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Caie Igcse: Business STUDIES (0450)
Caie Igcse: Business STUDIES (0450)
Caie Igcse: Business STUDIES (0450)
ORG
CAIE IGCSE
BUSINESS
STUDIES (0450)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE BUSINESS STUDIES (0450)
Needs: goods or services that we need in order to live Added Value = selling price – total cost
Wants: goods or services which people would like to have.
It is NOT the profit because added value does not include
But are not essential for living.
the price to pay for labour, transport etc.
People’s wants are unlimited (you will always want
To increase added value, a business can either:
something) but the resources available to produce them
Increase the selling price of product, while keeping
are limited which leads to scarcity (the basic economic
the total cost of material the same
problem)
Create a brand image
Scarcity: there are not enough products to fulfil the wants
Improve packaging
of the population
Make products more appealing by adding features
Resources (also known as factors of production) include:
Provide higher quality goods and services
Land, Labour, Capital & Enterprise
Decrease the total cost of materials, while keeping the
Land – any natural resource used in production
selling price of the product the same.
Labour – mental and physical efforts of a human
Capital – man-made goods used in production
Enterprise – the risk-taking ability of an entrepreneur 1.5. Classification of Businesses
As there are limited resources, people are always forced
to make a choice. This means that we will be giving Businesses can be put into three sectors:
something up, this is known as opportunity cost Primary sector – extraction of natural resources. Ex.
Opportunity cost: it is the next best alternative that is farming, fishing
Secondary sector – manufacturing and production of
given up by choosing another item.
goods. Ex. car manufacturer
Tertiary sector – provides services. Ex. hairdressing,
1.2. Specialisation banking
The relative importance of these sectors in an economy
Specialisation: when people and businesses focus on
depends on:
what they
are best at.
Number of workers employed
Division of labour is when production is split in different
Value of output produced
tasks
and each worker performs one of these tasks
Deindustrialisation occurs when there is a decline in the
importance of the secondary sector.
Advantages Disadvantages
This can happen due to:
Workers become bored of Depletion of primary resources in home country
Workers specialized in certain
doing the same job. Efficiency Cheaper goods by developing countries
task, increases efficiency
might fall Ability to spend more income on services
Less time is wasted from one If a worker is absent, no
workbench to another, more other worker can do the job.
1.6. Mixed Economy
efficiency Efficiency might fall
As the business is more Employees have to rely on Has both a private sector and a public sector.
efficient, output increase each other to produce Private Sector: Businesses NOT owned by
which may lead to economies products, leading to a fall in government, will make own decisions on what and
of scale productivity how to produce. The main aim is to make profits.
Workers become more skilled Public Sector: Owned by the government.
and experienced, reducing Government will make decisions on what and how to
the mistakes made produce (i.e. healthcare, education, defence, public
transport). The main aim is to provide a service to
customers.
1.3. Purpose of Business Activity: Privatization refers to the selling of a public sector
business to the private sector.
Businesses combine scarce factors of production to
Privatisation may occur as private sector is more efficient,
produce goods or
services to satisfy people’s wants
competitive and will be able to make good quality goods
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Investors
No way of measuring the size is considered correct as
Government
each method gives different answers. Businesses choose
Competitors
the method they think is the best. Therefore, businesses
Workers
may use more than one method.
Bank
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Internal Growth is when the business expands its existing A business owned by just one person. It’s the smallest
operations type of
business. Can employ other people however.
External Growth is when the business takes over or Useful for people who are setting up new business
merges with another business. Do not need much capital to get business running
There are three types of External Growth: Will be dealing mainly with the public
Horizontal Integration – firm taking over/merging with
another firm in the same industry Advantages Disadvantages
Ex. a paper company taking over another paper Capital is usually provided by
Easy to set up, do not require
company owner, hard to get capital to
a lot of money to set up
Benefits include economies of scale and higher expand firm
market share They have unlimited liability
Problems include diseconomies of scale and They are their own boss, has
(responsible for any debts of
difficult to control and manage the business the freedom to choose their
the business, bank can take
Vertical Integration – firm taking over/merging with own holidays, work hours,
away possessions to pay
another firm in same industry but different stage of prices, who to employ
back)
production (there is forwards and backwards)
Close relationship with Business is likely to remain
Ex. paper manufacturing company taking over
customers small
paper selling company
Benefits include profits by supplier/retailer are Does not have to share No one to discuss business
absorbed and personal attention is given profits matters with
Conglomerate Merger - firm merging/taking over They are unincorporated
Does not have to give
another firm in a different industry. (also known as (business has same identity
information about the
‘diversification’) as the owner). So, business
business
Ex. paper company taking over a food company ends when owner dies
Benefits include spread of risks and transfer of Lesser legal restrictions
ideas.
1.14. Partnerships
Why small businesses are at greater
risk A business in which 2 to 20 people agree to own it.
Usually small
businesses but bigger than sole traders.
Established by youngsters who lack managed experience Useful for people who want to form a business but
Borrow money to begin so will have to repay whether or don’t want the
legal complications
not business is successful Industries such as medicine or law where you are not
Start-ups have lesser experience and information about allowed to
form a company
the market in order to make informed decisions Partners that know each other very well
New entrepreneurs may not have a realistic picture of the Requires a Partnership Agreement
market
Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to set up, do not require Capital is usually provided by
1.12. Why Businesses Fail a lot of money partners
Poor management – from lack of experience, poor choice More capital invested (more Partners have unlimited
of
managers (family business), bad decisions expansion) liability
Failure to plan for change – businesses need to adapt Partners can disagree on
Partners are motivated
everchanging business environment. Must take risks. decisions. If one of the
because any losses are
Poor money management – lack of money to pay partners is inefficient, they all
shared by the partners
workers, suppliers,
landlords, etc. lose money
Over-expansion – (diseconomies of scale), management Responsibilities are shared They are unincorporated. If
problems and finance (focused on different parts of one of the partner dies, the
Competition with other businesses – new businesses are business) partnership ends
at more
risk of failing than existing businesses.
This is because start-ups have lack of money, resources, Contents of Partnership Agreement:
poor
planning & don’t have much research Amount of capital invested by all partners
Tasks to be done by each partner
1.13. Sole Trader The way profits are shared out
How long partnership will last
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Arrangements for absence, retirement and how Advantages (in addition to those
Disadvantages
partners could be
let known in LTDs)
Difficult to set up (legal
Opportunity to raise high capital
1.15. Private Limited Company (LTD) sums
formalities) & accounts
are even more public
An LTD is different from the other because it can sell Danger of business being
shares
and it is an incorporated business. No restriction of buying, selling or
taken over due to public
Company must be owned by at least 2 shareholders transferring shares
shares
A shareholder buys shares of an LTD company which
Selling shares to public is
represent
part ownership of the company
expensive
Dividend is the amount of profit each shareholder
gets
DON’T GET CONFUSED, Public Limited Companies are
Shares are sold privately to friends and family
NOT in the
PUBLIC sector, they are in PRIVATE sector
Has separate identity from owners, incorporated, so
company accounts
are separate from the owners’
Must have: Articles of Association and Memorandum of 1.17. Joint Venture
Association
Article of Association – must contain the
RULES in which A joint venture is when two or more businesses start a
the company will
be managed. Contains: project
together sharing capital risks, and profits
Rules for shareholder meetings
List of directors and their jobs Advantages Disadvantages
Voting rights of shareholders Costs are shared, good for Profits have to be shared if
Details of how accounts are recorded expensive projects project is successful
Memorandum of Association – must contain important Shared knowledge of two Might have disagreements
information
about the company: businesses over important decisions
Company name, address Different methods of running
What the business does Risks are shared
business
Number of shares to be sold
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This means that if the workers are paid more, they will Job Satisfaction
work more effectively Financial Rewards/Motivators include:
By breaking down worker’s jobs into simple tasks, you Wages
could calculate how much output they could do in a Wage is a payment given weekly
day Workers are paid quickly, so don’t have to wait too
Taylor’s idea was that if the workers produced more, long to receive money
they would receive a bonus Given overtime for extra hours worked
But the problem with this approach is that Taylor They must be calculated every week, which is
believed everyone is ONLY motivated by money, expensive
which doesn’t, always stand true Wage clerks need to be appointed
ABRAHAM MASLOW Time Rate (payment per hour, i.e. 10$/hour)
Also known as “Hierarchy of Needs” – a pyramid Paid according to number of hours worked
showing the different types of needs and how some Easy to calculate
are more important than others Good and bad workers are paid the same
(demotivating)
Supervisors may need to be appointed to keep a
check on workers
Clocking-in system may be required
Piece Rate
Physiological Needs – food, rest, shelter (fulfilled by Workers are paid depending on the quantity of
receiving wages) products made
Safe/security Needs – protection against danger & Given above basic pay
poverty. Having fair treatment (fulfilled by having job Encourages workers to work faster
security) May only focus on quantity and ignore quality
Social Needs – friendship, belonging in a group Workers focusing on quality may earn less
(fulfilled by having colleagues at work) (demotivating)
Esteem Needs – having status and recognition Salaries
(fulfilled by being recognised for good work) Paid monthly
Self-actualisation – achieving your full potential, No overtime
feeling that you have done a good job (fulfilled by Salary = annual income/12
being promoted & being given more responsibility) Payment needs to be calculated only once a
Maslow’s theory also suggests that each level in the month
hierarchy (starting from Physiological needs) needs to Commission
be achieved before moving on to the next Given to sales staff
FEDRICK HERZBERG Higher sales, higher money
Also known as “the 2-factor theory” Encourages people to sell more
Humans have two sets of needs: If too persuasive may have negative effects on
Basic animal needs (called ‘Hygiene’) customers
To be able to grow physiologically (called Profit sharing
‘Motivator’ needs) It involves giving employees a share of profit,
above basic pay
‘Motivator’ Factors ‘Hygiene’ Factors Increases motivation
Achievement Status Other profits may be given to shareholders
Recognition Security Bonus
Personal Growth Work Conditions A lump sum amount of money is given to workers
who have done a good job
Relationship with boss &
Advancement/Promotion Paid yearly
subordinates
Performance related pay
Work itself Salary Employee pay is related to the effectiveness of the
employee
The presence of hygiene factors doesn’t motivate Mostly used in service sector, when output can’t
employees, but their absence demotivates them. be easily measured
Often used as a method of appraisal
2.3. Methods of Motivation Appraisal is when an employee’s immediate
supervisor observes their work and discusses their
There are 3 Factors that motivate employees: training needs
Financial Rewards Share ownership
Non-Financial Rewards Shares of a company are given out to employees
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You also have Staff Managers – which are specialists in This means the trust for the workers is increased by the
certain
areas to provide support and information to line manager
managers Therefore, there needs to be more trust in workers in
order to reduce control over them
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Advantages Disadvantages
Not good for accurate
3. Marketing
Opportunity for immediate messages and if a permanent
feedback record of the message is 3.1. Marketing, Competition & Customer
needed
Message is reinforced by the Marketing – Identifying customer needs and satisfying
speaker’s body language them
There are many departments within the Marketing sector
of a business
Written methods – sender creates e-mails, memos or
letters,
including the use of Information Technology The role of the marketing is to:
Identify customer needs – this will be done via ‘Market
Advantages Disadvantages Research’. It will influence the development of a
Might lead to too many e- product, its
price, and the sales technique
Message can be referred to in A good marketing department should also be able
mails and ‘information
the future “hard evidence” to
anticipate (predict before happening) changes
overload’
of customer
needs (i.e. due to advancement in
Easy to explain complicated Two-way communication is
technology)
messages difficult
Find new trends or gaps in market with potential
Can be copied and re-sent to Hard to check if message has Satisfy customer needs – selling the exact product
many people been received customers
want, for a price they are willing to pay
Maintaining customer loyalty – building customer
Visual methods – sender uses diagrams, charts, videos, relationships and make sure that existing customers
PowerPoints will
continue to buy from them and to attract new
customers
Advantages Disadvantages Maintaining customer loyalty will be achieved by
Information presented in always
satisfying customer needs
No feedback and needs other
more appealing way, people Gain information about customers –
methods of communication
will be more interested to They need to gain information about the changing
to go with it
look at it needs of the customers.
Graphs and charts may be They need to understand why customers buy their
Can be used to make written
difficult for people to products and how they use them.
messages clearer, to illustrate
understand, message may be Anticipate changes in customer needs –
the point Identify new trends in customer demands or gaps
misunderstood
in the market.
Markets change because consumer spending patterns
2.13. Communication Barriers change,
this might be due to:
Trends and fashions change – for a period of time it
Communication Barriers – things that prevent efficient might
be fashionable to have a specific product (i.e.
communication Fidget Spinner)
but a month later no one buys them
Problems with the sender:
when language is too difficult,
Advancement in technology – new products provide
speaks too quickly/not clearly,
communicates wrong
the latest
technology so older versions (i.e. iPads or
message computers) don’t
have high sales
Overcome by: using understandable language, making Unemployment/Wages – Economies with high
sure message
is a clear as possible by asking questions to unemployment
rates/low wages will not have high
make sure message was
understood
sales of expensive products
Problems with the medium:
message may be lost/not
Ageing population – different ages are interested in
seen by receiver, wrong medium used (i.e.
important different products (i.e. anti-ageing creams)
message on noticeboard), if message is being passed Changing customer needs are important to businesses.
along
– it might get distorted They must identify these changes and respond in order to
Overcome by: sender asking for feedback/receiver always
stay successful
sending
feedback that message is received, selecting the
Some markets have become more competitive because:
appropriate channel
to send message
Globalization – products are sold all over the world
Problems with the receiver: not
listening/paying Transportation – it is cheaper, quicker and easier to
attention, receiver doesn’t trust the
sender/doesn’t want send
products around the world now
to do it
Internet – customers can now search for products or
Overcome by: emphasizing importance of message, ask
services
and buy from somewhere else around world
for feedback
to ensure it was understood, using direct For a business to stay competitive, it must:
communication
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Maintain good customer relationships Identify a market segment whose needs are not being
Keep improving its existing products fully met
and fill the gap (first in market)
Bring out new products to keep customer’s interest
Keep costs low 3.4. Market Research
3.2. Market There are 2 types of businesses:
Product-oriented business – a business that focuses
Market – the total number of customers, potential mainly
on the product itself
customers
and other sellers of a product/service Market-oriented business – a business that focuses on
There are two types of market: market research and find out what the customer
Mass market – where there is a very large number of wants BEFORE
a product is developed
sales of
a product type Market research is important because a business needs
to know how
many people would be willing to buy the
Advantages Disadvantages product, this is to see how
profitable it would be
Sales are very high Lots of competition Market Research – gathering information about
Can benefit from economies consumers' needs
or preferences in a market
High costs of advertisement There are 2 main types of market research:
of scale
PRIMARY RESEARCH (field research)
Many similar products so it
Opportunities for growth SECONDARY RESEARCH (desk research)
may not meet specific needs
(large sales)
of all customers Primary Research - Gathering of ORIGINAL data by talking
There are many variations of directly with customers/potential customers
products so risk is spread Process:
Purpose of market research
Niche market – a SMALL (usually specialized) segment Decide on the most suitable method of market
(part) of a
mass market research
Decide the size of sample and who is going to be
Advantages Disadvantages asked?
Avoid competition with big Small – limited number of Carry out the research
businesses sales Analyze the data and results
Specific needs of customers Usually specialize in just one Summary of the research
are focused. Advantage over product, if product has low Primary research includes:
mass market demand, it will fail Questionnaires
They may be conducted face to face, by telephone,
For example, the tie industry is a mass market, but a internet.
business that
makes ties out of crocodile skin is a niche Online surveys may also be carried out.
market Advantages:
Detailed qualitative information can be
gathered.
3.3. Market Segmentation Customer’s opinion can be obtained.
Online surveys may be cheaper and easier to
Market segments – a sub-group of a market in which the
collate the results.
consumers have similar characteristics or preferences
They can be linked to prize draws and
A market can be segmented by:
encourage people to fill them.
According to age
Disadvantages:
Socio-Economic group – grouping people according to
If not filled properly, may mislead the business
how much
they are paid
as there may not be accurate answers.
Location – where people live (people that live in wet
Lots of time and money needed.
areas
will buy more waterproof clothing than those Collating and analyzing data also need a long
who live in dry
areas)
time
Gender – men and women products differ
Interviews – person will interview other person and
Lifestyle – how many children a person has, religion,
ask
questions
habits, etc. Advantages:
Benefits of market segmentation:
The interviewer will be able to explain the
Business aims all of its marketing efforts to the
questions if not understood
specific
segment, making marketing costs efficient
Detailed information about the interviewee
Since less money is spent on marketing, more profit
can be gathered
Disadvantages:
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Cost of production must enable a price that is suitable Then it is introduced or launched in the market. Sales at
for customers as well makes a profit to the business. first will grow slowly as not everyone is aware about the
Design of the product is very important. The quality of product. Informative advertising will be used to promote
the product must match the price. the product until it is well – known.
Sales will start to grow rapidly. The advertisements
Development of new products change to persuasive ads to encourage brand loyalty.
Prices might be reduced at this time as there are
Benefits – competitors. Profits are made and are used to cover
USP – unique selling point development costs.
Diversification Maturity – sales increase slowly. There is high competition
Allows business to expand into new and existing and lots of advertisements have to be done. Profits are
markets the highest.
Drawbacks – Saturation - there are stable profits. No new competitors.
Costs of carrying out market research and analyzing Competitive pricing is used and prices are reduced.
the findings Profits begin to fall as sales reduce.
Cost of producing trial products including waste Decline – the product is removed out of the market as
materials there are new products introduced and the business
Lack of sales if target market is wrong might be in losses. Advertising is stopped.
Loss of company image if the product fails to meet
consumer wants
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Make small changes to the product’s design, cover, color It is when price is set to match consumer
Sell through additional retail outlets expectations and perceptions of a product
Introduce a new, improved version of the old product It may involve charging high prices for high quality
Use a new advertising campaign goods
It may involve charging the price below a whole
3.7. Pricing number
Low prices for basic necessities may give a good
It is important to select an appropriate price to impression of being good value of money
complement a brand image; a value for money brand Ensures sales are made
should have a low price. Sales revenue may be lost
The business must constantly monitor what its Competitors may follow, low effect
competitors are charging for their products to make sure Dynamic pricing
its prices remain constant. It means charging different customer groups,
A business can adopt new pricing strategies for: different prices for the same product because
To break into a new market they have different demand levels
To increase market share Made it easier to adopt with the growth of online
To increase profits marketing
To make sure all costs are covered and a particular High revenue and profits
profit is earned Increased costs
There are 5 main types of pricing methods: Price Elasticity – It is a measure of responsiveness of
Cost-plus pricing: demand to a change in price
It involves estimating how many of the product PED is affected to the no of substitutes available ⦁ Price-
will be produced, then calculating the total cost of Elastic Demand is when the % change in demand is
producing this output and adding a percentage GREATER than the % change in price i.e., prices increase
mark – up for profit. by 5% but then sales decrease by 10%. Therefore, there is
The method is easy to apply. falling revenue for the business
You could lose sales if the selling price is a lot Price-Inelastic Demand is when the % change in demand
higher than your competitors’ price. is LESS than the % change in price
Total cost /output+ % mark up. This means you can increase the price of the product a lot
Competitive pricing: without the demand changing (i.e., oil & petrol because
High sales as prices are at a realistic level people have to buy it)
To decide prices, research needs to be done, it
costs time and money 3.8. Place – Distribution Channels
Penetration pricing
It is when the price is set lower than the Product should be available when and where customers
competitors’ prices in order to enter a new market need them
It ensures sales are made Wrong place, low sales and profits
It ensures the new product enters the market Place must be convenient for consumers
Low profits
Price skimming There are 4 main distribution channels:
It is when a high price is set for a new product on
Manufacturer sells products directly to consumer (i.e. car
the market
components to car factory)
Established a brand image
Established the product of good quality
Costs of R&D maybe covered
It may pull off some potential customers due to Advantages Disadvantages
high prices Impractical because
Promotional pricing Very simple consumers don’t usually live
It is when a product is sold at a very low price for a near factories
short period of time
Not good for products that
Help get rid of unwanted stock Suitable for products that are
can’t be sent easily by post
May raise sale, if they were falling sold straight out of factories
(may be expensive to ship it)
Low profits, low sales revenue
Psychological pricing
There is a lower price for
Not cost effective
consumer (cuts retailer)
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Type of product
Advantages Disadvantages
Is it technical?
Reduces storage costs for More expensive to buy from How often is it purchased?
small retailers because small wholesaler than from How expensive is it?
quantities are sold manufacturer How perishable is it?
Small quantities so transport Wholesaler might not have all Where are customers located
costs are low the products a retailer wants Where do competitors sell
Wholesaler can give feedback
Takes longer to get to
on what sells well to
consumer 3.9. Promotion
producer
Huge gap between Promotion gives info about the 4P’s
manufacturer and customer Essential when trying to increase/ create brand loyalty
May stock competing Promotion includes:
products Advertisements –
Above the line
TV, newspaper, internet
A manufacturer hires an agent (person or business) that
will sell products on behalf or manufacturer Sales promotion
Below the line
Free gifts, coupons, samples
Used for short periods
Advantages Disadvantages
Agents know the most Aims of promotion
Manufacturer loses lots of
profitable places & prices to
control on the way the To raise awareness about a firms’ products
sell in other markets that
product is sold to customers Encourage customers to make a purchase
manufacturers may not know
Increase sales
Agents will provide advice on
Inform people about particular issues, used by the govt
best ways to survive new Higher costs for consumers
Introduce new products in the market
markets
Create brand image
Improve company’s image
E-commerce Compete with competitors
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New technology gives greater opportunities to market There are many laws in different countries to protect
goods consumers from businesses taking advantage of their
The 4 P’s might change lack of knowledge or lack product information
Internet allows businesses to understand customer These legal controls include (in the U.K.):
habits Weights and measures
Selling underweight items or using inaccurate
Social media and website equipment’s to weigh goods is illegal
Sale of goods
Advertising through social media: Supplying goods of bad quality/ in an
Target specific demographic group unsatisfactory condition is illegal
Guarantee it reaches customers Supply of goods and services act.
Cheap Producing and selling goods in an unhygienic
Reach people of all ages place is illegal
Quick responses to market changes Distance selling regulations
Have to pay for pop ups A consumer should have a minimum of 7 days
If advertising is annoying, reduce sales cooling period (a consumer should have 7 days to
Lose control change their mind about purchase they made)
Maybe altered, reducing business reputation Trade descriptions
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Supplying a good/ service which is unsafe/ not fit Problem Method to overcome
for the purpose is illegal Licensing: the business gives
Giving false info or misleading claims is illegal
permission for a local
Misleading consumers about the true price is illegal
Transport costs are business to sell goods under
Making false claims about special deals and offers is
expensive its name, so they do not have
illegal
to physically import all the
Offensive or indecent ads are illegal products
Complying with all legal controls can raise total costs of a
business by:
Localizing Existing Brands:
Goods/ services may have to be redesigned to ensure where a business still has the
quality and safety
same brand image but
Cultural Differences
Ads may have to be altered adapts it to the market it is in
Some promotion techniques may have to be changed
(i.e. McDonalds cooking
May have to change packaging vegetarian meals in India)
Prices may have to be controlled and altered
Increase employment
4. Operations management
3.13. Entering New Markets Abroad
4.1. Production of Goods and Services
The globalization of businesses has been increasing over
the years,
there are opportunities & problems to this: Production – the making of a product or service to satisfy
consumer wants and needs
Opportunities Problems It involves adding value to a business’s products
Growth potential in other A business combines the inputs/economic
Lack of knowledge of resources/factors of production to produce a more
countries: countries are
competitors or consumer valuable output (this could be a good or a service)
developing and population
habits The ‘inputs’ include:
incomes are increasing
Land – For factories or for materials
Markets in original country Cultural differences: for
Labour – Employees
might be saturated (sales are example, alcohol won’t sell
Capital – Money/finance
low) well in middle east
Enterprise – Managers
Exchange rates: in some
Can produce products in Businesses want to combine all of these inputs efficiently
countries their currency isn’t to keep costs low to increase profits
abroad and learn about its
stable so price of importing For a business to be competitive, it must combine its
market to increase sales
goods increase resources effectively, reduce disposal costs, total costs
Trade barriers are lowered in and raise profits
Transport costs are more
most countries so it is Labour-Intensive Production – where lots of workers are
expensive
cheaper to enter markets used rather than machines to make goods. Usually done
in countries with low wages so that it is more efficient.
However, there are many methods to reduce and Capital-Intensive Production – where businesses use
overcome the problems
of entering a new market: machines/robots rather than workers. Usually done in
developed countries where the wages are high.
Problem Method to overcome
Joint-Ventures: by working Operations department
together/merging with local
businesses in the same Operations department’s role is to take inputs and
market, a business will gain a change them into outputs for consumers
Lack of knowledge (& Cultural lot of important knowledge Operations manager is responsible for making sure raw
Differences) about the culture & market \n materials are available and are made into finished goods
Franchising: letting people Most manufacturing businesses have
from the market abroad Factory manager- responsible for quality and quantity
which have local knowledge of products
to choose location of shop Purchasing manager – responsible for providing the
required materials and equipment
Research and development manager – responsible for
design and training of new products
Productivity
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Productivity – It is a way of measuring a business’s Defects - when goods have faults/defects that require
efficiency them being inspected/fixed wastes time
Productivity = quantity of output/ quantity of input Advantages of lean production
Businesses often want to measure the productivity of Less storage costs
labor Quick production
Labour productivity = output / no. of employees Better use of equipment
Increased productivity leads to lower inputs used to Less money tied up in inventory
produce the same level of output or same number of No returns
inputs used to create greater number of goods Greater health and safety
As employees become productive, per employee output Cut some processes that aren’t important
rises, costs of production falls Low costs lead to low prices due to higher
Many ways to increase productivity: competition and high profits
Improve factory layout to reduce time waste and raise
efficiency 4.2. Lean Production
Introduce automation
Improve labor skills by training
Types of Lean Production
Improve quality control
Improve employee motivation Kaizen
Improve inventory control Just-in-time inventory (JIT)
Benefits of increasing efficiency: Cell production
More output compared to inputs
Lower costs per unit (AKA Average cost) Kaizen
If there is more output, maybe less workers needed,
less people to pay wages Kaizen means continuous improvement in Japanese
If there are less people working, raising their wages Its main focus is to eliminate waste
will increase motivation and so productivity The ideas are got by holding frequent meetings with
workers where they discuss about problems and their
Inventory solutions
Advantages –
Why do businesses hold inventory? High productivity
To ensure enough inventory is available to satisfy Less space needed for production
demand, inventory levels must be controlled Work in progress is low
Inventory includes: Improved layout of factory may lead to combine jobs.
Raw materials This will reduce labor demand
Work in progress
Finished goods Just in Time
When inventory reaches a certain point, they must be
reordered to bring the inventory to max level. It involves eliminating the need to hold inventories
Inventory must be reordered before it gets too low Supplies arrive just at time they are needed
If inventory levels are high, costs of production will be Low storage costs
high and opportunity costs will also be high Quick sales
Quick money received
Lean production To operate in JIT, businesses need to have reliable
suppliers and an efficient ordering system
Variety of techniques to cut down wastes and raise
efficiency Cell Production
It tries to reduce production time
Types of wastes: This is where the production process is divided into
Transportation - when the goods are being moved separate units, each making an identifiable part of the
unnecessarily → fuel price, may get damaged good
Overproduction - leads to high storage costs and High motivation
possible damage to goods while in storage. Less chance of strike
Over processing - when sophisticated machines are High efficiency
being used to do simple tasks High boredom
Waiting
Motion - any action made by an employee that does
4.3. Methods of Production
not relate with the production of goods wastes time
Unnecessary inventory
3 main methods of production:
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Sales revenue is the income of a business from sales of It establishes the brand image
goods or services in a period of time. It builds brand loyalty
To draw a break-even chart, you must include: It maintains a good reputation
Fixed Costs line It will help to increase sales
Variable Costs line Attracts more and new customers
Total Costs line If quality is not maintained, businesses will:
Sales Revenue line Lose customers to other brands/competitors
Anything before the break-even (BE) point is loss Have to replace faulty products or repeat poor service
Anything after the break-even (BE) point is profit which raises costs for business
‘y’ axis measures money amounts (cost & revenue) Have a bad reputation because people who had bad
‘x’ axis shows the number of units produced or sold experiences will tell other people, etc. Leads to lower
sales & revenue
Quality Control
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Total Quality Management (TQM) – the continuous If goods and raw materials are very heavy then
improvement of products and processes by focusing on transportation costs will be high. Then a company
quality at each stage of production may want its factory to be located near the
Many companies use Total quality management. supplier.
It tries to “get it right the first time” and have no defects External economies of scale
It focuses on ensuring 100% that the customer is always When two firms support each other or work
satisfied. Customer is not just the final user, it also together, they will be able to respond quickly to
includes other people and departments within the any important decisions to be made or any
business breakdowns.
This means that quality needs to be maintained Availability of labour
throughout the
business and no faults should occur. Every manufacturing business requires labour.
Advantages of total quality management: If a business requires only skilled labour then it
Quality is built into each part of the production. It will try and locate near a place where people with
becomes
a habit for the employees various skills live.
Eliminates virtually all faults/errors before the If a business requires unskilled labour then it will
customers
receives. be located in a place when wage rates are low and
No customer complaints so the brand image is unemployment is high.
improved Government influence
Waste is removed and efficiency increases which When a government wants to encourage
means less money is wasted (higher profits) businesses to locate in a particular area, it will
Drawbacks of total quality management offer state – funded grants, to encourage firms to
very expensive to train employees to check the move there
product or service at every stage of production High unemployed area, it may provide grants to
Relies on employees following the ideology of TQM businesses to locate there
Transport and communication
4.9. Location Decisions Businesses need to be closer to transport systems
Exported products, ability to reduce transport
Businesses look up for locations when: costs
New business Reduces time taken
Present location is unsatisfactory Power and water supply
Change in business aims and objectives Availability of power is very important
Expansion Some businesses need to have reliable power
Factors that influence the choice of location of a sources to continue production
MANUFACTURING business: Some production processes require a reliable
Production methods and location decisions water source
Production methods play a significant role in Climate
deciding the location of a business. Factors that influence the choice of location of a SERVICE
Job production – the business will be small and SECTOR business:
won’t have much effect on competitors there. Customers
Location of suppliers won’t have affect much on Services which require direct contact, must be
the business. Ex. A bakery located near the customers
If there is a large-scale production, then Services where personal contact isn’t required,
competitors in that area will be highly affected and location doesn’t affect
the business will prefer closer suppliers as raw Technology
materials will be in a huge amount and Technology has allowed e commerce so location
transportation costs maybe high if supplier is too doesn’t play a vital role
far. Personal preference of owners ⦁ Owners often decide
Market the business’s location
When a product is heavier than its raw materials, Availability of labour
then businesses decide to locate its factory near If a business is labour intensive it must locate in
the markets rather than the supplier as a business areas where labour is easily found like towns and
will find it much cheaper to do so. cities
Due to advances in transportation facilities the Climate
distances between factories and markets of heavy Near to other businesses
products doesn’t play a vital role. Some service/ businesses serve large companies
Perishable products need to be delivered quickly. and so should be able to reach them immediately,
Raw materials/ components therefore they must locate closer to them
Rent/ taxes
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If services don’t require personal contact, they can subsidies, lower taxes. They may do this to provide
locate in places with lower rents and tax rates new skills and increase employment
Factors that influence the choice of location of a Trade and tariff barriers – If trade barriers are high,
RETAILING business: the business’s chance of locating there would reduce
Shoppers costs
Retailers want popular areas as they attract
customers
It depends on the type of product 5. Financial information and
Expensive – place where high income people live
or visit regularly decisions
Nearby shops
Being located near a shop which is frequently 5.1. What does a finance department
visited means people may shop in between while
visiting other shops do?
A place with high competition attracts more
customers as they have greater choice Record financial transactions
Customer parking availability/ nearby Prepare final accounts
Convenient and nearby parking lots will encourage Cash flow forecast
people to visit your shop Make important decisions
Availability of suitable vacant premises Provide info to managers
If proper location isn’t available, a company can’t
locate there 5.2. Why does a business need finance?
Access of delivery vehicle
Businesses try to find places near transport Finance is money which is needed to meet the day – to –
businesses to gain easy access to delivery vehicles day expenses of a business. This is known as capital.
Rent/ taxes Capital is needed for:
Popular area, high demand, high rent Starting up a business
Less popular, low demand, low rent Capital which is needed to buy the factors of
Security production and inventories so that a firm can
A place prone to theft may reduce a business’s begin trading. It is known as startup capital.
chances to locate there Expansion
Insurance companies may not insurance such The amt needed to expand a firm. It can be done
companies by: additional assets, takeover/ merger, new
Legislation products, new markets.
Some countries may have laws restricting trade in Increase working capital
some parts It is known as the life blood of the business.
Factors influencing decision of which country to locate It is divided into:
operations in: Capital expenditure: money spent on non –
New market overseas - when a business sees an current assets.
increase in sales overseas, it may decide to Revenue expenditure: money spent on day to
move/relocate there, instead of transporting products day, recurring expenses.
there There are 2 types of finance needs:
Cheaper Source of material – if the raw material runs Short-Term Finance Needs: Finance needs to pay
out, the business must either bring in alternative things that last less than a year, (working capital) -
supplies from somewhere else or relocate to new includes wages, rent
country with these raw materials, it also might be Long-term Finance Needs: long term investments
cheaper than transporting it (that last more than 1 year). Money to buy Fixed
Difficulties with the labour force and wage costs – if Assets (i.e., buildings)
business is located in country where wages keep
rising, business may decide it is more profitable to
5.3. Sources of Finance
relocate to country where wages are lower
Rents/taxes considerations – if other costs such as The main sources of capital include:
rent or taxes increase, this might cause business to
Internal Sources – Obtained by business itself
relocate to countries where it is lower External Sources – Obtained from outside business
Availability of government grants and other incentives
- If governments want to increase foreign investment Internal sources of finance
and job opportunities, then they will provide grants,
Retained profits –
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Profit left in the business after shares are distributed. Micro finance –
Also known as ploughed back profits. Mostly banks don’t give loans to poor people
Doesn’t have to be repaid Special institutions have been set up which lend poor
Doesn’t incur interest people
New business can’t use it High interest rates
Small firms won’t be able to gain enough money Greater risk for the lender
Reduces owners’ payments
Sale of existing assets – Short term VS long term sources
Assets not needed can be sold to earn money.
Better use of unwanted capital Short term
Doesn’t increase debts of a business
Overdrafts –
Takes time
The bank gives the business the right to overdraw
Not available for new firms
their bank account
Could have been used during expansion
Flexible form of borrowing – varies each month
Sale of inventories –
High interest
Reduces opportunity cost
Cheaper than loans in short run
Reduces storage costs
Variable interest rates
May disappoint customers if sudden change in
Bank may ask the repayment with a short notice
demand is not met
Trade credit –
Owner’s savings –
It is when businesses delay the payments to suppliers
Quick availability
Interest free loan
No interest is paid
Reduces cash outflows in the short run
Savings may be low
May not provide discounts
Increases risks of owners
Factoring of debts
External sources of finance Long term
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Purpose of capital & time period: The general rule is Cash flow forecasts are just little charts with values
that the finance source should match the finance comparing 2 different time periods (months/years etc.)
need: Net Cash Flow – The difference between the cash inflow
If use of capital is long-term, source should be long- and outflow (inflow – outflow)
term (same with short term)
Existing Loans (risk and gearing ratio): if a business
already took out lots of loans, banks will think it is too
risky to finance
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Current liabilities xxx The acid test ratio is used to measure if a business is
Equity: likely to survive in the future
Share capital xxx The good and bad values of these ratios:
Profit/loss account xxx
Gross Profit Margin (%) No exact value, you must
Total liabilities + equity xxx compare with: Competitor
Net Profit Margin (%)
businesses, previous years, the
From the statement of financial position, you can ROCE (%) targets set by the business
calculate the Working Capital.
Current Ratio Should be above 1.5 to be safe
Working Capital = Current Assets - Current Liabilities
You can also calculate the Capital Employed – the long- Should be above 1, unless you
term capital invested in a business are dealing with cash sales in
Acid Test Ratio
Capital Employed = Non-Current Assets + Total Equity which it can be above 0.75 (cash
Total Equity = Shareholders’ funds is liquid - pays of liabilities easily)
Interpreting balance sheets Having lots of stock may mean that the company might
be illiquid
because inventories are hard to convert to cash
Shareholders can see the value of their stake easily
They can analyze how expansion is paid for Liquidity is very important for a business:
Working capital can be calculated If they can’t convert their assets into cash, they won’t
Working capital = current assets – current liabilities be able
to pay their suppliers (current liabilities)
Capital employed can be calculated Not paying suppliers will force them to stop trading to
Capital employed = shareholders’ funds + noncurrent pay back
their debts
liabilities
Calculate ratios 5.9. Users of accounting information
5.8. Analysis of Accounts Managers
They will have access to much detailed and frequent
Using all of the documents and information from cash accounting information
flow forecasts,
balance sheets and income statements They will help them keep control over the
you can rate the performance of
a business performance of each product
Analysis of accounts is interpreting these They will be able to identify which business aspect is
accounts/documents to see
how a business is doing doing well and which has a poor performance
To rate a company’s performance, you can use 5 ratios Help decision making
There are 2 types of ratios: Ratios are a quick way for managers to compare their
Profitability Ratios – how profitable a business is ratios with other businesses and previous accounts
Liquidity Ratios – how able a business is to pay its Shareholders
short-term debts (current liabilities)
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Limitations of accounting records and ratio If an economy’s total output rises, it is said to be
experiencing economic growth
analysis
GDP is the total value of goods and services produced in
Managers have access to all accounts data, external users an economy
don’t have all information Economic growth may cause employment to rise,
Ratios are based on past accounting data, may not increasing living standards and reducing poverty
indicate future performance A fall in GDP can lead to:
Accounting data over time will be affected by inflation Unemployment
Different companies may use different ways of Fall in average living standards, as poverty rises
accounting Less investment
Economies go through the ‘Business Cycle’:
6. External influences on
business activity
6.1. Government Economic Policies &
Objectives
Governments want 4 main economic objectives:
Low Inflation: Low prices of goods & services, so
people
will buy more, more money in economy
Low Unemployment: High % of people working so
Growth: GDP is rising, unemployment falling,
that they
don’t rely on government funds
businesses
succeeding & higher living standards
Economic Growth: growth of the GDP (Gross Domestic
Boom: Higher living standards so people start
Product)
of a country – more goods and services being
spending more money, so prices increase – business
produced and sold
costs will also rise
Balance of payment (of Imports & Exports): the
Recession: people become uncertain about their jobs
difference between the imports and the exports of a
so they
don’t spend money. Many workers lose their
country balance out (BoP = Exports – Imports)
jobs because of lack of
demand & profit in a business
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How it affects
Tax What it is business
activity
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Benefits to the business Benefits to the country (i.e. 1€ = 1.2$ → 1€ = 1.1$) – it can buy less of another
Producing goods at lower currency
Jobs are created The exchange rate of a currency is influenced by 2 things:
costs
Demand for the currency: if many people want to buy
Investments in development
Closer to resources (i.e. oil) the
currency the price will increase because there is a
of infrastructure in country
‘limited’
number of currency (appreciate)
Closer to market More exports Supply of currency: if the central bank prints more
Avoid expensive taxes of money,
the supply increases but the demand is still
import of goods (i.e. Korean Tax – more money to the same so the
value is lower (depreciation)
cars (KIA) being produced in government Exchange rates can affect businesses by:
EU to benefit from free trade)
Spread risks (if there are low If it Appreciates: If it Depreciates:
Increased product choice for
sales in one country and high Import prices rise: your
consumers Import prices fall: since your
sales in another) currency is worth less so you
currency can buy more of the
need more to buy other
other currency
However, there are potential drawbacks to the country: currencies
Less sales for local businesses, might go bankrupt Export prices rise: your Export prices fall: it is worth
‘Repatriation of profits’ – profits are sent back to currency is worth more so it less so other currencies can
home
country and doesn’t benefit country located is more expensive for other buy your currency for les of
Business has lots of influence on government – they currencies to buy it theirs
can threaten
to leave the country
They can use up scarce resources in the country This means that if the currency Appreciates:
The product’s price in other countries will increase
6.7. Exchange Rates Business will make more profit
Business can lower the price and still make the same
Exchange Rate – the price of one currency in terms of amount of
money as before – it is more competitive
another
currency
If the currency depreciates:
For example, 1 Euro is equivalent to 1.2 Dollars
Currency Appreciation – when the value of a currency The products price in other countries will decrease
less profit will be made
increases
(i.e. 1€ = 1.2$ → 1€ = 1.7$) - it can buy more of
Business needs to raise the price to make the same
another currency
amount of
money as before – less competitive
Currency Depreciation – when the value of a currency
decreases
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