Earth

Materials
EAES201-00
(Spring 2023)
Instructor: Prof. Young Jae Lee

Office: Rm #503, Mediheal Earth & Environmental Science Bld.

Office hrs: Tue. 10:30-11:30 AM or by prior arrangement (email,

please)
E-mail: youngjlee@korea.ac.kr
Phone: 02-3290-3181

T.A.:
Hours: by email, please
E-mail:

Textbook: 『Mineral Science』

by Klein & Dutrow
『Earth Materials』
by Klein & Philpotts
Grades
There will be two exams, mid-term and final exams, attendance
and class participation, labs (exercise @ Wed.), and homework
and qiuzzes, giving a total of 100 pts.
There will be NO MAKEUP EXAMS.
Homework will normally be due one week after it is assigned.
Late homework: NO ACCEPTANCE.

Attendance and Participation plus

Homework & Quizzes 15 points
Lab (exercise @ Wed.) 15 points
Mid-term (30%) + Final Exam (40%) 70 points

100 total points

 Prerequisite:
General Geology,
Physical Geology, or
The Earth (e.g., EAES 151, 152)

Earth Materials (EAES 201) is

NOT a class as an elective,
BUT for all earth & environmental science major.

Classes for prerequisite MUST be taken.

Valid documents MUST be shown and verified for
Prerequisite.

Therefore, please withdraw EAES 201 If you choose

this class for an elective or liberal arts.
 Your attendance will be checked.

If you miss more than 9 classes, then you will be

failed automatically (grade : F).

If you are late more than 10 min grace period in class,

your attendance will NOT be accounted.

In emergency case, however, your attendance is

accounted only for valid, documented reasons.
Tentative Class Schedule
Week Topic*
1 Introduction and basic concepts
2 Physical properties of minerals
3 Physical properties of minerals
4 Aspects of crystal structures
5 Aspects of crystal structures
6 Chemical composition of minerals
7 Chemical composition of minerals
8 Mid-term Exam
9 Crystallography and symmetry
10 Crystallography and symmetry
11 Crystal chemistry and structure types
12 Crystal chemistry and structure types
13 Rock-forming silicates
14 Rock-forming silicates
15 Analytical instrument and techniques
16 Final Exam

*Topics and dates may change. Watch course web page for updates.
The assigned reading is NOT a substitute for attending lectures.
Course Web Page (Blackboard)

• You must be registered to gain access.

• Current syllabus and any changes to lecture topics and

exam dates

• Lecture materials

• Exam, homework information, and etc.

• Grades are posted.

Check the web page regularly.

 Welcome to
the Hardest but
Interesting
Class, Earth Materials
(EAES 201)!
 Introduction
&
Basic Concepts I
WHY DO WE STUDY EARTH
MATERIALS (MINERALOGY)?

IS IT ESSENTIAL
IN EARTH SYSTEM?
You may say……
 Relations with Geosciences
Geochemistry Geophysics
Abundance, distribution, Physical properties
and exchange of elements of minerals

Meteorites and
Petrology
Planetary Studies
Conditions of origin, Mineralogy Geologic history
synthetic minerals
of other planets

Structural geology Environmental Economic

and Tectonics Geology Geology
Lattice defects,
Land use and civil engineering Mineral deposits
faulting and folding
 Petrology

Study of rocks Rocks (most) are

composed of minerals
 Sub-disciplines of Mineralogy

Mineralogy

Descriptive Mineralogy Crystal Chemistry

Physical properties Relates the chemical
(e.g. Crystal form, hardness, composition, the internal
color, specific gravity) structure, and the physical
properties of crystals

Classification Geologic Occurrence

~ 3800 species- each has a name Characteristic association
of a mineral (or mineral
paragenesis) in a well-defined
Crystallography geologic setting

Investigation of the
internal structure of crystals
Mineralogy
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
BOBTRAILLITE
American Mineralogist,
vol. 90, p. 1945 (2005)
Klein, p. 551
 Mineralogy
Study of minerals, specifically:
• composition
• structure (= arrangement of atoms)
• physical properties (e.g., crystal form,
hardness, color, specific gravity)
• classification
• occurrence
• stability
 I. What is a mineral?
Mineral: define by a set of criteria
• naturally occurring
• homogeneous: cannot be subdivided into simpler
chemical components
• solid
• has a structured, periodic (3-dimensional)
arrangement of atoms (= crystalline)
• definite (within a range of) chemical composition
• (produced by inorganic processes? --- arguable)
Definition of mineral
Naturally occurring
Definition of mineral

Solid with highly ordered periodic (3-dimensional)

arrangement of atoms (= crystalline)

Halite structure: ball and stick model

first noted that the angle between two adjacent faces of quartz
is always exactly the same, no matter what part of the world the
Law of Constancy of Interfacial Angles
quartz sample comes from or the color or size of the quartz. As
shown in figure 2.20, the angle between any two adjacent sides of
the six-sided “pillar” (which is called a prism by mineralogists) is
always exactly 120 degrees, while between a face of the “pillar”
and one of the “pyramid” faces (forming the point of the crystal)
the angle is always exactly 141 degrees 45 minutes.
Quartz
Nicolas Steno (1669)
141°45′ 141°45′
Danish naturalist of the seventeenth century
profound implications. When minerals other than quar
were studied, they too were found to have sets of angles fo
adjacent faces that never varied from crystal to crystal. Th
observation became formalized as the law of constancy
interfacial angles. Later the discovery of X rays and the
behavior in crystals confirmed Steno’s theory about the stru
ture of crystals.
Steno suspected that each type of mineral was compose
of many tiny, identical building blocks, with the geometr
shape of the crystal being a function of how these buildin
blocks are put together. If you are stacking
141°45′
cubes, you can bui
141°45′
a structure having only a limited variety of planar forms. Lik
wise, stacking rhombohedrons in three dimensions limits yo
to other geometric forms (figure 2.21).
Steno’s
120°
law was really a precursor of atomic theory, deve
oped centuries later. Our present concept 120°
of crystallinity is th
atoms are clustered into geometric forms—cubes, bricks, hex
gons, and so on—and that a crystal is essentially an orderl
three-dimensional stacking of these tiny geometric form
120°120°
120° 120° Cube faces
120° 120° 120° 120°
120° 120°
120° 120°
A B
FIGURE 2.20
Quartz crystals showing how interfacialDodecahedron
angles remain the same in perfectly pro-
portioned (A) and misshapen (B) crystals. Cuts faces
perpendicular to the prisms show
A
that all angles B
are exactly 1208. Photos © Parvinder Sethi
Definition of mineral

Definite (within a range of) chemical composition

감람석

Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
Definition of mineral

Usually formed by inorganic processes

Coral composed of aragonite

Carbonates are born, not made

Other examples of exceptions
• Water vs. Ice ?

• Obsidian (volcanic glass)? glass

lacks a periodic arrangement of
atoms, not crystalline. Also, no
definite chemical composition = but,
rock.

• Mineraloid: fulfills most of these

requirements, especially having
definite chemical composition:
e.g., opal (SiO2×nH2O), mercury
 • possesses a 3-dimensional
periodic arrangement of
atoms

Crystalline • antonym of crystalline; no

결정질 periodic arrangement of
vs. vs
비결정 atoms
Amorphous
• distinguished based on
whether substance diffracts
X-rays; requires periodicity
over distances of about
20nm.
 • There are about 4000
named mineral
species.
How
• IMA (International
many Mineralogical
Association) decides
minerals? whether a newly
discovered substance
qualifies as a new
mineral species.
 • We will focus on
Which those that are
ones will important in crustal
rocks: Rock-
we study?
forming minerals
조암광물
Klein (2002) Manual of Mineralogy.
22nd Ed. John Wiley, p. 41
23rd Ed., p. 92
 Which ones will we study?

• We will focus on those that are important

in crustal rocks: rock-forming minerals

• Non-silicates (compounds without Si)

and particularly

• Silicates (O + Si + others)
규산염광물
비규산염

Klein (2002) Manual of Mineralogy.

22nd Ed. John Wiley, p. 441
23rd Ed., p. 435
 Introduction
&
Basic Concepts II
Classification of Minerals
Classification of Minerals
Classification of Minerals
Silicate Minerals : Diverse structures
 PLEASE READ

”Mineral Lists A & B 2023”

• Minerals and Mineral groups covered in this lecture.

• These are principal rock-forming minerals, associated

accessory minerals, and important structure types.

• You are responsible for mineral names, chemical

formula, and classification.
 Mineral Name
implies two things

1) chemical composition

2) a particular structure, or arrangement of

atoms.

• #1+ #2 gives rise to a distinct set of

physical properties.
I. Minerals have particular structure

Source: the NSF Center for Sustainable Nanotechnology

Example)
• diamond and graphite are two minerals
with the same chemical composition = C
(carbon)
• different arrangement of atoms, therefore
much different physical properties.
 Polymorphs

• minerals that have the same chemical

composition but different structure

Examples
• diamond and graphite.
• SiO2 polymorphs: quartz, tridymite,
cristobalite, coesite, stishovite
 SiO2 polymorphs:

Source: http://www.quartzpage.de/gen_mod.html
Source: http://www.es.ucl.ac.uk/keep/GEOL1001/Silica.html
 Su
andalusite-sillimanite-kyanite.
Index Minerals
If andalusite is found in a rock, this indicates that pressures
and temperatures were relatively low. Andalusite is often found
Kyanite, Andalusite,
in contact Sillimanite: shales
metamorphosed all Al2SiO 5, different
(hornfels). crystal
Kyanite, when
structures
found- in
polymorphs.
schists, is regarded as an indicator of high pressure; but

Andalusite - low P & T; Kyanite - high P; Sillimanite - high T.

Temperature in C
0 400 500 600 700 800 900
0
ANDALUSITE 5
Pressure in kilobars

Depth in kilometers
2
10
4 15
SILLIMANITE
6 20
25
8 KYANITE 30 0
10 35
40
12 BO
Regio
BOX 7.2 ■ FIGURE 1 Color
Phase diagram showing the stability relationships for the Al2SiO5 minerals.  M. J. Hold- ent in
away, 1971, American Journal of Science, v. 271. Reprinted by permission of American of the
Journal of Science and Michael J. Holdaway area. 
vince of the Cana-
using the minerals
Superior Province
North
Lake
tes that pressures Sudbury Nipissing
site is often found Ottaw
a Ri
s). Kyanite, when Gr ve
70 en r
v
Index
high pressure; but 7508C 08 C ille
Pr
ov
ince
Minerals Georgian
Bay
Kyanite

Bancroft Ottawa
800 900 Sillimanite
Lamark
5 0 08C 8C
6 0 Andalusite
Depth in kilometers

10 50
15 Madoc
TE Lake Paleozoic
20 Simcoe cover rocks
25
30 0 50 km
Lake Ontario
35
40
BOX 7.2 ■ FIGURE 2
Regional metamorphic patterns across the Grenville Province of the Canadian Shield.
Colored bands represent reconstructed burial temperatures based on minerals pres-
iO5 minerals.  M. J. Hold- ent in the metamorphic rocks. Higher grades of metamorphism occur in the west
permission of American of the Grenville Province and indicate deeper burial and higher temperatures in that
area. Courtesy of Nick Eyles
 Gravitational 300°C
Continental crust 300°C
collapse and 600°
Sedimentary rock in 600°C C
accretionary wedge spreading

A Isotherms C B
Oceanic crust

1100°C
300°C

Index
300°C Magma
600°
600°C C
50
Mantle
(asthenosphere) Mantle

Kilometers
(lithosphe

1100°C

Magma Zone of
Minerals 110
0°C
intense shearing Mantle
50 0 Kilometers 50 (asthenosphere)
Mantle
(asthenosphere) Mantle
Kilometers

FIGURE 7.21 (lithosphere)

Metamorphism across a convergent plate boundary. All rock that is hotter than 3008 or deeper than 5 kilometers is likely to be undergoing
110
morphism.  Modified from W.G. Ernst, Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics Regimes. Stradsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1975, p
0°C
Zone of Copyright © 1975 by W.G. Ernst. All rights reserved. Used with permission
intense shearing Mantle
0 Kilometers 50 (asthenosphere)

Temperature (°C)
FIGURE 7.21
is likely to be 300
Metamorphism across a convergent plate boundary. All rock that is hotter than 3008 or deeper than 5 kilometers200 400
undergoing meta- 500 600 700 800
morphism.  Modified from W.G. Ernst, Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics Regimes. Stradsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1975, p. 425.
Copyright © 1975 by W.G. Ernst. All rights reserved. Used with permission
Ge
1 oth
er m
al g
rad 8
Temperature (°C) 2 Ge dien i ent
x
gra
oth t y
Andalusite
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
erm
3
Pressure in kilobars

Depth in kilometers
al

4 16
Ge Sillimanite
1 oth
er ma Kyanite
l gr 5 Ho 8
adi
2 ent rnb
Ge dien

x Gl len
gra

au
oth t y

Andalusite co de 24
6 ph
erm

3 an
e
Pressure in kilobars

Depth in kilometers
al

7 16
4
Sillimanite
Kyanite
8 32
5 Ho
rnb
Gl len Hornblende
au de 9
6 co 24
ph
an
e
7
FIGURE 7.22
II. Minerals are chemical compounds

• chemical compound: stable combination

of elements, electrically neutral

• stoichiometry: ratio of elements in a

mineral

• Example) the stoichiometry of quartz is Si

and O in a 1:2 ratio (SiO2)
We can apply chemical principles to
understand the ways different
elements combine to form minerals.
 Terms

• Element: simplest form of matter; can’t

be separated into different substances
by ordinary chemical reactions

• Atom: smallest unit of matter that

retains the properties of the element
 Biotite (black)

Terms
• atomic structure: nucleus with protons
artz (transparent, light gray) Potassium feldspar (pink)

(charge=+1e; mass=1 amu) and

C

E 2.3

neutrons (no charge, mass»1 amu) +

aggregates of minerals. The rock granite (A), when examined closely (B), can be seen to be made up of crystals of different minerals.
eral quartz (SiO2) is made up of atoms of the elements silicon (purple) and oxygen (red) bonded together. Photo by C. C. Plummer.

electrons (mass<<1 amu; charge = -1e)

D ELEMENTS
nd the nature of minerals and answer the
d, we need to look at what is happening at an
atomic, scale.
smallest, electrically neutral assemblies of
that we know exist in the universe. Atoms
nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons.
ns positively charged protons and neutral
utrons. Surrounding the nucleus is a cloud
ed electrons. Electrons move in directions
balance out, or neutralize their charges. In +
+
rges are neutralized as the electrons crowd
in the nucleus. It is the negative charges
ovide the electrical force that we exploit to
ome of us have had the misfortune of expe-
force as a sharp jolt that occurred when we
ed a live wire or a wall socket. This force
ny, negatively charged electrons flow from
r, for example, along a wire.
ty-two kinds of naturally occurring atoms.
in order of increasing size and complex-
+ Protons (8 are present)
table (see appendix D). We call each “spe-
ement. An element is defined by the number Neutrons (usually 8 are present)
 Terms
• core electrons (filled inner shells,
unavailable for chemical reactions)

• valence electrons (outer shell, available

for chemical bonding interactions)

• atomic number: number of protons in the

nucleus; characteristic of the element
 Terms
• mass number: # of protons + # of neutrons
• Isotopes: elements having same atomic
number, but different number of neutrons.

Examples:
• 12C, 13C, 14C are isotopes of carbon (mass
number = 6)
• 28Si, 29Si are isotopes of silicon (mass number
= 14)
 Terms

• Atomic mass (weight): mass of 1 mole of

that substance (6.023*1023 particles); averaged
over the naturally occurring isotopes; given in
periodic table
• Neutral atom: equal numbers of electrons
and protons
• Ion: charged atom or tightly bound molecule
III. Bonding in Minerals
• A) Electronic structure: provides an
understanding of the ways and proportions
that various elements occur in minerals.
 Atoms, Elements, and Minerals
• Octet rule: atoms
Outer energy level structures having the same composition.) Graphite is used
filled with 8 electrons
tend
pencils and asto gain
a lubricant. or
Amazingly, lose
the hardest mineral a
one of the softest have the same composition. The distin
Inner energy level filled with 2 electrons

aelectrons to Ingain acovalent bon

Nucleus with 11 protons (11!) tion is in the bonding. In diamond, the covalent bonds fo
three-dimensional structure. graphite, the
form sheets that are held together by much weaker electrosta
filled
bonds (knownouter shell;
as van der Waals bonds). It is these weak bon
that make graphite so soft. You can examine this in more det
which has eight
by following the instructions in box 2.2, Recommended W
Investigation.

electrons
such as copper orfor
A third type of bonding, metallic bonding, is found
A Sodium (Na!)
metals, gold. The atoms are closely packe
Energy levels filled with and the electrons move freely throughout the crystal so as
8 electrons each
Energy level filled with 2 electrons
Nucleus with 17 protons (17!)
elements
hold the atoms together. Thebelow the
ease with which electrons mo
accounts for the high electrical conductivity of metals.

second row.
remaining.Stable
Finally, after all atoms have bonded together, there may
weak, attractive forces This is the very weak for
that holds adjacent sheets of mica or graphite together. It
configuration
also is
the force that holds water molecules
Greater Depth 2.8).
for
together in ice (see

the outer shell to be

“Captured” electron needed to
fill outer energy level
either filled or empty
Sodium (Na+) ion

Chlorine (Cl–) ion

FIGURE 2.5
B Chlorine (Cl")
- like that of a_ noble
+
Diagrammatic representation of (A) sodium and (B) chlorine ions. The dots
represent electrons in energy levels within an ion. Sodium has lost the electron
that would have made it electrically neutral because a single electron in a higher
gas
energy level would be unstable. Chlorine has gained an electron to complete its FIGURE 2.6
Valence, or formal charge on the ions

• valence = oxidation state 산화수

• This is the charge the atom has after gaining

or losing electrons to fill the outer shell.

• The periodic table is arranged in such a way

to make this easier.
 Basic orbital structure
• Example: Na; Z=11; neutral atom has 11 protons
in the nucleus and 11 electrons:

­¯ ­¯ ­¯ ­¯ ­¯ ­
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p

• Na can gain a filled outer shell by giving up one electron,

acquiring the e- structure of Ne
• Na Þ Na+ + e-
• Na is a cation with a +1 valence (or, formal charge;
oxidation state)
 Outer energy level st
filled with 8 electrons pe
Inner energy level filled with 2 electrons
on
Nucleus with 11 protons (11!) tio
a
fo
bo
th
by
In
A Sodium (Na!)
m
Energy levels filled with an
8 electrons each ho
Energy level filled with 2 electrons
Nucleus with 17 protons (17!)
ac
 Basic orbital structure

• Example: Cl; Z=17

­¯ ­¯ ­¯ ­¯ ­¯ ­¯ ­¯ ­¯ ­
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p

• Cl can gain a filled outer shell by gaining one electron,

acquiring the e– structure of Ar
• Cl + e- Þ Cl–
• Cl– is an anion with a -1 valence (or, formal charge)
 In
A Sodium (Na!)
m
Energy levels filled with an
8 electrons each ho
Energy level filled with 2 electrons
Nucleus with 17 protons (17!)
ac

w
th
al
G

“Captured” electron needed to

fill outer energy level
B Chlorine (Cl")

FIGURE 2.5
Diagrammatic representation of (A) sodium and (B) chlorine ions. The dots
represent electrons in energy levels within an ion. Sodium has lost the electron
General Rules for assigning formal charge

• alkali metals (first column): always +1 (Na, K, etc.)

• alkaline earths (second column): always +2 (Mg,
Ca, Sr, Ba)
• halogens (column 7): always -1 (F, Cl, etc.)
• Column (III): Al, B, etc. are +3
• Si: +4
• C: can be anything from -4 to +4

Cementite (Fe3C)
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cementite
 Transition metals
• correspond to filling of 3-d orbitals; more
complicated
• can be tricky, some have several
possible valence states.
• most transition metals have a +2
charge from loss of 4s electrons
(leaving the 3d electrons)

Ni = [Ar]4s²3d⁸ Þ Ni2+ = [Ar]3d⁸

Some additional rules for Earth
1) O is always -2
2) H is always +1
3) valence for a native element is always 0
4) the charge of an ion is equal to the sum of
the valence of the atoms:
5) the total charge of a mineral formula (or
any chemical compound) is 0
6) rules 1-4 can be used to figure out the
valence of something you don’t know.
 Examples

• Fe2O3 (hematite): O is -2, so Fe must

be +3 (rules 1 + 5)
• FeSiO3 (ferrosilite): Fe must be +2 [(+2)
+ (+4) + (-2·3) = 0]
• Carbonate CO3-2: O is -2, so C must be
+4 (rules 1 + 4)
• Diamond: C is 0 (rule 3)
 H+

(-4 to +4)

산화가 잘됨

(and Mn4+ )

S2-
Klein, 23rd ed., p. 53
Table 3.9
F-
 B) Electronegativity (EN)

• measure of an atom’s ability to acquire an

electron.
• useful concept for describing types of bonds.
• in periodic table: upper right are most
electronegative (O and F)
• left and lower left have lowest EN (metals)
• difference in electronegativity can be used to
deduce nature of bond: ionic (large difference)
to covalent (little or no difference).
Klein 22nd Ed, p. 60
23rd Ed., p. 60
C) Types of bonding in minerals
• Ionic bond: between elements with large
EN difference (e.g., between Na and F)
• complete transfer of electrons from cation to
anion
• moderately strong bond: brittle, moderately
high melting point, electrical insulators
 Ionic Bonding
Na+ Cl-
q = +1 q = -1

æ-d ö
Er = B × expç ÷
è a ø
(electron clouds of cation and anion repulse each other,
but only when the ions are very close to each other)
(= d)

Etotal = Ea + Er
1
Ea = Ae 2 q1q2
d
Equilibrium distance occurs at the point where the energy is
at a minimum. d0 corresponds to the sum of the radii of the
cation and anion.
C) Types of bonding in minerals
• Covalent bond: between elements with
similar, but high EN
• (example: C-C in diamond; C-O in
carbonate ion)
• electrons shared between elements
• very strong bonds (= short bond distances)
• brittle;
• high melting point
C) Types of bonding in minerals
• Metallic bond: between elements with
similar, but low EN (e.g., Cu-Cu)
• All valence electrons given up to “conduction band”
• cationic metal cores with mobile electrons
• moderate melting point, excellent electrical and
thermal conductivity
• opaque; metallic luster
(strong interaction with visible light)
C) Types of bonding in minerals

• van der Waal's bond: between neutrally

charged particles
• polarization of electron distribution
• very weak bond
• often occurs between sheets in layered
minerals (graphite, some clay minerals such
as talc)
• van der Waal's bond:

Source: https://vdwmrc.yonsei.ac.kr/research/#
C) Types of bonding in minerals
• Hydrogen bond: between OH group
(hydroxyl, or water), and lone e- pair on
adjacent oxygen
• weak bond, but important in some minerals
(ice, clay minerals, gypsum)

JMES, 2017 Volume 8, Issue 10, Page 3625-3635

 C) Types of bonding in minerals

• It is very common for minerals to exhibit more

than one type of bonding.

• In reality there is a complete gradation between

ionic and covalent, that can be described by
the difference in electronegativity.
calcite CaCO3

Ca2+

O
CO32-
O C

O
Sulfur: Covalent bonds within 8-ring;
van der Waals bonds between rings
Graphite: Covalent bonds within sheet;
van der Waals bonds between sheets