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The First Law of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics
namics I______
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Ch
hapter 4
The Fiirst Law of Therm
modynam
mics
It is the law that relattes the various forms of energies forr system of different
d typees.
A major consequencce of the firrst law is thhe existence and the deffinition of thhe property total
energy E.
E
Total Energy
E Total Energy
E The Chhange in Tottal
=
Enterinng the System m Energgy of the System
m Leavinng the System
Normallyy the stored energy, or tootal energy, of a system is expressedd as the sum of three sepparate
energies. The total en
nergy of the system, Esysstem, is given as
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Esystem = U + KE + PE (4.2)
Where:
U is the sum of the energy contained within the molecules of the system
and is called the internal energy.
mV 2
KE =
2
PE mgz
Or
U m(u2 u1 )
1
KE m(V22 V12 )
2
PE mg ( z2 z1 )
Now the conservation of energy principle, or the first law of thermodynamics for closed
systems, is written as
If the system does not move with a velocity and has no change in elevation, it is called a
stationary system, and the conservation of energy equation reduces to
The mechanisms of energy transfer at a system boundary are: Heat, Work, mass flow. Only heat
and work energy transfers occur at the boundary of a closed (fixed mass) system. Open systems
or control volumes have energy transfer across the control surfaces by mass flow as well as heat
and work.
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4.1 Mechanis
M sms of En
nergy Traansfer, Ein
i and Eou
ut
Work Trransfer, (W
W) Work trannsfer to a syystem (i.e., work done on a system) increasees the
energy of the system
m, and work transfer
t from
m a system (i.e.,
( work doone by the system)
s decrreases
it, since the
t energy transferred
t o as work comes
out c from the energy contained inn the system
m. Car
engines and hydraullic, steam, or
o gas turbiines producee work whille compresssors, pumps, and
mixers coonsume worrk.
Ein Eout (Qin Qout ) (Win Wout ) ( Emass ,in Emass ,out ) ESystem (4.5)
Figurre 4.2 The ennergy contennt of a controol volume caan be changeed by mass flow
fl
as well as heat andd work interaactions.
Ein Eout
o Net energygy transfer ESysteem Change in internal,
i kinetic,, kJ
by heat, work
w and mass potential, etc..energies
e
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Or on a rate
r form, as
Ein Eout
o
Esystemm E2 E1 0
Einn Eout 0
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Noting that a closed system does not involve any mass flow across its boundaries, the energy
balance for a cycle can be expressed in terms of heat and work interactions as
Wnet ,out Qnet ,in or W net ,out Q net ,in (4.10)
If the total energy is a combination of internal energy, kinetic energy and potential energy
i.e E U KE PE (4.11)
m(V22 V12 )
Q12 W12 U 2 U1 mg ( Z 2 Z1 ) (4.12)
2
Internal energy
The internal energy includes some complex forms of energy show up due to translation, rotation
and vibration of molecules. It is designated by U and it is extensive property. Or per unit mass
as, specific internal energy, , is an intensive property of the system like P, V, and T but
not measurable.
The internal energy expression can be used to determine the state of the substance if one
additional property is known.
If we take two phase as liquid and vapor at a given saturation pressure or temperature
U U f Ug (4.14)
Or
mu m f u f mg u g (4.15)
Finally
u u f xu fg (4.16)
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Enthalpy
It is another extensive property which has a unit of energy and it is denoted by H. The enthalpy is
a convenient grouping of the internal energy, pressure, and volume and is given by
H U PV (4.17)
The enthalpy per unit mass is, , which is said to be specific enthalpy
and h = u + Pv
Consider a piston cylinder assembly where we have a continuous supply heat so that the
boundary changes for the process is
(In the above equation we are neglecting change in kinetic energy and potential energy)
Hence
Q12 H 2 H1 (4.23)
H H f H fg (4.24)
h h f xh fg
(4.25)
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It defined as; the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one
degree.
In general, this energy depends on how the process is executed. (heat is path dependent property)
In thermodynamics, we are interested in two kinds of specific heats: specific heat at constant
volume and specific heat at constant pressure .
The specific heat at constant volume can be viewed as the energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant.
The specific heat at constant pressure Cp can be viewed as the energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained
constant.
C p dT dh (4.30)
dh
Cp (4.31)
dT p
(Change in enthalpy with temperature at constant
pressure)
Specific heats are sometimes given on a molar basis. They are then denoted by ̅ and ̅ and
have the unit kJ/kmol °C or kJ/kmol K.
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Pv RT (4.32)
It has been demonstrated mathematically (the coming chapters) and experimentally that for an
ideal gas the internal energy is a function of the temperature only. That is,
U U (T ) (4.33)
u2 u1 Cv dT (4.36)
And, dh C p T dT (4.38)
h2 h1 C p dT (4.39)
Hence, u Cv T (4.41)
h C p T (4.42)
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h u RT (4.43)
dh du RdT (4.44)
C p dT Cv dT RdT (4.45)
C p Cv R (4.46)
C p Cv R (4.47)
Cp
K (4.48)
Cv
C p KCv (4.49)
KCv Cv R (4.50)
R
Cv (4.51)
K 1
and
Cp
Cp R (4.52)
K
K
Cp R (4.53)
K 1
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Internal Energy, En
nthalpy, and Specific Heeats of Solids
ds and Liquidds
4.5 The
T First Law andd the Con
ntrol Volu
ume
The consservation of mass and thhe conservattion of energgy principless for open syystems or coontrol
volumes apply to sy
ystems haviing mass crossing the system
s bounndary or coontrol surfacce. In
addition to the heat trransfer and work
w crossinng the system
m boundaries, mass carriies energy with
w it
as it crossses the systtem boundarries. Thus, thhe mass andd energy conntent of the open
o system
m may
change when
w mass en
nters or leavves the controol volume.
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Where in and out are the total rates of mass flow into and out of the control volume, and
dmCV/dt is the time rate of change of mass within the control volume boundaries. Some time we
also use volume flow rate which indicates the volume of the fluid flowing through a part per unit
time and denoted by,
m V (4.57)
Thermodynamic processes involving control volumes can be considered in two groups: steady-
flow processes and unsteady-flow processes.
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a control volume does
not change with time (mCV= constant). Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the
total amount of mass entering a control volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it.
dmcv
0 (4.64)
dt
dmcv
mi m e (4.65)
dt
A for singlle streams,
And
dmcv
mi m e (4.66)
dt
4.6 Flow
F Worrk and Th
he Energy
gy of a Floowing Flluid
Unlike closed
c ms, control volumes invvolve mass flow acrosss their bounddaries, and some
system
work is required
r to push
p the mass into or ouut of the conntrol volumee. This workk is known as
a the
flow worrk, or flow energy,
e and is
i necessary for maintainning a continnuous flow through
t a coontrol
volume.
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If the fluid pressure is P and the cross-sectional area of the fluid element is A, the force applied
on the fluid element by the imaginary piston is
F PA (4.67)
To push the entire fluid element into the control volume, this force must act through a distance L.
Thus, the work done in pushing the fluid element across the boundary (i.e., the flow work) is
w flow Pv (4.69)
Hence,
w flow,in Pv
i i and w flow,exit Pe ve (4.70)
W flow,in ( Pv
i i ) mi and W flow, exit ( Pe ve ) m e (4.71)
W flow Pe ve me Pv
i i mi (4.72)
W W flow W cv (4.73)
The first law for open system will also have the same form, but
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The total energy of a simple compressible system consists of three parts: internal, kinetic, and
potential energies
V 2i
ei Pv
i i ui gzi Pv
i i (4.80)
2
V 2i
ei Pv
i i hi gzi (4.81)
2
For outlet
V 2e
ee Pe ve he gze (4.82)
2
General equation
0( steady )
Ein Eout dEsystem / dt 0 (4.83)
Qin Win m Qout Wout m (4.84)
in out
V2 V2
Qin Win m(h gz ) Qout Wout m(h gz ) (4.85)
in 2 out 2
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In such cases,
c it is co
ommon pracctice to assum
me heat to be
b transferredd into the syystem (heat input)
at a rate of , and work
w produceed by the sysstem (work output)
o at a rate
r of , annd then solvve the
problem. The first-laaw or energyy balance reelation in thaat case for a general steeady-flow syystem
becomes
V 2 V12
Q W m h2 h1 2 g ( z2 z1 ) (4.86)
2
Dividingg by gives the energy balance
b on a unit-mass basis
b as
V22 V12
q w h2 h1 g ( z2 z1 ) (4.87)
2
When thhe fluid exp
periences negligible chaanges in its kinetic andd potential energies
e (thhat is,
ke = 0, pe = 0), the en
nergy balancce equation is
i reduced fuurther to
q w h2 h1 (4.88)
4.7 S
Some Steeady-Flow
w Engineeering Deevices
Nozzles and
a Diffuserrs
Nozzles and diffuserrs are commonly utilizedd in jet enginnes, rockets,, spacecraft, and even gaarden
hoses. A nozzle is a device thatt increases the
t velocity of a fluid at
a the expensse of pressuure. A
diffuser is a device that
t increasees the pressuure of a fluidd by slowing it down. Thhat is, nozzlees and
diffusers perform op
pposite taskks. The crosss-sectional area of a nozzle
n decreases in the flow
directionn for subsonic flows and increases foor supersonicc flows. The reverse is trrue for diffussers.
Figure
F 4.6 Schematic
S diiagrams of Nozzles
N and diffusers
d
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For flow
w through no
ozzles, the heeat transfer, work, and potential
p eneergy are norrmally negleected,
and nozzzles have onee entrance annd one exit. The conservvation of eneergy becomes
min m out (4.89)
m1 m2 m (4.90)
Ein Eout (4.91)
Vi 2 Ve2
Q net mi hi gzzi W net me he gze (4.92)
inlet 2 e
exit 2
V2 V2
mi hi i me he e (4.93)
2 2
Ve 2(hi he ) Vi 2 (4.94)
Turbiness
In steam, gas, or hyd
droelectric power
p plantss, the devicee that drivess the electricc generator is
i the
turbine. As the fluid
d passes thrrough the tuurbine, workk is done aggainst the blades,
b whichh are
attached to the shaft. As a result, the shaft rottates, and thhe turbine prooduces workk.
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If we neglect the ch
hanges in kinnetic and pootential enerrgies as fluidd flows throough an adiaabatic
turbine having
h one entrance
e and one exit, thhe conservatiion of mass and the steaady-state, steeady-
flow firstt law becom
mes
min m out
m1 m2 m
Ein Eout
Vi 2 Ve2
Q net mi hi gzzi W net me he gze
inlet 2 e
exit 2
mi hi m e h e W out
o (4.95)
W out m( hi h e ) (4.96)
Compresssors
Compresssors, as weell as fans, are devices used to inccrease the pressure
p of a fluid. Woork is
supplied to these devices
d from an exterrnal source through a rotating shaft.
s Thereefore,
compresssors involvee work inputts. Even thoough these thhree devicess function similarly, theey do
differ in the tasks theey perform. A fan increaases the presssure of a gaas slightly annd is mainly used
to mobiliize a gas.
If we neglect the changes in kinetic and potential energies as fluid flows through an adiabatic
compressor having one entrance and one exit, the steady-state, steady-flow first law or the
conservation of energy equation becomes
Vi 2 Ve2
Q net mi hi gzi W net me he gze
inlet 2 exit 2
W net m(h e hi )
W net m(hi h e ) (4.97)
Pumps
The work required when pumping an incompressible liquid in an adiabatic steady-state, steady-
flow process is given by
V 2 V12
Q W m h2 h1 2 g ( z2 z1 )
2
The enthalpy difference can be written as
h2 h1 u2 u1 Pv 2 Pv 1 (4.98)
For incompressible liquids we assume that the density and specific volume are constant. The
pumping process for an incompressible liquid is essentially isothermal, and the internal energy
change is approximately zero (we will see this more clearly after introducing the second law).
Thus, the enthalpy difference reduces to the difference in the pressure specific volume products.
Since v2 = v1 = v the work input to the pump becomes
V22 V12
W m v P2 P1 g ( z2 z1 ) (4.99)
2
is the net work done by the control volume, and it is noted that work is input to the pump; so,
= in, pump If we neglect the changes in kinetic and potential energies, the pump work
becomes
W m v P2 P1 (4.100)
W in , pump m v P2 P1 (4.101)
We use this result to calculate the work supplied to boiler feed water pumps in steam power
plants.
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Throttlin
ng Valves
Throttlinng valves aree any kind off flow-restriccting devicess that cause a significantt pressure drrop in
the fluidd. Some fam
miliar exampples are ordiinary adjustaable valves, capillary tuubes, and poorous
plugs. Unnlike turbinees, they prodduce a presssure drop wiithout involvving any woork. The preessure
drop in the
t fluid is often accom
mpanied byy a large drrop in tempeerature, andd for that reeason
throttlingg devices aree commonly used in refriigeration andd air-conditiioning appliccations.
Vi 2 Ve2
Q net mi hi gzzi W net me he gze
inlet 2 e
exit 2
mi hi m e h e (4.102)
hi h e (4.103)
Mixing Chambers
C
The mixiing of two fluids
f occurss frequentlyy in engineerring applicattions. The section
s wherre the
mixing process
p takess place is caalled a mixinng chamber. The ordinarry shower iss an examplee of a
mixing chamber.
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min mout (4.1004)
m1 m 2 m3 (4.1005)
m 2 m3 m1 (4.1006)
E inn E out
V2 V2
Q net mi hi i gzzi W net me he e gze
inlet 2 e
exit 2
m1 h1 m 2 h 2 m3 h3 (4.1007)
m1 h1 m3 m1 h 2 m3 h3 (4.1008)
m1 (h1 h 2 ) m3 (h3 h 2 ) (4.1009)
(h3 h 2 )
m1 m3 (4.1110)
(h1 h2 )
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Heat Excchangers
Heat excchangers aree normally well-insulate
w ed devices thhat allow ennergy exchaange betweenn hot
and coldd fluids with
hout mixing the fluids. The
T pumps, fans, and blowers
b caussing the fluiids to
flow acrooss the contrrol surface arre normally located outsside the contrrol surface.
4 A heat exchanger
Figure 4.11 e can be as sim
mple as two concentric
c pipes.
min m out (4.1111)
m1 m 2 m w (4.1112)
m3 m 4 m R (4.1113)
E in E out
Vi 2 Ve2
Q net mi hi gzzi W net me he gze
inlet 2 e
exit 2
m1 h1 m3 h3 m 2 h 2 m 4 h 4 (4.1114)
m w (h1 h 2 ) m R (h 4 h3 ) (4.1115)
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