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Gene Expression
● Prokaryotes and eukaryotes must be able to
regulate which genes are expressed at any given
time
○ Genes can be turned “on” or “off” based on
environmental and internal cues
■ On/off refers to whether or not transcription will
take place
○ Allows for cell specialization

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Bacterial Gene Expression
● Operons: a group of genes that can be turned on
or off
○ Operons have three parts:
■ Promoter: where RNA polymerase can attach
■ Operator: the on/off switch
■ Genes: code for related enzymes in pathway
● Operons can be repressible or inducible
○ Repressible (on to off): transcription is
usually on, but can be repressed (stopped)
○ Inducible (off to on): transcription is usually
off, but can be induced (started)
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Bacterial Gene Expression
● Regulatory gene: produces a repressor protein
that binds to the operator to block RNA
polymerase from transcribing the gene
○ Always expressed, but at low levels
○ Binding of a repressor to an operator is
reversible
Before going through examples, lets review allosteric
enzymes

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 Allosteric Regulation: Activator
● Allosteric activator: substrate binds to allosteric
site and stabilizes the shape of the enzyme so
that the active sites remain open

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 Allosteric Regulation: Inhibitor
● Allosteric inhibitor: substrate binds to allosteric
site and stabilizes the enzyme shape so that the
active sites are closed (inactive form)

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 Repressible Operons
● Example: the trp operon
○ The trp operon in bacteria controls the
synthesis of tryptophan
○ Since it is repressible, transcription is active
■ It can be switched off by a trp repressor
● Allosteric enzyme that is only active when
tryptophan binds to it
● When too much tryptophan builds up in bacteria,
tryptophan is more likely to bind to the repressor
turning it active, which will then temporarily shut
off transcription for tryptophan
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Overview: trp Operon

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 Inducible Operon
● Example: the lac operon
○ The lac operon controls synthesis of lactase, an
enzyme that digests lactose (milk sugar)
○ Since it is inducible, transcription is off
■ A lac repressor is bound to the operator
(allosterically active)
○ The inducer for the lac repressor is allolactose
■ When present it will bind to the lac repressor
and turn the lac repressor off (allosterically
inactive)
● The genes can now be transcribed
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Overview: lac Operon

Lac repressor is active

and bond to the operator

binds to lac repressor and it

becomes inactive
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 Quick Check
1. Compare and contrast the bacterial lac operon
and trp operon.
a. Answer: both regulate transcription of genes.
The trp operon is repressible, while the lac
operon is inducible.
2. What are the three parts of an operon?
a. Answer: Promoter: where RNA polymerase can
attach. Operator: the on/off switch. Genes: code
for related enzymes in pathway

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Eukaryotic Gene Expression
● The phenotype of a cell or organism is
determined by a combination of genes that are
expressed and the levels that they are expressed
○ Differences between cell types is known as
differential gene expression

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Eukaryotic Gene Expression
● Eukaryotic gene
expression is regulated
at different stages

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 Eukaryotic Gene Expression
Chromatin structure:
● If DNA is tightly wound it is less
accessible for transcription
● How can it be modified?
○ Histone acetylation adds
acetyl groups to histones,
which loosens the DNA
○ DNA methylation adds
methyl groups to DNA,
which causes the chromatin
to condense
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 Eukaryotic Gene Expression
Epigenetic inheritance:
● Chromatin modifications do not
alter the nucleotide sequence of
the DNA, but they can be
heritable to future generations
○ Modifications can be
reversed, unlike mutations
○ Explains why one identical
twin may inherit a disease
while the other does not

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 Eukaryotic Gene Expression
Transcription initiation:
● Once chromatin modifications
allow the DNA to be more
accessible, specific transcription
factors bind to control
elements
○ Sections of non coding DNA
that serve as binding sites
○ Gene expression can be
increased or decreased by
binding of activators or
repressors to control elements
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 Eukaryotic Gene Expression
RNA processing:
● Alternative splicing of pre-mRNA
Translation Initiation
● Translation can be activated or
repressed by initiation factors
● MicroRNAs and small
interfering RNAs can bind to
mRNA and degrade it or block
translation

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 Eukaryotic Development
● During embryonic development, cell division and
cell differentiation occurs
○ Cells become specialized in their structure and
function
○ Morphogenesis: the physical process that gives
an organism its shape

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 Eukaryotic Development
● How do cells differentiate during early
development?
○ Cytoplasmic determinants: substances in the
maternal egg that influence cells
○ Induction: cell to cell signals that can cause a
change in gene expression
● Both cytoplasmic determinants and induction
influence pattern formation
○ A “body plan” for the organism
■ Homeotic genes map out the body structures

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 Eukaryotic Development
● As cells differentiate, apoptosis plays a critical
role
○ Apoptosis: programmed cell death
■ Allows structures to take their form
● Example: if apoptosis did not occur during
the development of human hands and feet
we would be born with webbed fingers and
toes

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