oman, including
in the mangrove of Kalbāʾ. It is a quite big and nutritious
mollusc which is easy to collect in large numbers.
Ark shells are essentially living offshore in Eastern Ara-
bia, except for the species Anadara antiquata and Ana-
dara natalensis (formerly Scapharca natalensis) which are
reported to be found buried in intertidal muddy sand (Bosch
et al. 1995: 210–211). Ark shells have been largely exploited
in the past in the Kalbāʾ area, including during the Bronze
Age and the Iron Age at Kalbāʾ 4 (Emirate of Sharjah, UAE)
13
 29   Page 10 of 21 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29

Table 4  Summarised NISP %NISP MNI %MNI WISP (g) %WISP

quantification of the main shell
taxa represented at Masāfī 5 Arcidae 22 8.3% 17 11.2% 139.96 5.9%
Asaphis violascens 14 5.8% 10 6.6% 65.55 2.8%
Pinctada persica 72 27.9% 22 13.2% 1153.85 48.7%
Callista spp. 21 8.8% 18 11.8% 185.57 7.8%
Terebralia palustris 69 28.8% 45 29.6% 492.98 20.8%
Others 52 20.4% 44 27.6% 333.57 14.1%
Total 250 - 156 - 2371.48 -

Table 5  Quantification of the Area B Area C Area D

main shell taxa by areas
NISP %NISP NISP %NISP NISP %NISP

Arcidae 15 9.2% 3 8.1% 4 10.8%

Asaphis violascens 9 5.5% 1 2.7% 3 8.1%
Pinctada persica 46 28.2% 20 54.1% 5 13.5%
Veneridae 20 12.3% 5 13.5% 4 10.8%
Terebralia palustris 53 32.5% 2 5.4% 13 35.1%
Conus spp. 8 4.9% 2 5.4% 1 2.7%
Others 12 7.4% 3 10.8% 7 18.9%
Total NISP 163 - 37 - 37 -

Table 6  Quantification (%NISP) of the main shell taxa by chronological phases

IA IB IC ID II III
NISP %NISP NISP %NISP NISP %NISP NISP %NISP NISP %NISP NISP %NISP

Arcidae 4 8.2% 7 12.5% 2 14.3% - - 4 14.3% 5 5.8%

Asaphis violascens 3 6.1% 3 5.4% - - - - 1 3.6% 6 7.0%
Pinctada persica 29 59.2% 18 32.1% - - 1 25.0% 9 32.1% 14 16.3%
Veneridae 3 6.1% 9 16.1% 1 7.1% 1 25.0% 2 7.1% 13 15.1%
Terebralia palustris 8 16.3% 15 26.8% 9 64.3% - - 11 39.3% 25 29.1%
Conus spp. - - 1 1.8% - - 1 25.0% 1 3.6% 8 9.3%
Others 2 4.1% 3 5.4% 2 14.3% 1 25.0% - - 15 17.4%
Total NISP 49 - 56 - 14 - 4 - 28 - 86 -

(Phillips and Mosseri-Marlio 2002). It is hardly surprising
that specimens could have been brought from the coast to
inland sites such as Masāfī 5 at the same time. Several other
shell taxa represented can be gathered in intertidal and upper
subtidal sands alongside ark shells: many venus clams (such
as Marcia spp. and Circenita callipyga), the violet asaphis,
as well as some bittersweet clams (Glycymeris livida and
Glycymeris arabica according to Bosch et al. 1995: 213).
However, the latter is more frequently found washed up on
the shore. This is also true for the red venus (Callista ery-
cina) and for several large Conus, which generally live off-
shore (Bosch et al. 1995: 157–166; 269). Most of the Conus
shells found washed up in the areas of Khor Fakkān and
Kalbāʾ belong to the species Conus betulinus (K.L. pers.
obs.).
Large black-lip pearl oysters can be harvested from
subtidal rocks and coral reef areas. They are found attached
with their byssus to hard substrates such as rocks, barnacles,
or other shells (Bosch et al. 1995: 220). Although the shell
of pearl oysters caught alive is probably more suitable to be
worked (the mother-of-pearl is flaking off when the shell
dries), freshly washed-up specimens could have been used.
A few taxa also indicate the potential exploitation of
intertidal rocks: top shells and turban shells in particular.
Some other large gastropods such as the giant frog shell
(Tutufa bardeyi) and the carinate rock shell (Indothais lac-
era) can be encountered both on intertidal sands and rocks
(Bosch et al. 1995: 102, 123). While the carinate rock shell
is well attested in both the northern UAE and the Sea of
Oman, it is more than likely that giant frog shells are more

13
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29 Page 11 of 21  29

Fig. 4  Anatomical representation of the main shell taxa from Masāfī 5. The coloured areas correspond to anatomical parts described as P1, P2,
and P3. CAD: K. Lidour

common in Oman, with most of archaeological specimens species found washed up on the shore; an identification and
being reported from there (Weeks et al. 2019: 13). Persian a description of the natural habitats exploited).
conchs (Conomurex persicus) are exclusively living on shal- The few freshwater shells identified in the assemblage
low intertidal sands. Empty shells of the latter species are are probably of an intrusive nature. Their presence could be
however frequently re-occupied by small hermit crabs (e.g., explained by the proximity of agricultural fields and ancient
Clibanarius signatus) (Seyfabadi et al. 2015). hydraulic installations in the Masāfī area.
Further research is necessary along the Eastern province
coast, and in the Kalbāʾ area in particular, to precise the con- Shellfish consumption
ditions of the shell collection (i.e., a systematic listing of the
Only a few taxa represented in the shell assemblage have a
Table 7  Anatomical representation of the main shell taxa from
real nutritional value. Fresh marine molluscs have a calorific
Masāfī 5. P1: hinges, umbos, and apex; P2: ventral margins, siphonal intake comprised between 168 and 335 kJ (c. 40–80 kcal),
canals, and apertures; P3: other fragments of the valve or the body according to Prieur (2005: 163). They also consist of a val-
whorl, including the columella, but without P1 and P2 uable source of hydration (c. 80% of water) and proteins
P1 P2 P3 (10–15% in mean) for a relatively low amount of fat (1–2%).
The giant mangrove whelk is particularly remarkable from
Arcidae 17.6% 58.8% 23.5%
a nutritional aspect, showing from 19 to 28% of proteins
Asaphis violascens 61.5% 38.5% -
(Pasaribu et al. 2019; tab. 2; Samsi et al. 2020), thus equal-
Pinctada persica 20.9% 7.5% 71.6%
ling mammal meat and tuna. Given the maximum size this
Callista spp. 44.4% 33.3% 22.2%
mollusc can reach (90 mm shell length in Eastern Arabia
Terebralia palustris 5.8% 58% 36.2%
according to Bosch et al. 1995: 57) and the ease of its col-
Conus spp. 66.7% 33.3% -
lection (colonies of tens of individuals are encountered at

13
 29   Page 12 of 21 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29

Fig. 5  Specimens of archaeo-
logical shell from Masāfī 5
potentially showing residues
in their inner valve. 1. Left
valve of the bittersweet clam
Glycymeris livida (sample #478,
UF 424); 2. Left valve of a bit-
tersweet clam, Glycymeris sp.
(sample #464, UF 440); 3. Left
valve of an ark shell, Anadara
sp. (sample #456, UF 451).
Images: K. Lidour; scale: 1 cm

Fig. 6  Some specimens of
marine shells from Masāfī 5
showing human-made modifica-
tions. A Unachieved drilling in
the middle of a Conus spire; B
Scalar retouches on the ventral
margin of a red venus (Callista
erycina) valve. Note the highly
abraded edge; C Polished sec-
tion of a fragment of black-lip
oyster (Pinctada persica); D
Potential use-wear traces on
the ventral margin of an ark
shell (Anadara sp.). Images: K.
Lidour with a Leica S8 APO
stereomicroscope; Laboratory
platform: IIIPC (Santander,
Spain)

the upper intertidal zone), it is not surprising that ancient
coastal people have specialised on its intensive exploita-
tion. According to Soemodihardjo and Kastroro (1977), a
specimen with a shell measuring 90 mm in length would
provide c. 11 g of fresh meat. Therefore, less than ten speci-
mens would satisfy the daily protein intake requirements for
an adult (0.8 g.kg−1 body weight, according to Binder and
Mansbach 2016).
There is no doubt that giant mangrove whelks were
brought to the site to be eaten. Indeed, their shells are never
re-used as tools or to produce personal adornments. In this
sense, it is interesting to note that charring traces are almost
exclusively observed on giant mangrove whelk shells. We
also note that the shells were systematically broken to access
the mollusc meat (Fig. 3 n°10–15) contained in the upper
part of the body whorl, around the columella. Fragments
of giant mangrove whelk shells are well represented in all
the phases, indicating that this mollusc has been constantly
consumed all along the site occupation. The consumption
of giant mangrove whelks is well documented at other sites
occupied by the ­2nd millennium BCE and the Iron Age,
both on the coast and in the hinterland: such as at Shimāl
(Vogt and Franke-Vogt 1987: 91), Thuqaibah (Vásquez and
Rosales 2006; Del Cerro 2013), and Ḥiṣn Awḥalah (Potts
et al. 1996: tab. 10). This gastropod can be kept alive during
several weeks (with seawater in storage jars for instance)
(Rao 1938: 202) and therefore well suitable to has been
used as a key food by ancient people travelling across the
mainland.
Conversely, the other shell taxa represented at Masāfī 5
cannot be preserved fresh for such a long time (a few days
at the most). However, the site is quite close to the coast:
about 6 h on foot from Fujairah (Fig. 1). Therefore, the
supply of fresh marine products was almost possible daily.

13
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29 Page 13 of 21  29

Fig. 7  Comparisons of use-wear
on archaeological (from Masāfī
5) and experimental specimens.
A Specimen AV01 (UF 483,
phase III) (inner valve); B Ref-
erence specimen CU08 (Callista
umbonella) used for cutting
half-dry date palm leaflets
during 10 min (inner valve); C
Specimen AV02 (UF 449, phase
IB) (outer valve); D Refer-
ence specimen CU03 (Callista
umbonella) used for cutting dry
date palm leaflets during 5 min
(outer valve); E Specimen
AV03 (UF 446, phase III) (inner
valve); F Reference specimen
AVR4 (Asaphis violascens)
used for cutting a rope made
of date palm leaf sheath during
5 min (inner valve). Images: K.
Lidour with a Leica DM2500 M
optical microscope, Magnifica-
tion × 100; Laboratory platform:
IIIPC (University of Santander,
Spain)

Various edible shellfish could have been consumed as food
by the site inhabitants such as oysters, violet asaphis, and
ark shells. It has been noticed that a fragment of ark shells
from Masāfī 5 shows traces of charring. While it appears
that ark shells were used as tools or containers first and
foremost, it should be mentioned that this mollusc taxa is
edible and have been abundantly consumed in the Kalbāʾ
area since the Neolithic (Phillips and Mosseri-Marlio
2002). Furthermore, at Kalbāʾ 4, some 80 paired ark shell
valves have been found in a Late Bronze Age jar (ibid).
This discovery must to be linked to the study of the Masāfī
5 pottery by Pellegrino (2022) which has confirmed the
circulation of large necked jars (of the ‘petrographic group
B’) between Masāfī 5, Kalbāʾ 4, Shimāl SX (Emirate of
Ra’s al-Khaimah), and Tell Abraq (Emirates of Sharjah
and Umm al-Quwain, UAE) during the Late Bronze Age.
It suggests that not only liquids but also fresh molluscs
(such as ark shells and giant mangrove whelks) could have
been transported in jars from the coast to inland sites such
as at Masāfī 5.
Some of the small gastropod shells could have been re-
used by hermit crabs (e.g., small cones, turban shells, and
Persian conchs). It thus cannot be excluded that the latter
was brought to the site for a dietary purpose. The consump-
tion of hermit crab is rarely highlighted in archaeological
studies, especially in Eastern Arabia. More attention should
be paid to it in the future studies. However, it requires a
systematic fine sieving (1–2 mm) of the sediment excavated.
Shell working industries
The fragmentation analysis has shown different patterns of
anatomical distribution among the various shell taxa repre-
sented in the Masāfī 5 assemblage (Fig. 4; Table 7). In some
cases, it highlights the exploitation of certain parts of the
shell for either ornamental or technological purposes. For

13
 29  

Table 8  Natural habitats and other conditions for gathering the shell represented in the Masāfī 5 assemblage (from Bosch et al. 1995)

13
Intertidal Lower shore and below
Sand Among rocks Mangrove Sand Among rocks Offshore Beached Freshwater Hermit crab ?
Page 14 of 21

and and
gravels gravels

Bivalvia Arcidae Anadara Anadara antiquata X X X

Anadara uropigimela X X
Anadara sp. X X X
Mosambicarca Mosambicarca erythraeonensis X X
Glycymerididae Glycymeris Glycymeris livida X X
Glycymeris sp. X X X
Ostreidae Saccostrea Saccostrea cuccullata X X
Psammobiidae Asaphis Asaphis violascens X X
Pteriidae Pinctada Pinctada persica X
Spondylidae Spondylus Spondylus spinosus X X
Veneridae Callista Callista erycina X X
Callista sp. X X X
Circenita Circenita callipyga X
Marcia Marcia cf. opima X
Marcia sp. X
Periglypta Periglypta puerpera X X
Tivela Tivela ponderosa X X
Gastropoda Bursidae Tutufa Tutufa bardeyi X X X X
Conidae Conus Conus cf. virgo X X X
Conus sp. X X X X X X X
Cypraeidae cf. Naria cf. Naria turdus X X X
Hydrobiidae Hydrobia Hydrobia sp. X
Muricidae cf. Indothais cf. Indothais sp. X X X X X X
Potamididae Terebralia Terebralia palustris X X
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences

Strombidae Conomurex Conomurex persicus X X X

Thiaridae Melanoides Melanoides tuberculata X
Tonnidae Tonna Tonna sp. X X X
Trochidae Trochus Trochus kotschyi X X X
Turbinidae Turbo Turbo radiatus X X X
(2023) 15:29

Vermetidae Thylacodes Thylacodes variabilis X X X X X X X

Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29 Page 15 of 21  29
pearl-oysters, the use of the mother-of-pearl is prioritised. It
is the spire in the case of the Conus shells. Test fragments of
large gastropods such as the giant frog shell could have been
worked to produce a variety of adornments. The violet asa-
phis and red clam valves are sometimes almost complete, but
scalar retouches are often localised on their ventral margins
in order to be used as cutting tools (Fig. 3 n°4, 8–9; Fig. 6D).
Mother‑of‑pearl plaques
Fragments of mother-of-pearl are all belonging to black-lip
oyster valves (Pinctada persica) at Masāfī 5. Most of the
specimens are coming from Area B, in particular from phase
IB on terrace IV (21 specimens). Fewer examples have been
found on terraces I (from phases IA and II) and II (phase
II). A number of fragments are also recorded from phase
IB in Area C, in particular from the fill of C1421 (13 speci-
mens) and the layer associated with the series of post-holes
(UF 489) found in the south-western corner of the area (3
specimens).
On another hand, it is to note that black-lip oyster shells
are dominating the taxonomic spectrum in Area C and are, in
percentages, significantly more important that it is the case
in Areas B and D. Area C is represented mostly by contexts
associated to the pit C1421. Therefore, one could expect
that the assemblages from Areas B and D are more repre-
sentative of a daily consumption of shellfish since they are
proper settlement areas. Conversely, the pit C1421 is filled
with a series of deposits which might not reflect the differ-
ent aspects of the site economy. Indeed, the great number of
fragments of black-lip pearl oyster shells in the pit C1421
could be interpreted as a deposit of waste products in link
with the transformation of the mother-of-pearl.
The mother-of-pearl is worked since the Neolithic in East-
ern Arabia. During the Neolithic, it has been used to make
both personal adornments (mostly pendants, disc beads,
and ‘buttons’) and fish-hooks (Charpentier and Méry 1997;
Méry et al. 2008). During the Bronze Age and the Iron Age,
mother-of-pearl is still largely exploited for the production
of rings, alongside Conus shells (Charpentier 1994). Plaques
of worked mother-of-pearl are frequently encountered from
both settlement and burial contexts: in particular in the areas
of Raʾs al-Ḥadd and Raʾs al-Jinz (Ash-Sharqīyah, Sultanate
of Oman) (Azzarà 2015: part X2, pl. 72, 199 n° 1–2). Large
unworked fragments are also circulating inland, as shown by
examples found during the excavations of Building I at Hīlī
8 (Emirate of Abu Dhabi, UAE) (Cleuziou 1977: 22–23).
Both unworked fragments and polished plaques of
mother-of-pearl (Fig.  3 n°1–3) are present at Masāfī 5.
Hinges which have been detached from the valve can be
interpreted as waste products, proving the presence of a
small-scale workshop at the site. It is also indicating that
complete valves of black-lip oysters have been brought from
coastal sites – where they have been collected either fresh or
washed up on the shore. However, no finished products such
as shell rings have been found so far at Masāfī 5. One can
suggest that the polished plaques are semi-finished products
which have been processed at Masāfī 5 prior to be exported
somewhere else. Indeed, as suggested by Azzarà (2015:
363), it is likely that the plaques were preliminarily abraded
and polished (Fig. 6C) to prevent the mother-of-pearl flaking
off. Mother-of-pearl has been abundantly imported in Meso-
potamia since the Bronze Age and worked locally for the
production of decorative plaques, frequently used as inlays;
for instance, at Mari (Tell al-Ḥarīrī) (Middle Euphrates,
Syria) (Coqueugniot 1993; Couturaud 2019).
This activity mostly took place during the Late Bronze
Age at Masāfī 5, as the majority of the mother-of-pearl
plaques have been found within contexts associated to phase
IB.
Conus rings
At Masāfī 5, all the Conus spires come from Area B, includ-
ing one specimen from phase IB on terrace V (UF 449),
another one from phase II on terrace II (UF 456), and the
other specimens from different rubble layers associated to
phase III. Fragments belonging to the lower part of the body
whorl also come from rubble layers (Areas C, D, and from
terrace IV in Area B). An almost finished Conus ring (Arte-
fact #262) was found in the south-western part of Area C
(UF 498) (Fig. 3 n°21).
Conus shells have been used for the production of adorn-
ments—shell rings in particular—during all the Bronze
Age and the beginning of the Iron Age in Eastern Arabia. A
great number of Conus ring workshops have been discovered
within settlements of the areas of Raʾs al-Ḥadd and Raʾs
al-Jinz (Santini 1988: 34; Reade and Méry 1988: 75; Cleuz-
iou and Tosi 1990: 28; Cleuziou and Tosi 2007: 175–176,
figs. 178–180; Marcucci 2012; Borgi et al. 2012; Azzarà
2015: part X2) but also at Bīmah BMH2 (Muscat Gover-
norate, Sultanate of Oman) (Loreto 2016; 2018). Further
workshops have been identified by Charpentier et al. (2013:
95) on Maṣīrah Island (Sultanate of Oman)—dated from
the Early Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age. According to
Charpentier (1994: 164–165), Conus rings were essentially
widespread as grave goods. It is the case, for instance, at
Merashid (Emirate of Fujairah, UAE) (Benoist et al. 2002:
36, pl. 4) and at Dibbā 76/1 (Emirate of Fujairah, UAE) (Pel-
legrino et al. 2019: 34). Both finished rings and unworked
Conus shells were exported to Dilmūn (Baḥrain and coastal
Saudi Arabia) and Mesopotamia during the same period
(Charpentier 1994: 165–166)—the latter being locally trans-
formed by specialised workshops.
Conus shells have been also used for the production of
small discs or ‘medallions’ but in lesser proportions than the
13
 29   Page 16 of 21
shells of large conchs such as Tutufa bardeyi, Pleuroploca
trapezium, and Lambis runcate sebae (Weeks et al. 2019:
12). For instance, an example of disc made in a Conus spire
was found at Mudhmar East 3 in the Adam area (Sultanate of
Oman) (Jean et al. 2021: Fig. 11 n°14). However, at Masāfī
5, none of the stages of the production of Conus disc has
been found.
Nevertheless, it appears that Conus rings were locally
produced at Masāfī 5 since various stages of their manu-
facturing process are represented—which are, according to
Charpentier (1994: 158–162):
– Phase 1 or phase 2 stage 1: the spire has been separated
from the body whorl. Potential crushing traces made by
hammering are visible on the apex (1 specimen) (Fig. 3
n°16);
– Phase 2 stage 2: the apex was removed by hammering
and let us see the natural channel (1 specimen) (not illus-
trated);
– Phase 3 stage 1 (variant): the perforation begins from the
outer face of the spire—but it is not completely achieved.
Abrading facets are created on the edges of the spire
(normally performed during phase 4 stage 1) (1 speci-
men) (Fig. 3 n°17; Fig. 6A);
– Phase 3 stage 1 (variant; accident): the perforation was
made from the outer face of the spire, but the piece broke
in two through the transverse axis. Extensive abrading
traces are observed on the outer face of the spire (similar
to ‘stage Px’ from Marcucci 2020: 326) (1 specimen)
(not illustrated in this paper);
– Phase 3 stage 2 (accident): the perforation has been made
from both faces of the spire, creating a biconical hole
which was progressively widened by abrasion. But the
spire broke in two through the transverse axis during the
process (2 specimens) (Fig. 3 n°18–19);
– Phase 5 (accident): the edges of the rings are finely
abraded and polished, creating a hemispherical section.
The present specimen still shows a roughly quadrangular
section. The ring broke in two through the transverse axis
during the process (1 specimen) (Fig. 3 n°21).
Although no complete large Conus shell was present
at Masāfī 5, three fragments of the lower part of the body
whorl (including the siphonal canal) have been found (Fig. 3
n°20) (similar to Charpentier 1994: Fig. 13.2.c-d; Cleuziou
and Tosi 2007: Fig. 180). The presence of waste products
confirms that fairly complete Conus shells were brought
from the coast to Masāfī 5 to be manufactured into rings.
Large gastropods
A few fragments of the giant frog shell Tutufa bardeyi
(N = 4) have been identified in the Masāfī 5 assemblage
13
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29
(Fig. 8). Three specimens are coming from UF 471 and UF
476 (terrace II in Area B, phase III), and another example
from UF 805 (fill of the pit C1421 in Area C, phase IB).
Fragments are roughly measuring from 4 to 7 cm width and
do not show any traces of manufacture.
In Eastern Arabia, from the Neolithic onwards, shells
of large gastropods such as Tutufa bardeyi (but also Pleu-
roploca trapezium and Lambis runcate sebae) have been
collected and worked for the production of adornments:
pendants, bracelet plates, columella beads, and more specifi-
cally for discs. Shell discs are typically found within Early
Iron Age contexts, such as from Sārūq al-Ḥadīd (Emirate
of Dubai, UAE) (Weeks et al. 2019: Fig. 2 and 5), Shimāl
(Emirate of Raʾs al-Khaimah, UAE) (Vogt and Kästner
1987: Fig. 18), Bithnah (Corboud et al. 1996: pl. 27), and
Dibbā (Caputo and Genchi 2016: figs. 1–5; Pellegrino et al.
2019: Fig. 35). Large gastropod shells have been often used
as containers and, potentially, as conch-shell trumpets as
well (Charpentier et al. 2003; Fig. 5; Salvatori 2007: 29).
Comparisons of specimens encountered in Mesopotamia,
South-East Iran, the Indus Valley, and Eastern Arabia have
suggested technological transfers and the potential trade of
both finished products and raw materials since the 3­ rd mil-
lennium BCE (Gensheimer 1984; Kenoyer 2008).
Unlike for the Indus Valley (see Kenoyer 1984), work-
shops for the shells of these large gastropods are little docu-
mented in Eastern Arabia. Nevertheless, different stages of
the manufacturing process of the shell discs have been dis-
covered during the excavations conducted at Sārūq al-Ḥadīd
(Weeks et al. 2019: 14, Fig. 10): including rough fragments,
semi-processed, and finished products. It indicates a fully
organised process of production at the site. Similarly, the
discovery of some rough fragments of giant frog shell
could suggest the presence of a small workshop at Masāfī
5, although no finished product have been found.
Shell tools
The use of shell valves as tools has been already documented
in coastal UAE, Sultanate of Oman, and Yemen from the
Neolithic to, at least, the Iron Age (Charpentier et al. 2004).
Specimens are mostly belonging to large Veneridae species
such as Callista erycina, Callista umbonella, and Meretrix
sp. but also to the violet asaphis. The ventral margin of the
valves is knapped (creating scalar retouches on their inner
side) (Fig. 6B). Therefore, the valves can be used as a knives
or scrapers. So far, no use-wear analyses have been con-
ducted on shell tools from Eastern Arabia in order to better
document their specific uses.
At Masāfī 5, only a few specimens of violet asaphis
valves have provided exploitable use-wear traces. They
have been studied within a broader research project includ-
ing use-wear analyses of a number of shell tools coming
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29 Page 17 of 21  29
Fig. 8  Approximate locations of
archaeological Tufufa bardeyi
shell fragments from Masāfī 5
compared to a complete refer-
ence specimen (dorsal view).
Images: K. Lidour; Scale: 1 cm
from sites dated from the Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age
(Lidour et al. in preparation). The specimens analysed in
the present study have provided first pieces of evidence of
the process (cutting) of vegetal fibres—possibly date palm
leaflets and leaf sheath (i.e., a fabric-like fibre covering the
trunk) according to comparisons which have been made
with experimental specimens (Fig. 7B, D, F; Lidour and
Cuenca Solana in preparation). Although the processing of
vegetal fibres is confirmed by the present use-wear analy-
sis, the precise identification of the materials worked has
to be confirmed by further investigations.
For a very long time, date palm fibres were tradition-
ally exploited and used for basketry and the production
of ropes in Eastern Arabia (Crocker Jones 1991). Palm
leaflets are generally dried and split in two along their
longitudinal axis before being braided for making mats
and baskets. The leaf sheath is used in bulk for stuffing
mattresses, cushions, and camel saddles (Heard-Bey 2016:
176). It is also twisted and braided for making ropes that
could have been used for a variety of purposes, including
in architecture, for boats, and for making fishing nets and
lines.
Evidence of basketry and ropes has been documented at a
number of 3rd–2nd millennia sites in Eastern Arabia: it con-
sists of either mineralized fragments of braiding or imprints
left on bitumen coatings (e.g., Cleuziou and Tosi 2007:
figs. 197–198). Further evidence of basketry has been found
within Early Iron Age contexts (c. 1200–1000 BCE) at Salūt
(Sultanate of Oman) (Bellini et al. 2011: 2783, Fig. 3). Shell
knives could have been used for slicing palm leaflets and
for cutting pieces of ropes – than properly being involved
in the process of making ropes itself. Indeed, the produc-
tion of ropes from the palm leaf sheath does not require any
specific tool, except a hammer for relaxing the fibres (K.L.
pers. obs.). One could suggest that shell knives were used
for collecting the leaf sheath from the palm trunks – which
is also possible – but this task can be directly done by hand.
An attentive observation of ark shells valves from
Masāfī 5 has suggested their potential use as scrapers too.
Indeed, their ventral margins are irregularly abraded and
polished (Fig. 3 n°6–7; Fig. 6D), suggesting a use. These
shells are well curved, naturally serrated, and hence appro-
priate to be used as expedient tools without modifications
(Poulsen 1987). For instance, the use of such kinds of shells
13
 29   Page 18 of 21
as scraping tools is well-attested in Oceania (Burley 1999;
Huard and Burley 2017). However, use-wear analyses have
been unsuccessful for the ark shells retrieved from Masāfī
5 so far.
Other purposes
The other taxa represented in the assemblage could have
been concerned by other non-dietary purposes. All the
taxa fitting in this category can be directly collected and
washed up on the shore between Khor Fakkān and Kalbāʾ.
Large specimens such as conchs, tun shells, but also vari-
ous valves of bittersweet clams, ark shells, and venus clams
(including valves of the youthful venus Periglypta puerpera,
found in UF 454) could have been used as small containers.
The use of shell valves as small containers for pigments
(possibly used as cosmetic products) is frequently reported
from Bronze Age and Iron Age periods in Eastern Arabia
(e.g., Thomas and Potts 1996; Masia 2000; Cleuziou and
Tosi 2007: 177, Fig. 181; Borgi et al. 2012). Strangely, the
shells used as containers frequently belong to the same taxa:
mostly bittersweet clams, ark shells, and, less frequently,
venus clams and scallop shells (Pectinidae). Green and black
residues are respectively identified as copper and manganese
oxide-based products (atacamite and pyrolusite) (Giardino
2019: 83, Fig. 7.30). Residue analyses are currently under-
going to identify the nature of the pigment contained in the
Masāfī 5 specimens.
Small gastropods such as cowries or small complete
Conus could have been used as game tokens or trinkets
(somehow considered as souvenirs). In the Sultanate of
Oman, seashells (small gastropods) are frequently used as
tokens for playing hawalis, a mancala game introduced by
African immigrants at the beginning of the nineteenth cen-
tury CE (de Voogt 2003: Fig. p. 97; Charpentier et al. 2014).
Nothing could exclude that similar board games were prac-
ticed in Protohistoric Arabia.
Conclusion
Only a few shell taxa could be seriously considered as a
valuable food at Masāfī 5—most of the edible shellfish are
only little represented (e.g., Marcia spp., Circenita cal-
lipyga, Saccostrea cuccullata¸ Anadara spp.). Only the
giant mangrove whelk is reported in significant numbers.
As mentioned above, its preferential use in the diet is sup-
ported by the frequent occurrence of charring traces on the
shell surface. It is likely that most of the consumed shellfish
at Masāfī 5 directly came from the Fujairah-Kalbāʾ coast,
reachable within a few hours by following the wadis to the
South-East (Fig. 1).
13
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29
A significant part of the shell assemblage is composed of
specimens showing human-made modifications. Shell tools,
including knives, are made from large valves of venus clam,
violet asaphis, and ark shell potentially. The production of
shell adornments at Masāfī 5 consists of Conus rings and
plaques of polished mother-of-pearl (Pinctada persica). The
presence of a small workshop of giant frog (Tutufa bardeyi)
shell at Masāfī 5 has been also discussed. However, a sin-
gle example of an almost finished product, namely a broken
Conus ring, was found in the studied assemblage. Neverthe-
less, the presence of a shell industry at Masāfī 5 is undoubt-
able and must be considered in the broader regional con-
text of the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age, where rough
fragments of shell, semi-finished, and finished products are
circulating between various workshops located in both on
the coast and inland.
Further research should focus on the place occupied by
the marine products in the ancient exchange networks across
the Arabian Peninsula, as well as with other cultural spheres
of South-West Asia (i.e., Mesopotamia, South-East Iran, and
the Indus Valley). Most of the shells used in the manufacture
of tools and adornments at Masāfī 5 can be directly found
washed up along the shores of the Sea of Oman: large Conus
are particularly abundant in the areas of Khor Fakkān and
Kalbāʾ. This strengthens the idea that connections were fre-
quent between Masāfī 5 and the sites situated along the Sea
of Oman, such as the Kalbāʾ 4 settlement – which has been
already indicated by the recent comparative study of the pot-
tery of Masāfī 5, Kalbāʾ 4, Shimāl SX, and Tell Abraq by
Pellegrino (2022) (see also Pellegrino et al. 2020). Accord-
ing to the present study, it is likely that complete valves of
black-lip oysters, Conus shells, and either complete or large
chunks of giant frog shells were brought to Masāfī 5 from
coastal Oman where a number of sites have specialised in
their exploitation.
The present study has also provided the first elements
regarding the ancient use of shell tools during the Late
Bronze Age, highlighting the exploitation and the process
of vegetal fibres—more than likely from the date palm
(Phoenix dactylifera). The local culture and exploitation of
date palms are confirmed by the discovery of charred date-
stones—alongside jujube (Ziziphus spina-christi) stones—
within a Late Bronze Age or Iron I context at the site (UF
433, terrace IV in Area B, phase IC) which has been dated
from c. 1412–1209 cal. BCE. Furthermore, the discovery of
post-holes at Masāfī 5 suggests that most of the architecture
was built with vegetal materials, which could have included
different parts of the date palm such as leaves, rachis, or
the whole trunk. The multi-purposes exploitation of the
date palm is coherent within the context of the long-term
development of an oasian agricultural-based economy in the
Masāfī area and to its integration within the material culture.
A variety of date palm products including fruits and fibres
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:29 Page 19 of 21  29
have probably already taken an important place within the
exchanges between the inland oases and the coastal areas
since the Bronze Age onwards.
Shell tools are fully efficient for processing meat, hides,
and vegetal fibres (Cuenca Solana et al. 2011). However,
one could question why marine shells have been used as
tools within a cultural context where both lithic and copper
equivalents can be produced. Marine shells are not avail-
able locally in the Masāfī area, thus they are not constitut-
ing an obvious choice as a raw material for the production
of opportunistic tools. Nevertheless, the transformation of
a marine shell into a scraping or a cutting tool is quite easy
and fast: the ventral margin of the valve is knapped by a
series of small direct percussions using a hard hammer-
stone (or on a resting hammer) (Lidour and Cuenca Solana
in preparation). They can be made by individuals without
any particular technological knowledge by the opposition
of lithic and metal tools which are produced by specialised
craftsmen. Furthermore, the use of shell tools at Masāfī 5
was probably stimulated by the frequency of the exchanges
between the hinterlands and the coastal areas. This connec-
tivity has more than likely included the movement of people
as well, facilitating transfers of elements from the respective
material cultures.
In the future, the study of further archaeological assem-
blages of marine fauna from both coastal and inland regions
will allow a better understanding of inter-sites contacts and
of the interdependency of their economies. Further use-wear
analyses have to be undertaken on shell tools in order to con-
firm the results discussed in the present paper as well as to
provide a more diversified overview of their use in the past.
Acknowledgements  We are very grateful to the Dr Saeed Al-Samahi,
Ahmed Al-Shamsi, and Salah Ali Hassan (Fujairah Tourism and Antiq-
uities Authority) for their unfailing support to the Masafi project and
to the French Archaeological Mission in the UAE. We also would like
to thank Abdelkader Late Wahid Ali for his valuable assistance on the
field. Last thanks go to David Cuenca Solana (IIIPC, University of San-
tander, Spain) and Vincent Charpentier (INRAP, UMR 7041) for their
support regarding use-wear analyses undertaken and knowledge on
ancient shell working industries. We would like to thank the reviewers
for their thoughtful comments and careful review, which contributed
to improve the manuscript.
Author contribution  MPP and JC have conducted excavations at the
site, collected, and provided the samples to KL. KL carried out the
analysis and interpreted the results. KL wrote the manuscript and
designed the figures with support from MPP and JC. MPP and JC
provided critical feedback and helped shape the research. JC super-
vised the whole project with support from MPP. All authors read and
approved the final manuscript.
Funding  This study has been partly funded by the Fyssen Foundation
(post-doctoral study grants, Fyssen Foundation Grant 2021–2022).
Data availability  Not applicable.
Code availability  Not applicable.
Declarations 
Ethics approval  Not applicable.
Consent to participate  Not applicable.
Consent for publication  Not applicable.
Competing interests  The authors declare no competing interests.
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