SEAWEED (MACROALGAE) AS AN ALTERNATIVE BIOPLASTIC

March 2023
 1

INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

In the Philippines, managing solid waste is still a significant concern, particularly in urban

regions like Metro Manila. The main issues in the nation's solid waste management are

improper garbage disposal, ineffective waste collection, and a shortage of disposal facilities.

If these issues aren't resolved, the waste produced by diverse sources will continue to pose a

threat to human health and have a negative influence on the environment, including flooding,

air pollution, disease outbreaks, and poisoning of ground and surface water. One of the most

important issues facing modern society is environmental degradation. The necessity to

safeguard the environment and our surroundings has taken precedence above all other

considerations (Michael,2014).

Not only in impoverished countries, but also in rich countries, managing solid waste is a

difficult task. The local government is primarily responsible for managing solid waste, which

is a massive responsibility that requires organizational capacity and collaboration between the

public and private sectors (Michael, 2014). The majority of affluent nations recognize that

waste is an issue that needs to be solved. Accepting trash as a problem does not stop people

from leaving rubbish lying around (Moore, 2012). The growth and development of

communities as well as their financial development have benefited from proper garbage

management. Waste creation is at an all-time high as more people relocate from rural areas to

cities like Los Angeles in quest of a better living and more employment prospects (Yazdani,

et al., 2015).

Algae make an excellent choice for the processing of bioplastics. The use of seaweed

as a substitute for other resources to make biofuels, biochemicals, and food (Sudhakar et al.,

2018). Seaweeds are employed as one of the alternatives for the production of bioplastics due

to their high biomass (Rajendran et al., 2012). Seaweed is frequently utilized in the packaging
 2

sector as a bioplastic (Gade et al., 2013). In order to manufacture a bioplastic or

environmentally friendly plastic utilizing seaweed (macroalgae) and supply the biodegradable

plastics sector with alternatives to non-biodegradable plastics, this study's objective.

Objectives of the Study

This study is conducted to ascertain the potential of seaweed as bioplastics as

alternatives to synthetic plastic. In order to find better and more dependable methods for

producing seaweed-based bioplastic. It will also explore various ways to improve the

bioplastic properties made from seaweed.

This specifically intends to:

1. Use seaweed to make biodegradable plastic

2. Create a sustainable plastic

3. Develope an eco-friendly plastic

Significance of the Study

The initial goal of this study is to determine whether seaweed may be used to create

an alternative bioplastic. Furthermore, the results and findings of this study will redound to

the benefit of the following:

 Consumers. This project creates a different material intended to be utilized by the

general population as an alternative to commercial plastic. By this study, future

consumers may be able to determine the kind of Bio-Plastic required for a particular

application that meets their needs.

 3

 Community. To lessen plastic pollution's negative effects on the local environment.

By doing this, a new material that can benefit the community without adding to global

pollution will be established.

 Future Researchers. Bio-Plastic is always being enhanced as more information is

uncovered. This study can help researchers who plan to investigate a related subject in

an effort to increase their comprehension and knowledge.

 Department of Natural Resources and the Environment. This will be essential to

the agency's strategic initiatives and policies that support efforts to solve the nation's

most pressing environmental issues. •Environment. to improve a product's carbon

footprint while lowering the amount of trash created and reducing reliance on fossil

fuels.

 Environment. To improve a product's carbon footprint while lowering the amount of

trash created and reducing reliance on fossil fuels.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The study mainly focused on testing and using the effectiveness of seaweed as an

alternative bioplastic. The researchers aimed to make a kind of plastic which is made of

seaweed on its composition.

This study yearn to develop and produce a plastic that is eco-friendly which can also

help to reduce carbon dioxide emissions as a result of a more environmentally friendly

manufacturing process.

Operational Definition of Terms

 4

Macroalgae refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae.

Bioplastic is a type of plastic that can be made from natural resources.

Effectiveness refers to the extent to which objectives are met ‘doing the right things.

Management refers to the coordination and administration of tasks to achieve a goal.

Waste refers to unwanted matter or material of any type, especially what is left after useful

substances or parts have been removed.

Carrageenan refers to a family of natural linear sulfated polysaccharides that are extracted

from red edible seaweeds.

Conceptual Framework

Input Process Output

Development
of Macroalgae
Seaweed Bioplstic
Production of
Seaweeds

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Study

Figure 1 above shows the conceptual framework of the study. The input of the study

is the seaweed (macroalgae). On the other hand, the process is the development of

macroalgae and the production of seaweed. And the output of this study is the bioplastic.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

 5

Seaweed is the name given to the many species of marine algae and plants that grow

in water bodies such as rivers, seas and oceans. They range in colours from red, green, brown

and black and also vary in size, from microscopic to large underwater forests. Seaweed is

found on the shores across the world, but are more commonly a staple in Asian countries. No

matter if you cook it or consume it raw, seaweeds are a power pack of nutrients like iron,

zinc, magnesium, riboflavin, thiamin, vitamin A, B, C & K etc. (Bennett, et al., 2021)

To add, Kennedy, (2019) stated that seaweed isn't used to describe a certain species -

it's a common name for a variety of types of plants and plant-like creatures, from tiny

phytoplankton to enormous giant kelp. Some seaweeds are true, flowering plants (an example

of these are seagrasses). Some aren't plants at all but are algae, which are simple, chloroplast-

containing organisms that don't have roots or leaves. Like plants, algae do photosynthesis,

which produces oxygen.

Moreover, Guiry, (2014) also stated that seaweeds are used in many maritime

countries as a source of food, for industrial applications and as a fertiliser. The major

utilisation of these plants as food is in Asia, particularly Japan, Korea and China, where

seaweed cultivation has become a major industry. In most western countries, food and animal

consumption is restricted and there has not been any major pressure to develop seaweed

cultivation techniques. This present and potential uses of seaweeds. Industrial utilisation is at

present largely confined to extraction for phycocolloids and, to a much lesser extent, certain

fine biochemicals. Fermentation and pyrolysis are not been carried out on an industrial scale

at present but are possible options for the 21st century.

Upscaling of seaweed production to meet market demand is a challenge for the sector.

Long-term data on the environmental impacts of seaweed cultivation at an industrial scale is

still lacking. Balancing potential benefits of seaweed production with environmental risks to
 6

ensure that the carrying capacities of the receiving environments are not exceeded will be

needed. In addition, utmost care must be taken not to introduce non-native species in an area

as that might impact the local biodiversity. Implementing a One Health approach to seaweed

cultivation will support further development of the sector while ensuring sustainable

production and mitigating potential drawbacks (Bizzaro, et al., 2022)

Radionuclides may be a potential hazard from seaweeds harvested from an area that

has experienced nuclear incidents, for instance, the 2011 Fukushima incident in Japan

(Banach, et al., 2020).

Seaweed is cultivated on long-lines which may be exposed to fouling organisms,

including crustaceans, and shellfish allergens are considered a potential hazard in seaweed in

the United States of America (Concepcion, et al., 2020).

Seaweed production has provided food security and opportunities for livelihood

diversification to many coastal communities across the world. However, climate change

poses a major threat to the global seaweed sector. For instance, elevated temperatures in the

Indian Ocean in combination with algal blooms in the shallow waters, drastically reduced (by

94 percent) the production of commercially important Eucheuma cottonii in the region in

2015 (Ott, 2018).

Xu et al., (2019) found that seaweeds grown in conditions which mimicked future

ocean acidification conditions accumulated more iodine. Elevated sea surface temperatures

were not as important a factor in causing iodine accumulation. This poses food safety as well

as nutritional concerns as the global seas undergo acidification due to climate change.

Macroalgae are great carbon dioxide sinks (Duarte et al., 2017). It is estimated that

globally seaweeds sequester approximately 200 million tonnes of CO2 each year, and when
 7

they die, much of the trapped carbon gets transported deep into the ocean (Krause-Jensen and

Duarte, 2016).

This helps to buffer against ocean acidification, which is a consequence of

rising atmospheric CO2 levels. While this property presents an opportunity for

climate change mitigation, the current scale of seaweed growth, both from farming

and naturally occurring species, is insufficient to support a global role in this

endeavour (Duarte et al., 2017)

Lomartire et al., (2022). Seaweed-derived bioactive compounds possess

biological properties that can assure the safety of the packaged product. Due to their

biocompatibility, non-cytotoxicity, and antimicrobial properties, biopolymers from

seaweeds are excellent candidates to develop safe packaging for food and

pharmaceuticals.

At present, macroalgae (green, brown and red marine seaweed) is getting

growing consideration as an alternative resource for sustainable biomass to produce

biofuels, biochemical and food. The unique chemical composition and wide variation

in the availability create various opportunities and also challenges for bio-based

energy production. Recently, numerous studies have taken place in the exploitation of

seaweed as carbon sources for the bioethanol production. (Sudhakar et al., 2018)

As often reported in the literature, the term “bioplastics” define materials

produced from biomass sources (vegetable fats and oils, corn starch, straw,

woodchips, sawdust, etc.) and recycled food waste, which can be divided into

biodegradable, bio-based, or both. Biodegradable bioplastics are degraded in aqueous

fluids under the effects of bacterial activity. These processes lead, as the last step, to

CO2 and H2O formation in aerobic degradation and CO2 and CH4 formation in
 8

anaerobic degradation. Bio-based bioplastics in whole or in part result from biomass-

based syntheses (Di Bartolo 2021 and Naser 2021).

Some examples of bioplastics are poly (3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB), poly (ε-

caprolactone) (PCL), poly (butylene succinate) (PBS), poly (lactic acid) (PLA), and

poly (ethylene succinate) (PES) (Atiwesh 2021and Roohi).

According to their versatility and their capacity to satisfy international

standards of certification of composting (Naser 2021) and marine biodegradation

(Meereboer 2020), respectively, poly-hydroxy-alkenoates (PHAs) and poly (lactic

acid) (PLA) are among the most widespread biopolymers and together with

polypropylene show the highest relative growth rate in their industrial production

(Naser 2021).

Cultivation of seaweeds Seaweeds can be cultivated through open farming or

in a closed system using photo bioreactors (Chopin and Sawhney, 2009). Among

many culture tech- niques, single rope floating raft technique developed by Central

salt and marine and chemical research institute (CSMCRI) is suitable for culturing

seaweeds in wide area and greater depth. Greater biomass can be obtained through

open farming. The locations for growing seaweeds is dependent on species being

cultivated and should include a strong substrate where stakes can be installed. The

viable seed plants are transplanted onto the stakes for further growth. The first large

scale commercial cultivation of seaweeds in India has been embarked upon by Pepsi

food limited. The company has planned to expand culture operation to over 5000–

10,000 hectares in the near future.

Shaena et al., (2021) stated that bioplastics are a type of plastic which are

natural and renewable. These are made from raw materials such as sugarcane, corn
 9

starch, wood, wastepaper, fats, bacteria, algae. Bioplastics are eco-friendly as they can

decompose back into carbon dioxide. Reduction of greenhouse gases through reduced

carbon footprint occurs by the usage of renewable resources. Biowaste products

should be designed correctly for the benefit of the environment and the utilization of

these products. In composting and an anaerobic digestion infrastructure, a part of

biorefineries, technology is beneficial. Enhanced production of plastics across the

globe has been added more waste pollution. Recycling plastic waste is one solution to

the increased plastic pollution, but it alone is not the only one. Decreased usage of

fossil-based plastics is vital in the aspect of sustainability. This study aims to review

the recent advances of bioplastics and their possible implications for controlling and

managing plastic pollution.

 10

LITERATURE CITED

Michael, and Niekerk, V. (2014) "Waste Management Behaviour: A Case Study of

School Children in Mpumalanga, South Africa" Retrieved on March 14, 2023

from

Moore, S.A. (2012) "Garbage Matters: Concepts in New Geographies of Waste"

Retrieved on March 13, 2023 from

Yazdani, M., Tavana, M., Pamucar, D., and Chatterjee, P. (2020) "A Rough Based

Multi-Criteria Evaluation Method for Healthcare Waste Disposal Location

Decisions" Retrieved on March 13, 2023 from

Sudhakar, K., Mamat, R., Mahendran, S., and Azmi, W.H. (2018) "An Overview of

Marine Macroalgae as Bioresource" Retrieved on March 13, 2023 from

Rajendran, K., Lin, R., Wall, D., and Murphy, J.D. (2019) "Influencial Aspects in

Waste Management Practices" Retrieved on March 13, 2023 from

Gade, R., Tulasi, M.S., and Bhai, V.A. (2013) "Seaweeds: A Novel Biomaterial"

Retrieved on March 14, 2023 from

Bennett, Coleman, and Co. Ltd. (2021) " What is Seaweed, Benefits and How to Use

it" Retrieved on March 14, 2023 from

https://m.timesofindia.com/life-style/food-news/what-is-seaweed-benefits-

how-to-use-it/photostory/76499913.cms

Kennedy, J. (2019) "What is Seaweed" Retrieved on March 14, 2023 from

https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-seaweed -2291912

Guiry, M.D. (2014) "The Seaweed Site: The Information of Marine Algae" Retrieved

on March 14, 2023 from https://www.seaweed.ie/uses_general/

 11

Bizzaro, G., Vatland, A.K., and Pampanin, D.M. (2022) "The One-Health Approach

in Seaweed Food Production" Environment International. Retrieved on March

15, 2023 from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412021005730

Banach, J., Den Hil, E.F.H.V., and  Fels-Klerx, H.J.V.D. "Food Safety Hazards in the

European Seaweed Chain" Retrieved on March 15, 2023 from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338907314_Food_safety_hazards_in

_the_European_seaweed_chain#:~:text=Arsenic%2C%20cadmium%2C

%20iodine%2C%20and%20Salmonella%20were%20identified%20by

%20Banach,%5B76%5D.%20...

Concepcion, A., DeRosia-Banick, K., and Balcom, N. (2020) "Seaweed Production

and Processing in Connecticut: A Guide to Understanding and Controlling

Potential Food Safety Hazards" Retrieved on March 15, 2023 from

https://seagrant.uconn.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/1985/2020/01/Seaweed-

Hazards-Guide_Jan2020_accessible.pdf

Ott, B.M., Handy, S.M., Hunter, E.S., Zhang, S., Erickson, D.L., Wolle, M.M.,

Conklin, S.D., and Lane, C.E. (2020) "Suitability of DNA Sequencing Tools

for Identifying Edible Seaweeds Sold in the United States" Agricultural Food

Chemistry. Retrieved on March 15, 2023 from

https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.jafc.0c03734 Xu, W., Pan, J., Fan, B.,

and Liu, Y. (2019) "Removal of Gaseous elemental Mercury Using Seaweed

Chars Impregnated by NH4Cl and NH4Br" Journal of Cleaner Production.

Retrieved on March 15, 2023 from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652619302161
 12

Duarte, C.M., Wu, J., Xiao, X., Bruhn, A., and Krause-Jensen, D. (2016) "Can

Seaweed Farming Play a Role in Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation?"

Retrieved on March 15, 2023 from

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2017.00100/full