ECE 443

Data Communication and Networking

Lecture 2
Data communication components and systems/Transmission media and their
characteristics
By the end of this lecture you should know:
 Data communication components and systems
 Categorization of transmission media
 Physical structure and operation of transmission media
 Applications of the various guided and unguided media.

Data communication components and systems

For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of
a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software (programs). For a data communications system to be
effective, it has to possess the following features:
1. Delivery: Sent data but be sent to the intended recipient. This means
that data should be correctly delivered from source to destination.
Unless the said data was meant for multiple users/devices, it must be
received by only the intended device.
2. Accuracy: Data received at the destination terminal must be same as
that sent from the originating terminal. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery
means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they
are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is
called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the
uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. If data are sent
every 30 ms and some packets arrive with 30 ms delay while others
arrive at 40 ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the outcome.
Jitter should be low in a communication system.

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There are 5 components which make up a communications system. These 5
components are:
 Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and
video.
 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be
a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
 Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be
a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
 Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by
which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of
transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fibre-optic
cable, and radio waves.
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without
a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating.

A communications model is illustrated in the figure below.

The key tasks that must be performed by the components in the model above
are:
 Transmission system utilization: This refers to the need to make
efficient use of transmission facilities that are typically shared among a

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 number of communicating devices. Examples of this include multiplexing
and congestion control.
 Interfacing: This refers to how the device interacts with the transmission
system. Example is the use of electromagnetic signals.
 Signal generation: This is required for communication. The properties of
the signal, such as form and density must be such that the signal capable
of being propagated through the transmission medium and also
interpretable as data at the receiver.
 Synchronization: This provides for synchronization between the receiver
and transmitter. This gives the receiver the ability to determine when a
signal begins to arrive, when it ends and also affords it the knowledge of
the duration of each signal element.
 Exchange management: This includes details such as whether the
communicating devices should be transmitting simultaneously or in
turns, the amount of data to be sent at one time, the format of the data,
how to react to occurrences such are errors.
 Error detection and correction: This is necessary for circumstances such
as in data processing systems where for instance data is being
transferred from one computer to another. It is pertinent that the
content of the data isn’t altered in any manner.
 Flow control: This is necessary to assure that the source does not
overwhelm the destination by sending data faster than they can be
processed and absorbed.
 Addressing: A source system must indicate the identity of the intended
destination. The transmission system must assure that the destination
system, and only that system, receives the data.
 Routing: The transmission system mentioned above (in addressing) may
itself be a network through which various paths may be taken. A specific
route through this network must be chosen.
 Recovery: Recovery techniques are needed in situations in which an
information exchange, such as a database transaction or file transfer, is
interrupted due to a fault somewhere in the system. The objective is
either to be able to resume activity at the point of interruption or at
least to restore the state of the systems involved to the condition prior
to the beginning of the exchange.

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  Message formatting: This is an agreement between two communicating
devices regarding the form of data to be exchanged or transmitted, such
as the binary code of characters.
 Security: This gives assurance of the confidentiality and integrity of the
sent or received data.
 Network management: This capability is needed to configure a data
communications facility, monitor its status, react to failures and
overloads, and plan intelligently for future growth.

Transmission Media
A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry
information from a source to a destination. It is the path between transmitter
and receiver.
In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad
categories:
 Guided and
 Unguided.
Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fibre-optic cable.
Unguided medium is free space which include Radio wave, Microwave and
Infrared.

The characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined both by

the characteristics of the medium and by the characteristics of the signal. In
the case of guided media, the medium itself is more important in determining
the limitations of transmission.

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For unguided media, the bandwidth of the signal produced by the transmitting
antenna is more important than the medium in determining transmission
characteristics.
Data rate and distance are the key considerations in data transmission system
design, with emphasis placed on achieving the highest data rates over the
longest distances. Some design factors which relate to the transmission
medium and the signal determine the data rate and distance. These include:
 Bandwidth – With all other factors remaining constant, higher data rate
can be achieved with greater signal bandwidth
 Transmission impairments – Impairments, such as attenuation, limit the
distance. For guided media, twisted pair generally suffers more
impairment than coaxial cable, which in turn is more susceptible to
impairments that optical fibre.
 Interference – Interference from competing signals in overlapping
frequency bands can distort or cancel out a signal. It is of particular
concern for unguided media, but also a problem with guided media. In
the case of guided media, interference can be caused by emanations
from nearby cables. This is known as alien crosstalk. It could also be
from adjacent conductors under the same cable sheath and is known as
internal crosstalk. For example, twisted pairs are often bundled together
and conduits often carry multiple cables. Interference can also be caused
by electromagnetic coupling from unguided transmissions. Proper
shielding of a guided medium can minimize this problem.
 Number of Receivers - A guided medium can be used to construct a
point-to-point link or a shared link with multiple attachments. In the
latter case, each attachment introduces some attenuation and distortion
on the line, limiting distance and/or data rate.
Other factors to be considered when selecting a transmission medium include:
 Cost and ease of installation
 Resistance to environmental factors (ruggedness)

Guided Transmission Media (Bounded Media)

These are those transmission media which provide a conduit from one device
to another. They provide a narrow path through which signals are confined. A

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signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the
physical limits of the medium. For these form of transmission media, the
transmission capacity, in terms of either data rate or bandwidth, depends
critically on the distance and on whether the medium is point-to-point or
multipoint.
The three guided media commonly used for data transmission are twisted pair,
coaxial cable, and optical fibre. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic
(copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric
current. Optical fibre is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form
of light.
Twisted-Pair Cable
This is the least expensive and the most widely used guided medium. It is also
easier to work with. It consists of two insulated copper wires which are
arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

In the twisted-pair cable, one of the cables is used to convey the signal while
the other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver then uses the
difference between the two (i.e the difference between the level of received
signal and the ground).
The wire pair may also carry interference and noise in addition to the
intentionally sent signals. There could also be crosstalk which may affect both
wires introducing unwanted signals in the transmission line. If the two wires
are simply parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both
wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk
sources (i.e. one is closer and the other is farther) resulting in a difference at
the receiver. However, when the cable is twisted, a balance is maintained. This
is because upon twisting, one cable is closer to the noise source than the other
and this changes (alternates) on the next twist. This alternating distance from
the noise/interference source increases the chance of both wires being equally
affected by the by the noise or crosstalk. The effect of this on the receiver is
that upon calculating the difference between the two pairs, would discover no
unwanted signals as the unwanted signals are mostly cancelled out.

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Neighbouring pairs in a bundle typically have somewhat different twist lengths.
On long-distance links, the twist length typically varies from 5 to 15 cm. The
wires in a pair have thicknesses of from 0.4 to 0.9 mm. It is important to note
that the number of twists per unit of length (e.g., inch or cm) has some effect
on the quality of the cable.
Application of Twisted pair cable include:
 It is commonly used in telephone networks where they are used to
connect telephone sets to the local telephone exchanges to form
subscriber loops.
 Communications within buildings (PABX)
 Twisted-pair installations were designed to support voice traffic using
analogue signalling. However, by means of a modem, these facilities can
handle digital data traffic at modest data rates.
 Twisted pair is also the most common medium used for digital signalling.
It is used for connections to a digital data switch or digital PBX within a
building, a data rate of 64 kbps is common.
 It is used for Ethernet cables in LANS within a building. Data rates for
Ethernet range between 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps. Newer Ethernet
technologies can support speeds of up to 10 Gbps.
 In long-distance applications, twisted pair can be used at data rates of 4
Mbps or more.
The Transmission characteristics of twisted pair cable can be summarized thus:
 It requires repeaters every 5 to 6 km when used for analogue signals.
This reduces to 2 to 3 km for digital transmission.
 It has a strong attenuation to frequency relationship.
 It is limited in distance, bandwidth and data rate.
 Susceptible to signal reflections, or return loss due to impedance
mismatches and crosstalk from adjacent twisted-pairs.
 Twisted-pair cabling used for data transmission is highly immune to
interference from low frequency (i.e., 60 Hz) disturbers due to the well -
controlled geometry of the twisted pair and its differential mode
transmission scheme.
There is the possibility of distortion due to electromagnetic interference when
twisted pair cables are exposed to high frequency signals (> 30 MHz) such as

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from walkie-talkies and other wireless transmitters. This can be reduced by
using shielded twisted-pair cablings.

Unshielded and Shielded Twisted Pair:

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable is simply a twisted pair cable with a
thermoplastic cable which doesn’t provide any electromagnetic shielding. The
most common UTP is the ordinary voice-grade telephone wire. There are high
speed variants of UTP cables for data transmission in LANs. For high-speed
LANs, UTP typically has four pairs of wires inside the jacket, with each pair
twisted with a different number of twists per centimetre to help eliminate
interference between adjacent pairs. The tighter the twisting, the higher the
supported transmission rate, and the greater the cost per meter.
For environments with a number of sources of potential interference (e.g.,
electric motors, wireless devices, and RF transmitters), IBM has produced a
version of twisted pair cable called the shielded twisted-pair (STP). It has a
metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases the insulated conductors. This
cable can be made in three different configurations:
 Each pair of wires individually shielded with metallic foil known as foil
twisted pair (FTP).
 A foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group)
known as screened twisted pair (F/UTP).
 A shield around each pair of wire as well as around the entire group od
wires. Known as shielded twisted pair or shielded/foil twisted pair
(S/FTP).
The shielding reduces interference and provides better performance at higher
data rates but comes at a higher cost.

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Categories of Twisted Pair for Data Transmission
Twisted pair cables are categorised by cable quality with 1 as the highest and 7
as the lowest. These are summarised in the table below:
Category Specification Data Rate Use
(Mbps)
1 Unshielded twisted-pair used in <0.1 Telephone
telephone
2 Unshielded twisted-pair originally 2 T-1 lines
used in T lines
3 Improved CAT 2 used in LANs 10 LANs
4 Improved CAT 3 used in Token 20 LANs
Ring Networks
5 Cable wire is normally 24 AWG 100 LANs
(American Wire Gauge) with a
jacket and outside sheath
5E An extension to category 5 that 125 LANs
includes extra features to
minimize the crosstalk and
electromagnetic interference
6 A new category with matched 200 LANs
components coming from the
same manufacturer. The cable
must be tested at a 200-Mbps
data rate.
6A This specification is targeted at 500 LANs
10-Gbps Ethernet applications.
7 Sometimes called SSTP (shielded 600 LANs
screen twisted-pair). Each pair is

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 individually wrapped in a helical
metallic foil followed by a
metallic foil shield in addition to
the outside sheath. The shield
decreases the effect of crosstalk
and increases the data rate. This
class is targeted for support of
next-generation applications
beyond 10-Gbps Ethernet.
7A The requirements for this class 1000 Broadband
are based on Category 7 cabling video,
requirements. The main CATV
enhancement is to extend the
frequency bandwidth to 1 GHz.
This enhancement enables
support of all channels of
broadband video (e.g., CATV) that
operate up to 862 MHz. It is likely
that all fully shielded cabling
solutions specified in the near
future will be Category 7A.

There are 3 key performance parameters for twisted-pair cable:

 Insertion loss
 Near end crosstalk (NEXT) loss and
 Attenuation-to-crosstalk ratio (ACR)
Insertion loss refers to the amount of attenuation across the link from the
transmitting system to the receiving system. It is a function of distance and
frequency. Note that for this, lower values are desirable.
Near end crosstalk (NEXT) loss in terms of twisted-pair cables is the coupling of
the signal from one pair of conductors to another pair. The conductors could
be metal pins in a connector or wire pairs in a cable. The near end refers to
coupling that takes place when the transmit signal entering the link couples
back to the receive conductor pair at that same end of the link. We can think of
this as noise introduced into the system, so higher dB loss values are better;
that is, greater NEXT loss magnitudes are associated with less crosstalk noise. It
is a function of frequency.

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The Attenuation-to-crosstalk ratio (ACR) is a measure of how much larger the
received signal strength is compared to the crosstalk on the same pair. It is
given as:
ACRdB = NEXTdB - AdB
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted
pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently. It is
made up of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner
wire conductor. Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor
of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath,
which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two. The actual data travels through the centre conductor
in the cable. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise
and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer
conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is
protected by a plastic cover.

Wrapper

Foil

Braiding

Single copper wire (core)

Insulator (Dielectric)

The purpose of each part of the coaxial cable are as follows:

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Core: This is the path which the signals take.
Dielectric: The main purpose of the dielectric is to keep the two conductors
(copper core and the braiding) at a uniform distance from each other
throughout the length of the cable. This helps to keep the impedance of the
cable uniform throughout its length. Due to the capacitive reactance changing
with changes in distance, if the distance changes, the impedance will change.
Z = R + xj
Foil: the foil confines the magnetic field to the core of the wire. It also keeps
outside interference away. It shields the cable from high frequency noise such
as RF signals.
Braiding: This eliminates low frequency noise entering the cable eg Alternating
currents from power cables
Wrapper: This is a jacket that holds everything together. It gives mechanical
strength and protection to the cable.
The categories of coaxial cable are as shown below:
Category Impedance Use
RG-7 or RG-11 50 Ohm Thick Ethernet
RG-58 50 Ohm Thin Ethernet
RG-59 75 Ohm Cable Television
RG-62 93 Ohm ARCNET (Attached Resource Computer
Network)

Even though coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth than twisted-pair
cable, it has a higher attenuation which makes the signal weaken rapidly
hence the need for frequent application of repeaters. Because of its shielded,
concentric construction, coaxial cable is much less susceptible to interference
and crosstalk than twisted pair.
Applications of coaxial cable include:
• Television distribution
• Long-distance telephone transmission
• Short-run computer system links
• Local area networks
Advantages of coaxial cable are:

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 • Inexpensive
• Easy to wire
• Easy to expand
• Moderate level of EMI immunity

Fibre-Optic Cable
Fibre optics is a medium for carrying information from one point to another in
the form of light. Unlike the copper form of transmission, fibre optics is not
electrical in nature. A basic fibre optic system consists of a transmitting device
that converts an electrical signal into a light signal, an optical fibre cable that
carries the light, and a receiver that accepts the light signal and converts it
back into an electrical signal.

Why the need for Fibre Optics?

Modern internet/telecommunications use demand a lot of data. There is
higher demand for data and voice services from services such as:

Therefore, there is need to cater to the needs of users and this is provided by
the use of optic Fibre technology.
In this part of the world, for telecommunication and data services, optic fibre
technology is mainly used in the backhaul segment of networks by the
providers. In more advanced countries, optic fibre technology is being brought
closer to the consumer through fibre-to-the-home (FTTH) and fibre-to-the

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cabinet (FTTC) deployments. This would ensure that the consumer gets the
most out of this technology.
The features of optic fibre technology which make it standout from other
guided media transmission systems are listed in the table below

Characteristic Unshielded Shielded Coaxial Fibre Optic Cables

Twisted Pair Twisted Pair Cables
(UTP) (STP)
Bandwidth 100 Mbps – 100 Mbps – 100s of 100s of Gbps over
(Capacity) 10 Gbps over 10 Gbps over Mbps over 1 10 of Kilometres
a few 10s of a few 10s of Kilometre
meters meters
Cable Segment 100 metres 100 metres
200 – 500 2km – 100km
Metres
Use of Every Few Every Few Every Few 10s of Kilometres
Repeaters Kilometres Kilometres Kilometres
Attenuation High High Medium Low
Electromagnetic Poor Better than Better than Very Good. Not
Isolation UTP UTP and STP Vulnerable to
Crosstalk, impulse
noise etc.
Security Low Low Low High - Inherently
secure due to lack
of energy radiation
and not easily
tapped

In terms of bandwidth (capacity), the potential data rate of optical fibre is

quite large. Data rates of up to hundreds of Gbps over tens of kilometres have
been demonstrated. This is much higher than what is obtainable from other
guided transmission media like the coaxial cable which is capable of hundreds
of Mbps over roughly 1km and the few Mbps over 1km or up to 100Mbps – 10
Gbps over a few tens of kilometres obtainable with twisted pair.
The extended cable segment which optic fibres have also affords the
possibility of using reduced number of repeaters which translates to lower cost
and fewer sources of error. The performance of optic fibres from this point of
view has been steadily improving. Repeater spacing in the tens of kilometres is
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common while repeater spacings of hundreds of kilometres have been
demonstrated. For coaxial and twisted-pair systems, the repeaters are
generally placed every few kilometres.
Significantly lower levels of attenuation are obtainable with optic fibres than
for coaxial or twisted pair. This is illustrated in the figure below:

Optic fibre systems are not affected by external electromagnetic fields. The
implication of this is that the systems is not exposed to interference, impulse
noise or crosstalk. Additionally, fibres do not emit energy so there is little
interference with other equipment and there is a high degree of security from
eavesdropping. It is also inherently difficult to tap a fibre link.
Optic fibre systems are also more physically secure that other guided
transmission media due to the fact that professional experts will be required to
cut/test it as well as with the ability to possess and use the proper tools

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Applications of Optic Fibre
Optic fibre can be used for a myriad of applications. Due to its light weight,
high bandwidth capacity and immunity to electromagnetic and RF interference
Applications of optic fibre include:
- In avionics for both military and commercial aircraft systems
optic fibres are deployed due to the ever increasing volume of data needed in
modern day aircrafts. There is also the need for fast transmission if this data.
The need to reduce weight also comes into consideration – think light weight
and efficiency. Elimination of electromagnetic interference is also of critical
importance in avionics and optic fibre provides this. Others uses include
sensory systems, distributed opening systems and monitoring systems of the
aircraft
- Radar links
- Video systems
- Sensor networks
- Command, control, telemetry in industrial applications wherever
there are large electric motors. This is where the none EM radiating and
nonsusceptibility to EM interference by optic fibre becomes an advantage due
to the need to eliminate EM interference concerns. The alternative to this
would be to use bulky heavily shielded copper conductors.
- Data communications and telecommunication systems.
Optic Fibre Structure
An optical fibre structure is shown below:

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Core: This is the innermost part of the fibre cable. This is the part of the cable
which the light is confined in while it travels along the length of the cable. This
could either be made of glass – Glass optical fibre (GOF) (doped silica or
ordinary silica) or plastic – plastic optical fibre (POF). Wavelengths used in
optical communication systems dictated by GOF losses.
1st transmission window
850 nm – historical
2nd transmission window
1300 nm =1.3μm
3rd transmission window
1550 nm=1.55μm
Attenuation typical 0.25dB/km
These are all Infrared wavelengths
Plastic optical fibre is made of Acrylic core n1~1.49, silicone resin cladding
n2~1.46.
Large core diameter ~ 1mm, easy to couple light into core.
High attenuation ~ 100 dB/km. Short distance use ~ 100 m
Used at visible wavelengths
Applications in: Digital home networks, car and industrial networks.

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Cladding: This is the area immediately surrounding the core. It is also made of
silica but not the same composition as the core. By total internal reflection at
the core-cladding interface, this layer helps to confine the light in the core.
Coating: This is the first layer that does not partake in any of the optical
transmission process. It consists of one or more layers of polymer that protects
the glass core and cladding. It also adds mechanical strength to the optic fibre.
It is removed when a connector is added to the fibre.
Buffer: This also adds mechanical strength to the fibre to prevent breakage
during installation.

Propagation of light in optic fibre

The propagation of light down the core of the fibre is due to a series of
reflections at the core-cladding interface. This is facilitated by using a cladding
whose refractive index is slightly smaller than that of the core for instance,
Core refractive index n1~1.465 (SiO2 doped ~ 5% GeO2) > cladding refractive
index n2~1.46 (SiO2)
Provided that the above condition is satisfied, ie n 1 > n2, the core-cladding
interface will act as a perfect mirror.

n is the refractive index of the medium

s peed of light in vacuum c 0
n= =
speed of light in medium c

Speed of light in air/ vacuum c0= 3x108 m/s

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Speed of light in glass  2x108 m/s
n for glass  1.5
Light is ‘refracted’ away from the normal when n1 > n2. Snell’s Law of optics
n1 sin θ1 =n 2 sinθ 2

Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection

As the angle of incidence, θ1, is increased, the angle of refraction, θ2, is also
increased. As this is happening, the intensity of the refracted light will increase
while the intensity of the reflected light will decrease. Eventually, θ1 gets to an
angle which results in θ2 reaching 90o and the intensity of the reflected light
goes to zero (fig. 1). The angle at which these occur if known as the critical
angle, θc. At and above the critical angle the light will be totally internally
reflected (fig. 2). This forms the basis of light propagation in an optical fibre

Fig. 1

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 Fig. 2

Sub 2=90o and 1 = C into Snell’s Law gives:

−1 n2
θc =sin
n1

Propagation of totally internally reflected light in fibre optic cable

Total internal reflection: reflection coefficient |r|=1.0 exactly so no power loss

from reflections. To appreciate how efficient this is, contrast with a reflective
silver layer which has a reflection coefficient of |r| 0.999.
For an SiO2 fibre
Core refractive index n1 1.465
Cladding refractive index n2 1.46
This gives a critical angle of θC 85o

Classification of Optic Fibre

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Optic fibres are classified based on how many rays of light (known as modes)
can propagate along the core of the fibre. This results in the single mode and
multimode fibre classification.
In multimode fibre, light travels through the fibre following different light
paths. However, in single mode fibre, propagation is only on one light path
which goes straight through the axis of the fibre.

Multimode-Fibre

Single-mode fibre

Unguided Transmission Media (Unbounded Media)

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This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor. Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are
available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them. For unguided
media, transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna.
Unbounded transmission can be categorized into three:
• Radio waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared waves

Radio waves
Radio waves refer to electromagnetic waves ranging from 3 kHz to 1 GHz.
Radio waves are mostly propagated in all directions. This means that the
sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending antenna
sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The
omnidirectional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves
transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another
antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band.
Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate
walls. This characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an
advantage because, for example, an AM radio can receive signals inside a
building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to
just inside or outside a building. The radio wave band is relatively narrow, just
under 1 GHz, compared to the microwave band. When this band is divided into
subbands, the subbands are also narrow, leading to a low data rate for digital
communications.
The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for
multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM
radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of
multicasting.

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A prime source of impairment for broadcast radio waves is multipath
interference. Reflection from land, water, and natural or human-made objects
can create multiple paths between antennas.
Microwaves
These are electromagnetic waves with frequencies from 1 to 300 GHz. They are
unidirectional hence when transmitted by an antenna can be narrowly
focused. The implication of this is a need for an alignment between the
sending and receiving antennas. The unidirectional property has an obvious
advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another
pair of aligned antennas.
Characteristics of Microwave propagation include:
• Microwave propagation is line-of-sight so tall towers needed in
order to avoid obstacles and also to overcome the effect of the
earth’s curvature.
• Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside
buildings.
• The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz.
Therefore, wider subbands can be assigned, and a high data rate is
possible.
• Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from
authorities.
Unlike in radio waves where omni-directional antennas are used, unidirectional
antennas are employed in microwave propagation. These are antennas which
send out signals in one direction. The two types of antennas used to achieve
this are the parabolic antenna and the horn antenna. These are shown in the
figure below.

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Microwave transmission covers a substantial portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Common frequencies used for transmission are in the range 1 to 40
GHz. The higher the frequency used, the higher the potential bandwidth, and
therefore the higher the potential data rate.
Performance of microwave transmission is shown in the table below
Band (GHz) Bandwidth (MHz) Data Rate (Mbps)
2 7 12
6 30 90
11 40 135
18 220 274

Microwave propagation is used in cellular phones and television distribution

Infrared Communication
Infrared waves can be used for short-range communication. The operate at
frequencies of 300 GHz to 400 THz. Unlike microwaves, high frequency infrared
waves cannot pass through walls and this feature prevents interference
between two systems hence also making it more secure. This feature means
that it cannot be used for long-range communication and also outside due to
interference from the sun’s infrared waves. It requires a line of sight between
the transmitter and the receiver.
Infrared has high potential for data transmission with a frequency band of
almost 400 THz. Such wide bandwidth can be used to transmit data with a very
high data rate.

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Further reading
 Effects of twisting on operation of twisted cable
 Comparison of the different guided transmission media
 Wireless propagation: reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption,
multipath
 Limitations of the various transmission media (Guided and Unguided)

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