Downloaded from SAE International by Jilin University, Thursday, September 20, 2018

2014-01-0801
Published 04/01/2014
Copyright © 2014 SAE International
doi:10.4271/2014-01-0801
saematman.saejournals.org

Modeling and Experimental Studies of Crack Propagation in Laminated

Glass Sheets
Xiaoqing Xu, Jingjing Chen, Jun Xu, Yibing Li, and Xuefeng Yao
Tsinghua University

ABSTRACT
Polyvinyl Butyral (PVB) laminated glass has been widely used in automotive industry as windshield material. Cracks on
the PVB laminated glass contain large amount of impact information, which can contribute to accident reconstruction
investigation. In this study, the impact-induced in-plane dynamic cracking of the PVB laminated glass is investigated.
Firstly, a drop-weight combined with high-speed photography experiment device is set up to investigate the radial cracks
propagation on the PVB laminated glass sheet. Both the morphology and the velocity time history curve of the radial
cracks are recorded and analyzed to investigate the basic mechanism of the crack propagation process. Afterwards, a
three-dimensional laminated plate finite element (FE) model is set up and dynamic cracking process is simulated based on
the extended finite element method (XFEM). Good agreements between the experimental and numerical results on the
radial crack velocity time history and the crack morphology validate the effectiveness of the FE model. Results may
provide an experimental technique as well as useful finite element model of PVB laminated glass for further systematically
studies to explore the fracture mechanism and safety design improvement of PVB laminated glass.

CITATION: Xu, X., Chen, J., Xu, J., Li, Y. et al., "Modeling and Experimental Studies of Crack Propagation in Laminated Glass
Sheets," SAE Int. J. Mater. Manf. 7(2):2014, doi:10.4271/2014-01-0801.

INTRODUCTION elastic energy and fracture energy. Dynamic fracture behavior

of the glass was observed and analyzed by Chai[10], Cook[11]
Polyvinyl Butyral (PVB) laminated glass serves as one of the
and Nie[12].Chen et al.[13, 14] investigated the initiation and
most important components in automotive to protect vulnerable
propagation properties of in-plane cracking on the PVB
road users as windshield[1]. Due to the adhesiveness of the
laminated glass experimentally. Meanwhile, some numerical
interlayer, glass fragments are still firmly bonded to PVB
studies focused on the damage patterns and the crack growth
interlayer after the impact to minimize the stabbed and
mechanism of automotive glazing. The extended finite element
scratched danger. Cracks on the laminated windshield contains
method allowing displacement discontinuous is presented and
a large amount of accident information, therefore accident
developed by Belytschko[15], Dolbow[16], and Moes[17]. Zhao
reconstruction analysis by extracting useful information from
et al.[1, 18] studied the failure characteristics and impact
the cracks of the laminated windshield is a hot topic of current
resistance of the PVB laminated windshield using finite
research.
element method based on continuum damage mechanics
(CMD) and energy release rate criterion. Zang et al.[19]
Several theoretical studies and experimental research have
simulated the impact fracture process of single glass plane and
been carried out to investigate the quasi-static and dynamic
laminated glass plane to study the impact fracture behavior of
mechanical properties of brittle materials. Lawn et al.[2, 3]
the two models using discrete element method. Xu et al.[20]
presented fracture mechanics of brittle solids and theoretically
used the extended finite element method (XFEM) to investigate
described the evolution of the radial crack system in the far
the radial and circumferential crack propagation characteristics
field of sharp-indenter contacts. Quasi-static mechanical
of windshield plate.
behavior of PVB laminated glass has been studied by
Timmel[4] and Xu[5]. Park and Chen[6] studied the interactions
However, few research focus on the combination of
between cracks driven by dynamic loading and interfaces
experimental research and numerical studies to investigate the
perpendicular to the cracks. Dynamic crack initiation and
dynamic fracture propagation mechanism. Any attempt to
propagation properties have been investigated by Yao[7] and
accurately study the fracture mechanism of the PVB laminated
Arakawa[8] using the method of dynamic caustics combined
glass could only be reached via proper modeling techniques
with the high-speed photography system. Vandenberghe et al.
with the experiment data embedded verified by the
[9] interpreted the variation of dynamic crack patterns on brittle
corresponding impact tests, which is our fundamental
plate based on Griffith's theory of fracture combing bending
328
 Downloaded from SAE International by Jilin University, Thursday, September 20, 2018
Xu et al / SAE Int. J. Mater. Manf. / Volume 7, Issue 2 (April 2014)
motivation for this research. In this study, the radial crack
propagation process of the PVB laminated glass plate is
obtained by high-speed photography system to analyze its
fracture mechanism. Afterwards, laminated glass plate finite
element (FE) model is built using a layered structure. Finally,
the FE model is validated by the comparison of simulation
results and experimental results.
EXPERIMENT DETAILS
Experimental Specimen
The PVB laminated glass specimen used in the experiment is
a rectangular plate with the dimension of 200mm×150mm
shown in Figure 1. The PVB interlayer is 0.76 mm thick
sandwiched by two sheets of 2 mm-thick soda-lime glass. The
specimen adopts the same processing method as the
automotive laminated windshield under compression at 10 bar
and 120 °C[5]. The laminated glass specimen is fixed by two
steel frames, with a rubber interlayer between the specimen
and the frame in order to avoid the damage of the specimen
and eliminate the residual stress. The tightening torque of the
bolts is set to to 4 N · m simulate the clamped boundary
conditions of the automotive windshield. The vertical impact
load is applied in the center of the specimen by the impact
direction convertor (shown in Figure 1) which convert the
vertical load into horizontal load under the impact of a free-
falling drop-weight with mass of 2 kg at the initial height of 700
mm (i.e. with the impact velocity of 3.7 m/s). The impact
direction convertor is made of 45 steel. The end part of the
impact direction convertor is equipped with an impact head
which can be designed into different shapes. In this study, we
use the hemispherical shape of the impact head.
Figure 1. The PVB laminated glass specimen and the impact direction
convertor.
Experimental Setup
The high-speed photography system is used to record the
real-time dynamic crack propagation process. The schematic
illustration of the experimental system is shown in Figure A1.
The experimental system consists of a high-voltage charging
controller, a multi-spark box, two field lenses (an objective one
and an eyepiece one) with 4.0 m focal length and 0.4 m
diameter, a 4×4 array light source together with a 4×4 array
film camera to receive the light and record the crack photo
information. We design the optical system shown in Figure
A1(b) in order to ensure images on the film arranged in the
same chronological order according to the ignition of the spark
plug. The light emitted by the spark plug is transferred into
329
parallel light by the objective lens and gathered in the
corresponding array film camera by the eyepiece lens after
projecting through the specimen. The final test images are
recorded on the film in the dark box. The delay controller is
used to receive the impact signal and control the ignition time
of each spark plug. The time interval of the delay controller can
be set between 1 microsecond and 999 microseconds to meet
the test requirements. An electric-light receiver is placed in
front of the array spark plug in order to record the real ignition
time of the spark plug and verify whether the system is working
properly. An oscilloscope is used to receive the voltage signal
from the electric-light receiver transferred by the optical signal.
Finally, ignition time is judged by observing the recorded
signals on the oscilloscope.
At the beginning of the experiment, the drop-weight is moved
to a specific height and released to generate different impact
energy. The vertical impact is transferred into horizontal impact
through impact connecting rod and impact direction convertor,
finally applied to the center part of the specimen. The circuit of
delay controller is connected and sends a trigger signal to the
delay controller when the drop-weight impacts the connecting
rod. Then the delay controller output the signal to the multi-
spark system. The 16 spark plugs ignite according to the
predetermined time interval sequentially, while the optical
recording system will record the corresponding 16 images.
Verification of Experimental Device
A series of pre-experiments are conducted to verify the
experimental system via efficiency calibration. Here, we apply
the impact efficiency (η) to calibrate the experimental system,
which is described as:
(1)
where Eimpact is the impact energy, Erebound is the rebound
energy, m is the mass of the drop-weight, himpact is the impact
height of the drop-weight, and the hrebound is the rebound height
of the drop-weight. Table A1 shows that with the increase of the
impact height, the impact efficiency increases. With the
increase of the impact height, the glass breakage level
increases and more energy can be absorbed by the laminated
plate, especially the PVB interlayer. Therefore, the PVB
interlayer plays a critical role in the energy absorption process.
As we can see from Table A1, the impact efficiencies of the
pre-tests are all greater than 90%. Most of the impact energy
are transferred to the impactor by the impact direction
convertor and the efficiency of the experimental system is high
enough.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Jilin University, Thursday, September 20, 2018

330 Xu et al / SAE Int. J. Mater. Manf. / Volume 7, Issue 2 (April 2014)

MODEL AND METHOD where K represents the bulk modulus of PVB[1]. The maximum
allowable principal stress σglass of different soda-lime glass are
Model Setup different due to its intrinsic stochastic flaws, usually from 10
A cylinder with hemispherical head is used to model the MPa to 60 MPa, and the simulation with σglass of 60 MPa fit well
impactor. The impactor has a mass of 2 kg by applying an with the experimental results. Other material and impact
equivalent density in order to simplify the complex structure of parameters are shown in Table A2.
the impactor. The three-dimensional laminated plate FE model
is developed with solid elements according to the specimen of Fundamentals of XFEM
PVB laminated glass. The layered structured of the laminated
The extended finite element method extends the classical finite
sheet is modeled using 15 layers of three-dimensional eight-
element method by enriching the solution space with
node reduced integration solid (C3D8R) elements with shared
discontinuous functions. The element mesh in XFEM is
nodes at their boundaries: the outside 6 C3D8R elements
generated regardless of the existence and location of the
representing the glass layer and the inside 3 C3D8R elements
cracks.
standing for the PVB layer shown in Figure 2. The C3D8R can
solve the displacement accurately, and the accuracy of
The discontinuous displacement field across the crack facing
analysis will not be affected when the distortion of the grid
away from the crack tip can be expressed in the form
exists, so C3D8R is suitable in this simulation. Each material
below[16]:
needs at least three elements in the longitudinal direction with
more than two integration points to ensure the accuracy of the
results in order to analyze the longitudinal situation. The glass
plate FE model is meshed using 1mm×1mm surface size
element with a mesh convergence study and consists of (4)
112500 elements in total.
where n is the total number of nodes in the mesh, Ni(x) is the
shape function associated with node i, ui are the classical
DOFs of node I, bi and cil are the DOFs associated with H(x),
and H(x) is the Heaviside enrichment function. The crack tip
function is given below[16]:
Figure 2. The structure of the laminated plate FE model.

To take advantage of the symmetry of the model, only one

quarter of the model is used in the simulations shown in Figure
A2. The model just needs to be mirrored when we analyze the
simulation results. The boundary condition of the glass plate
model is assumed to be clamped (full model), which consistent (5)
with the real experimental condition. In terms of the impact
condition and material properties, simulations are limited to where r and θ define the crack-tip based local polar
normal and center impact with the velocity of 3.7 m/s. The coordinates of integral points.
contact form between the impactor and glass applies the
surface-to-surface contact without friction. The PVB interlayer Simulation Method
is modeled as linear viscoelastic model using the prony series
In our study, the maximum principle stress criterion is applied
with only one term based on:
to simulate the failure of glass layer, and the maximum
principle stress criterion is given below:

(2)

where G(t) is the relaxation modulus, G0 is the short time shear

modulus, G∞ is the long time shear modulus and β is the decay
factor[1]. The elastic modulus E and Poisson's ratio υ of PVB (6)
are given below:
where f is the maximum principle stress ratio, represents
the maximum allowable principal stress. It refers that a purely
compressive stress does not cause the crack initiation, and the
(3) crack is assumed to initiate when the maximum principle stress
ratio f reaches a value of one.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Jilin University, Thursday, September 20, 2018

Xu et al / SAE Int. J. Mater. Manf. / Volume 7, Issue 2 (April 2014) 331

The power law model is used to compute the equivalent circle with radius r at the moment of t as shown in Figure 3 (c).
fracture energy release rate GequivC. The power law model is Therefore, the propagation velocity of radial cracks can be
described below[21]: described below:

(8)
(7)

where GIC, GIIC, GIIIC represent the mode I, mode II and mode
III critical energy release rate, am, an, ao are exponents.

According to our previous study, the whole crack propagation

process can be divided into three stages: the radial cracks on
the supported-side plate propagate firstly, then the radial
cracks on the loaded-side plate begin to propagate, finally the
circular cracks appear[14]. Our current research focus on the
first stage. We pre-embedded a series of small initial flaws with
different directions at the center part of the glass plate which is
the impact location, and only the radial flaws will propagate to
become radial cracks so as to release the hoop stress which is
much larger than radial stress[20]. Finally we set up 3 initial
cracks with the length of 7 mm at the impact location along the
radial direction to induce the radial crack. Note that size length
and number will not affect the final cracking morphology, only
to achieve a stable computational convergence. The
propagation process of radial cracks is simulated by XFEM.

Model Verification
Simulations are conducted using the commercial finite element
code ABAQUS IMPLICIT in order to verify the laminated glass
plate model compared with the dynamic experiment results of
PVB laminated glass under drop-weight. Figure 3. The propagation process of radial cracks under the impact
height of 700 mm, impact weight of 2 kg.
Here, we adopt both quantitative and qualitative method to
compare numerical simulation and dynamic experiment.
Qualitative validation is to compare crack propagation patterns
of simulation and experiment with the velocity of 3.7 m/s at the
vertical impact. Quantitative validation is to compare the radial
crack velocity-time curve of simulation and experiment with the
velocity of 3.7 m/s at the vertical impact.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Analysis of Crack Propagation Process
Figure 3 shows the images of the propagation process of radial
cracks under the impact height of 700 mm, impact weight of 2
kg captured by the high-speed photography system. Where t=
0 µs represents the initiation time of radial cracks. The
positions of the crack tip at each time point extracted from the
images will used to obtain parameters describing the crack Figure 4. The propagation sequence of different types of cracks.
propagation, i.e. crack length and crack velocity. The radial
Figure 4 shows the propagation sequence of the three types of
crack propagation velocity is defined as the quotient of crack
cracks, i.e. radial cracks on the supported-side plate (Figure 4
length increment Δl and time increment Δt during the time
(a)), radial cracks on the loaded-side plate (Figure 4 (b)) and
period Δt, i.e. Δl/Δt. And a convergence study of time increment
the circular cracks (Figure 4 (c)). As we can see, the radial
Δt step has been done. The crack tips of radial crack form a
cracks on the supported-side propagate earlier than the radial
 Downloaded from SAE International by Jilin University, Thursday, September 20, 2018
332 Xu et al / SAE Int. J. Mater. Manf. / Volume 7, Issue 2 (April 2014)
cracks on the loaded-side, and the radial cracks propagate
earlier than the circular cracks, which is consistent with our
previous study[14].
Qualitative Model Verification (Crack
Morphology)
Figure 5 shows the radial crack morphology of the simulation
results compared with the experimental results under the
impact velocity of 3.7 m/s. As can be seen from the
experimental image shown Figure 5 (b), a total of 22 radial
cracks exist in this picture and most of them have propagated
to the border of the specimen. Figure 5 (a) shows the radial
crack morphology and its hoop stress field of the simulation
results and 20 radial cracks in all propagating close to the
border present in the plate. From the perspective of radial
crack morphology, i.e. number of cracks and crack length, the
simulation results are in good agreement with the experimental
results.
(a). Simulation image (unit: Pa)
(b). Experimental image
Figure 5. Comparison of radial crack morphology between the
experimental results and the simulation results under the impact height
of 700 mm, impact weight of 2 kg.
Quantitative Model Verification (Crack Velocity)
Figure A3 shows the radial crack velocity-time curve of the
simulation results compared with the test results under the
impact velocity of 3.7 m/s. A total of 13 selected sequence of
experimental images are used to depict the crack velocity
curve and the B-spline interpolation method is used to smooth
the curve. We can draw the general rules of the radial crack
propagation process from the crack velocity-time curve. The
radial crack propagation process can be divided into three
stages, i.e. rising stage, stable stage, descending stage. In the
first stage, the crack velocity rises sharply from zero, and the
energy release rapidly until it reaches its peak. Then the crack
velocity increases to the peak value and remain stable in the
vicinity of the peak value for a short period in the second stage.
Finally, the crack velocity shows a downward trend due to the
effect of the boundaries. Figure A3 shows that the slope of the
simulation is greater than the experiment in the rising stage
and smaller in the descending stage. Reasons can be
summarized as follows: (1) the impact speed may not reach
3.7 m/s for the energy transfer efficiency is not 100%
(explanation of the rising stage); (2) the rebound speed of the
simulation is higher than the experiment (explanation of the
descending stage). As can be seen, the peak values as well as
the entire time course of the simulation fit well with the
corresponding impact test results.
In summary, both the crack morphology (i.e. length and
number of the cracks) and the crack velocity time history curve
of the simulation results are in good agreement with the
experimental results. So a robust FE model system of fairly
high quality has been built.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, the radial crack propagation process is obtained
by high-speed photography experiment, and found the
propagation sequence of the three types of cracks. The basic
rules of the radial crack propagation process have been found
through the calculated crack velocity-time curve. Laminated
glass plate with layered structure is setup. The crack
propagation patterns and the crack velocity-time curve of
simulation results fit well with the corresponding test results
under the impact velocity of 3.7 m/s when we verify the
specimen FE model. This study lays a solid step for systematic
numerical studies on fracture propagation mechanism and
energy absorption characteristics of the PVB laminated glass
in the future.
REFERENCES
1. Zhao, S., Dharani, L., Chai, L., and Barbat, S., “Analysis of
Damage in Laminated Automotive Glazing Subjected to Simulated
Head Impact,” Engineering Failure Analysis 13(4):582-97, 2009,
doi:10.1016/j.engfailanal.2004.12.038.
2. Lawn, B., “Fracture of Brittle Solids,” Cambridge University, UK,
ISBN 0521409721, 9780521409728, 1993.
3. Lawn, B., Evans, A., and Marshall, D., “Elastic/plastic Indentation
Damage in Ceramics: the Median/radial Crack System,” Journal
of the American Ceramic Society 63(9-10):574-81, 1980,
doi:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1980.tb10768.x.
4. Timmel, M., Kolling, S., Osterrieder, P., and Du Bois, P., “A Finite
Element Model for Impact Simulation with Laminated Glass,”
International Journal of Impact Engineering 34(8):1465-78, 2007,
doi:10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2006.07.008.
5. Xu, J., and Li, Y., “Study of Damage in Windshield Glazing Subject
to Impact by a Pedestrian's Head,” Proceedings of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineer, Part D: Journal Automobile Engineering
223(D1):77-84, 2009, doi:10.1243/09544070JAUTO974.
6. Park, H., and Chen, W., “Experimental Investigation on Dynamic
Crack Propagating Perpendicularly through Interface in Glass,”
Transactions of the ASME-E-Journal of Applied Mechanics
78(5):051013, 2011.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Jilin University, Thursday, September 20, 2018

Xu et al / SAE Int. J. Mater. Manf. / Volume 7, Issue 2 (April 2014) 333

7. Yao, X., Xu, W., Bai, S., and Yeh, H., “Caustics Analysis of the Mrs. Jingjing Chen
Crack Initiation and Propagation of Graded Materials,” Composites
Science and Technology 68(3):953-62, 2008, doi:10.1016/j.
cjjmonica@qq.com
compscitech.2007.08.007. State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety & Energy,
8. Arakawa, K., and Mada, T., “Unsteady Dynamic Crack Propagation Department of Automotive Engineering
in a Brittle Polymer,” Experimental Mechanics 47(5):609-15, 2007,
doi:10.1007/s11340-006-9020-x.
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, 100084
9. Vandenberghe, N., Vermorel, R., and Villermaux, E., “Star-Shaped Tel: 86-10-62786835
Crack Pattern of Broken Windows,” Physical review letters Fax: 86-10-62772721
110(17):174302, 2013, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.174302.
10. Chai, H., and Ravichandran, G., “On the Mechanics of Fracture in
Monoliths and Multilayers from Low-velocity Impact by Sharp or Dr. Jun Xu (Corresponding author)
Blunt-tip Projectiles,” International Journal of Impact Engineering xujun06@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn
36(3):375-85, 2009, doi:10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2008.07.065.
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety & Energy,
11. Cook, R., and Pharr, G., “Direct Observation and Analysis
of Indentation Cracking in Glasses and Ceramics,” Journal Department of Automotive Engineering
of the American Ceramic Society 73(4):787-817, 1990, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, 100084
doi:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1990.tb05119.x.
Tel: 86-10-62786835
12. Nie, X., Chen, W., Sun, X., and Templeton, D., “Dynamic
Failure of Borosilicate Glass under Compression/shear Loading Fax: 86-10-62772721
Experiments,” Journal of the American Ceramic Society
90(8):2556-62, 2007, doi:10.1111/j.1551-2916.2007.01819.x.
Prof. Yibing Li
13. Chen, J., Xu, J., Yao, X., Liu, B., Xu, X. et al., “Experimental
Investigation on the Radial and Circular Crack Propagation liyb@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn
of PVB Laminated Glass Subjected to Dynamic Out-of-plane State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety & Energy,
Loading,” Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 112-113:26-40, 2013,
doi:org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2013.09.010.
Department of Automotive Engineering
14. Chen, J., Xu, J., Yao X., Xu X. et al., “In-plane Radial Crack Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, 100084
Propagation Law in Laminated Glass under Impact Loading,” under Tel: 86-10-62786835
review.
Fax: 86-10-62772721
15. Belytschko, T., and Black, T., “Elastic Crack Growth in Finite
Elements with Minimal Remeshing,” International Journal for
Numerical Methods in Engineering 45(5):601-20, 1999. Prof. Xuefeng Yao
16. Dolbow, J., and Belytschko, T., “A Finite Element Method for Crack yxf@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn
Growth without Remeshing,” International Journal for Numerical
Method in Engineering 46:131-50, 1999. School of Aerospace
17. Moës, N., and Belytschko, T., “Extended Finite Element Method Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
for Cohesive Crack Growth,” Engineering Fracture Mechanics Tel: 86-10-62771546
69(7):813-33, 2002.
Fax: 86-10-62771546
18. Zhao, S., Dharani, L., Liang, X., Chai, L. et al., “Crack Initiation
in Laminated Automotive Glazing Subjected to Simulated Head
Impact,” International Journal of Crashworthiness 10(3):229-36,
2005, doi:10.1533/ijcr.2005.0340. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
19. Zang, M., Lei, Z., and Wang, S., “Investigation of Impact Fracture The work is supported by National Natural Science Foundation
Behavior of Automobile Laminated Glass by 3D Discrete
Element Method,” Computational Mechanics 41(1):73-83, 2007, of China (11102099 and 11372164), Chinese Post-doctor
doi:10.1007/s00466-007-0170-1. Foundation.
20. Xu, J., Li, Y., Chen, X., Yan, Y. et al., “Characteristics of Windshield
Cracking upon Low-speed Impact: Numerical Simulation Based
on the Extended Finite Element Method,” Computational Materials
Science 48(3):582-88, 2010, doi:10.1016/j.commatsci.2010.02.026.
21. Wu, E., and Reuter, J., “Crack Extension in Fiberglass Reinforced
Plastics,” DTIC Document, 1965.
22. Chen, X., Xu, S., and Huang, D., “A Critical Plane-Strain Energy
Density Criterion for Multiaxial Low - cycle Fatigue Life under Non-
proportional Loading,” Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials
& Structures 22(8):679-86, 1999, doi:10.1046/j.1460-2695.1999.
t01-1-00199.x.

CONTACT INFORMATION
Mr. Xiaoqing Xu
xuxq12@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety & Energy,
Department of Automotive Engineering
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, 100084
Tel: 86-10-62786835
Fax: 86-10-62772721
 Downloaded from SAE International by Jilin University, Thursday, September 20, 2018

334 Xu et al / SAE Int. J. Mater. Manf. / Volume 7, Issue 2 (April 2014)

APPENDIX
APPENDIX A: FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure A1. The schematic illustration of the experimental system.

Figure A2. Model setup.

 Downloaded from SAE International by Jilin University, Thursday, September 20, 2018

Xu et al / SAE Int. J. Mater. Manf. / Volume 7, Issue 2 (April 2014) 335

Figure A3. Comparison of the radial crack propagation velocity between the experimental results and the simulation results under the impact height of
700 mm, impact weight of 2 kg.

Table A1. Efficiency calibration of the experimental system.

 Downloaded from SAE International by Jilin University, Thursday, September 20, 2018

336 Xu et al / SAE Int. J. Mater. Manf. / Volume 7, Issue 2 (April 2014)

Table A2. Impactor, material, impact and plate parameters.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE International.

Positions and opinions advanced in this paper are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of SAE International. The author is solely responsible for the content of the
paper.