CMTP NPTEL Notes PDF

CONTINUUM MECHANICS AND
TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
Prof. T. Renganathan
Chemical Engineering
IIT Madras
INDEX
S.NO TOPICS PAGE.NO

WEEK-1
1 Measurement and Prediction - Part 1 7
2 Measurement and Prediction - Part 2 22
3 Overview of Transport Phenomena 33
4 Scope of Course 44
WEEK-2
5 Continuum Hypothesis 57
6 Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions - Part 1 69
7 Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions - Part 2 82
8 Substantial Derivative Part 1 91
9 Substantial Derivative Part 2 101
10 Substantial Derivative Example 1 112
11 Substantial Derivative Example 2 127
12 Visualization of Flow Patterns: Streamline, Pathline 137
13 Visualization of Flow Patterns: Streakline 148
14 Streamline, Pathline: Steady Flow Example 156
15 Streamline, Pathline, Streakline: Unsteady Flow Example 166
WEEK-3
16 System and Control Volume 178
17 Reynolds transport theorem : Introduction 193
18 Reynolds transport theorem : Simplified form 205
19 Reynolds transport theorem : General form - Part 1 217
1
20 Reynolds transport theorem : General form - Part 2 231
21 Integral and differential balances 245
22 Integral total mass balance 254
23 Integral total mass balance : Simplification 265
24 Integral total mass balance : Examples 279
25 Differential total mass balance - Part 1 293
26 Differential total mass balance - Part 2 305
27 Differential total mass balance : Examples Part 1 312
28 Differential total mass balance : Examples Part 2 325
WEEK-4
29 Integral linear momentum balance Part 1 338
30 Integral linear momentum balance Part 2 351
31 Integral linear momentum balance : Examples Part 1 361
34 Differential linear momentum balance : Introduction 394
Differential linear momentum balance : Transient, convection and

body force terms
35 408
WEEK-5
36 Stress vector - Part 1 422
37 Stress vector - Part 2 436
38 Stress tensor - Part 1 449
39 Stress tensor - Part 2 460
40 Cauchy's formula 471
2
41 Components of Stress Vector : Example 484
42 Properties of stress tensor - Part 1 503
43 Properties of stress tensor - Part 2 509
44 Total stress tensor for fluids 520
45 Comparison of solids and fluids 532
46 Fluids at rest 541
47 Differential linear momentum balance : Surface force terms 554
48 Differential linear momentum balance : All terms 568
49 Convective momentum flux tensor 575
50 Differential linear momentum balance : Closure problem 587
WEEK-6
51 Normal Strain and Shear Strain â€“ Part 1 598
52 Normal Strain and Shear Strain â€“ Part 2 610
53 Displacement Field and Displacement Gradient â€“ Part 1 621
54 Displacement Field and Displacement Gradient â€“ Part 2 632
55 Strain Displacement Gradient Relation : Example 644
56 Strain Displacement Gradient Relation : Normal and shear strain 653
Strain Displacement Gradient Relation : Rotation and volumetric

57 strain 662
58 Strain Displacement Gradient Relation : Examples 671
59 Displacement Gradient Tensor 683
60 Components of Total Displacement â€“ Part 1 698
61 Components of Total Displacement â€“ Part 2 709
62 Strain Tensor and Rotation Tensor â€“ Part 1 720
63 Components of Total Displacement : Example 726
3
WEEK-7
64 Normal and Shear Strain Rate 741
65 Strain Rate Velocity Gradient Relation 754
66 Volumetric Strain Rate 764
67 Velocity Gradient Tenso 774
68 Strain Rate : Example 1 786
69 Strain Rate : Example 2 794
70 Stress Strain Relation : Introduction 808
71 Material Properties 816
72 Hookeâ€™s Law â€“ Strain-stress Relation 824
73 Relation Between Material Properties 835
74 Hookeâ€™s Law â€“ Stress-strain Relation 847
75 Hookeâ€™s Law : Examples 860
WEEK-8
76 Stress Strain Rate Relation : Introduction 871
77 Newtonâ€™s Law of Viscosity : 1D Form 880
78 Newtonâ€™s Law of Viscosity : 3D Form 890
79 Navier Stokes Equation 905
80 Fluid at Rest : Pressure Distribution 929
81 Hydrostatic Pressure Distribution in Liquid 939
82 Hydrostatic Pressure Distribution in Gas 947
83 Fluid in Rigid Body Motion : Pressure Distribution 956
84 Flow Regimes : Laminar and Turbulent flow 971
85 Euler Equation 978
86 Bernoulli Equation : Inviscid Flow 986
4
87 Bernoulli Equation : Example 1 997
88 Bernoulli Equation : Irrotational Flow 1001
89 Bernoulli Equation : Example 2 1008
WEEK-9
90 Planar Couette Flow - Governing Equations 1018
91 Planar Couette Flow - Velocity and Pressure Distribution 1034
92 Planar Couette Flow - Shear Force 1040
93 Planar Poiseuille Flow : Governing Equations 1049
94 Planar Poiseuille Flow : Velocity and Pressure Distribution 1059
95 Planar Poiseuille Flow - Shear force 1069
96 Planar Poiseuille Flow : Shear Stress Distribution 1083
97 Viscous Stress vs. Molecular Momentum Flux Part 1 1096
Linear Momentum Balance : Fluid Mechanics vs. Momentum

99 Transport Part 1 1118
Linear Momentum Balance : Fluid Mechanics vs. Momentum

100 Transport Part 2 1127
WEEK-10
102 Integral Energy Balance - Part 1 1147
103 Integral Energy Balance - Part 2 1163
104 Simplification of Integral Energy Balance 1175
105 Integral Energy Balance : Examples 1181
WEEK-11
106 Differential Energy Balance : Introduction 1196
5
107 Differential Total Energy Balance - Part 1 1208
108 Differential Total Energy Balance - Part 2 1222
109 Differential Energy Balance â€“ Part 1 1237
112 Fourierâ€™s Law of Heat Conduction 1269
113 Simplifications of Differential Energy Balance 1284
114 Heat Conduction in Slab 1290
115 Heat Conduction in Furnace Wall 1299
116 Non Isothermal Planar Couette Flow 1310
6
Continuum Mechanics And Transport Phenomena
Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Lecture - 01
Measurement and Prediction Part 1
Welcome to this online course on Continuum Mechanics and Transport Phenomena. This
lecture is about the introduction to the course.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:29)
This course introduction has been split into three parts. The first part is on measurement and
prediction, the second part is on overview of transport phenomena, and in the third part, we
look at the scope of the course. The outline of the first part on Measurement and Prediction is
shown in the refer slide below.
7
First, we discuss two different ways of analyzing a process namely the experimental method
and the theoretical method. In the theoretical method, two different approaches are possible;
one is the thermodynamic approach and then the transfer phenomena approach.
So, let us start with a simple experiment. What we have here is a small tank, it has two inlets
and then an outlet. Water flows in through the two inlets and then flows out through the outlet
and we maintain a steady-state condition which means the liquid level and the tank is
constant. So, just two flows coming in and then flow leaving the tank.
8
Now, we measure the flow rate of both the inlet streams and the measurement values were 12
milliliters per second and 9.8 milliliters per second. So, we measure the volumetric flow rate
of both the inlet streams. Now, coming to the outlet stream we also measure the volumetric
flow rate of the outlet stream which turns out to be 22.1 milliliters per second. So, we
measure the volumetric flow rate of the outlet stream. The keyword is the measure because
we are measuring both the inlet streams and the volumetric flow rate to the outlet stream as
well. So, we had an experiment where you measure all three flow rates.
So, alternatively let us look at the theoretical approach wherein, We once again measure the
inlet flow rates of both the streams which of course, 12 and 9.8, but now we wish to predict
the outlet flow rate instead of measuring the outlet flow rate. So, in the first case, we
measured it, in the second case we want to predict it. So, now to predict it we will use a
simple mass balance and for the simple tank with two inlets and one outlet, the mass balance
is very simple, just says that the mass flow rate leaving through the outlet stream is equal to
the sum of mass flow rates entering to the two inlet streams. So, if you want to express in
terms of the algebraic equation it says
ṁout = ṁ1 + ṁ2
Where, ṁout ; ṁ represents the rate of mass flow rate and out represent that is leaving and
ṁ1 , ṁ2 are the mass flow rates of the inlet streams.
Now, what we have in this particular case is just water entering and then leaving. So, the
densities are same or almost same. So, just becomes balance of volumetric flow rates. So, in
this case it just becomes volumetric flow rate leaving is equal to some of the volumetric flow
rates entering.
Q̇out = Q̇in,1 + Q̇in,2
The densities are same so it cancels out and just becomes a balance of volumetric flow rate.
We use the measured values of the volumetric flow rates of both the inlet streams and then
substitute in this equation, and then get the volumetric flow rate of the outlet stream. So,
substitute 12.0 and 9.8 and predict the value of the volumetric flow rate of outlet stream as
21.8 milliliters per second.
So, the second case we have measured or met only two measurements and predicted the value
of the outlet flow rate using a mass balance in which this case becomes a volumetric balance.
9
So, to summarize what we have done, we have predicted flow rate of 21.8 milliliter per
second which compares with the measured flow rate of 22.1 with small difference about 1.4
percent, which can be attributed to several reasons measurement error, as variation in flow
rate and so on.
So, we have experimentally measured outlet flow rate and predicted using mass balance.
then, of course, we compared this predicted flow rate with the measured flow rate.
Now, this mass balance comes from the principle of conservation of mass which we call as
theory, and this mass conservation equation, we call as a mathematical model for this simple
process. This process is extremely simple, we have just two inlets and one outlet operating
under steady state condition, no second component is present, all temperatures are the same,
the density is also happened to be the same.
So, very simple process and for this case, the mass conservative equation or the mass balance
we wrote is called the mathematical model for this process. why is it a model? This model
mathematically mimics the process or represents a process. Experimentally we had two flow
rates they got summed up and result in an outlet flow rate. Similarly, the equation also sums
up both the inlet flow rates and gives you an outlet flow rate, that is why this model
mathematically mimics the process represents the process.
10
Now, other way of telling this is we have simulated the process using a mathematical model,
in the short model in this course represents a mathematical model. The moment we say model
represents the term mathematical model. So we have simulated the process using the
mathematical model.
So, the whole objective is to use this model to predict the measured value, not just predict we
want to be as close as possible. So, the summary of these is that we want to use a model and
then predict the measured value, in this case outlet flow rate and also as close as possible.
Now, let us look at some terminology which we have used, process in this case is the tank
with the inflows and outflows that have a process and the measurements to inlet flow rates
and outlet flow rate also. If you want to experimentally analyze this process, you measure the
outlet flow rate. Suppose you want to check your model, you once again measure the outlet
flow rate. In both the cases, you need to measure the outlet flow rate.
The theory in this case, the conservation of mass and then the model is the mass balance
equation which we have used and then simulation is the solving of the model and the
prediction is the result of the simulation in which this case, it is the outlet flow rate. Theory,
the conservation of mass, the models are mass balance equation and simulation the solution
of the model solving the model, prediction is a final result this a result of simulation.
11
So, what is the need for theory, model, simulation? Why is it required?, first thing is to
understand the physical principles behind the process in this case, understand that a simple
mass balance takes place. So, helps us to understand the physical principles behind the
process.
Second, experiments need not be conducted for different values of input variables in the
example which we have seen. So, the flow rates were some set values suppose you change
the inlet flow rates and then you measure the outlet flow rate, you need not do this
experiment several times if you have a model for this process it is enough if you know the
inlet flow rates you can predict the outlet flow rate.
You can also determine the size of equipments in a chemical engineering plan which we call
as design. Usually when you find size the terminology becomes a design, and for example, if
you have a heat exchanger in a chemical engineering plant, you find the area of the heat
exchanger using model it becomes a design and because of the advantage of model and
theory is that based on few theoretical principles, you can simulate a wide range of processes.
The theoretical principles governing different processes are same, a small set. So, if we
understand them we can simulate a wide range of process that is a advantage of theory and
model.
12
So, now what we will do is, extend what we have discussed for a simple process namely the
tank to a entire flow sheet. What we are seeing here is flow sheet for the manufacture of
ammonia. We have nitrogen, hydrogen entering and it may have some impurities as well and
based on thermodynamics, the nitrogen hydrogen reaction giving ammonia has to be
conducted at a high pressure and for increasing the rate of reaction, we need to conduct at
high temperature.
So, it is a high temperature, high pressure reaction. So, we need to compress the inlet gas to
the high pressure of let us say 200 atmosphere. So, we need a compressor which compresses
from let us say atmospheric pressure to a high pressure of 200 atmospheres. And that stream
enters a guard reactor which remove some impurities which will impair the activity of the
catalyst; it is a catalytic reaction and iron is used as catalyst and so we remove those
impurities in the guard reactor.
It is a catalytic reactor using iron as a catalyst, conditions as we mentioned of 500 degrees

and 200 atmospheres. This reversible reaction between nitrogen, hydrogen giving ammonia
takes place, and it should be noted the conversion is usually very low order of just 20 percent
per pass and the stream leaving the reactor has ammonia, unreacted nitrogen hydrogen and
some impurities as well let us say argon.
Now we need to separate ammonia from this stream, we do the first condensation using
cooling water and where part of the ammonia condenses out as a liquid. So, you send it to a
13
gas liquid separator, simple gas liquid separator where separation takes place by gravity, and
so liquid ammonia comes out, that is also part of the product stream and the remaining stream
goes through the refrigerator.
Based on the high pressure of 200 atmosphere, you need a temperature of about minus 15
degrees centigrade. So, that the ammonia going in this stream is as minimum as possible. If
you cool maintain at a higher temperature let us say more than minus 15 degree centigrade
then there will be enough amount of ammonia in the stream which you do not want to
happen. You want most of the ammonia to be in the stream. So, you maintain a very low
temperature of minus 15 degree centigrade that is why require a refrigeration.
So, now ammonia condenses out from the refrigeration unit also and these two ammonia
streams are mixed and that is our product ammonia. Now, the recycle stream is argon in it so,
which we do not want to accumulate. So, we have a purge which avoids accumulation of
argon and this cycle and then of course, unreacted nitrogen hydrogen is recycled back to the
main reactor.
Because there is some loss of pressure during the process, we have a small compressor which
makes up for this difference in pressure. So, whatever let us say 200 bar comes down, let us
say 190 bar it adds up to 10 bar extra and brings it back 200 bar or 200 atmosphere. So, let us
say we want to set up this ammonia plant and we want to design this plant, we want to
simulate this plant. Now, how do we go about it?.
14
As I say, simulate look is equivalent to prediction of variables. Now, what are the variables
which we like to predict in this particular flow sheet. First, for a given flow rate of the feed
and operating conditions, let us say the feed and the operating conditions are given. We have
the compressor unit. So, we like to predict the power required for compression of the feed
gas, we are going from a atmospheric pressure let us say to a very high pressure. So, lot of
power is required, what is the power required on the compressor.
Now, we have the main reactor, what is the conversion of hydrogen in this reactor we like to
know that as well, and that determines quantity of ammonia produced and we have separation
of ammonia from the unreacted reactants, some separation takes place in the condenser, some
separation takes place in the refrigerator. Those are we also like to find out. What is the
composition of the stream leaving the condenser, leaving the refrigerator.
And of course, finally, we also require the flow rate of cooling water, we have cooling water
here, cooling water entering and leaving, you also send in ammonia refrigerant here. So, we
like to find out what is the flow rate of cooling water, what is the flow rate of refrigerant
required in these two units.
We also wish to find out what is the production rate of ammonia for different operating
conditions. So, we like to predict the power for the compressor, the conversion and the
reactor and then the composition of vapour leaving and the flow rate of the coolants required
and the production rate of ammonium.
15
Now, what other variables we like to predict. Now, these variables which we will discuss
next, fall in the category of something do with size, area etcetera of the equipment. So, we
want to predict or we now want to know the size of the reactor, what do you mean the size of
the reactor? As we discussed sometime back, we have used a catalytic reactor, we use a multi
tubular catalytic reactor shown here.
So, when we say size, it mean mass of catalyst required which is equivalent to finding out
what is the length of the tubes required, number of tubes required. So, mass of catalyst
required can be explained in terms of length and number of tubes that gives the size of the
reactor.
Now, we also want to know the size of the condenser in the refrigerator which are heat
exchangers. So, what do we mean by size of heat exchanger? it mean the length of the tubes
let say some multi tubular heat exchanger, shell and tube heat exchanger then we need to
know the length of the tubes and all the number of tubes in the heat exchanger. And also we
like to know the size of the liquid vapour separator, what you mean by size here? it is the
height of the separator and the diameter of the separator.
So, as I told you these are also process variables which I like to predict, but these fall into the
category of sizes of these equipment size of reactor, condenser, or liquid vapour separator ok,
you will shortly know why distinguish these two kind of process variables.
16
Now, having taken a process calculation course, what are the variables which we can predict
among this list. First, once again of course, for given flow rate of feed and operating
conditions, we can calculate the power required for a compression of the feed gas and of
course, we can find out the process calculation requires a mini thermodynamics course. So,
based on principles of thermodynamics, you can calculate the minimum power required for
compression.
Now, we can find out the conversion of hydrogen in the reactor and we can find out what is
the maximum possible conversion let say using a law of mass action, you can find out the
maximum conversion of hydrogen in the reactor. Now, we can also find out the composition
of vapour leaving the condenser, leaving the refrigerator and that we assume equilibrium and
find out the equilibrium value of composition of the vapour leaving the condenser and
refrigerator.
Now, we can also do a simple energy balance around the condenser and then around the
refrigerator and find out what is the flow rate of cooling water, what is the flow rate of
ammonia refrigerant required.
Of course, doing a mass balance and energy balance for the entire plant, we can find out what
is the production rate of ammonia. So, based on the knowledge gained from a process
calculation course, you can solve for different variables in the plant namely power required
for compression, conversion of hydrogen in the reactor, composition of vapour leaving the
condenser and refrigerator, cooling water required in them and the production rate of
ammonia.
Now, what are the variables which we cannot predict based on a process calculation course.
Whatever variables we classified as size; falls in the category of size, they cannot be
predicted using a process calculation course knowledge. For example, the size of reactor
cannot be predicted, the size of the condenser, refrigerator, heat exchanger that cannot be
predicted and then of course, size of the liquid vapour separator can also not be predicted.
So, all other variables like power etcetera could be predicted, but whatever has to do with size
cannot be predicted using the knowledge gained from process calculation course. Now, what
are the assumptions made in process calculation course ok.
17
Now, for calculating the power required for compression of the feed gas, we said we will get
the minimum power required. This power required is calculated from enthalpy change. So, in
a process calculation course, we assume that the gas is ideal and hence we assume the
enthalpy to depend on the temperature only. So, based on the assumption that it is an ideal
gas and the enthalpy depends on temperature only we will find out what is the power
required.
Now, regarding the composition of vapour leaving the condenser and refrigerator, we will
assume vapour liquid equilibrium and we will use Raoult’s law or Henry’s law depending on
the case and then we will also assume it is a mixture of ideal gases, we will also assume it is a
ideal mixture of liquids. So, based on all these assumptions mixture of ideal gases, ideal
mixture of liquids, we will assume the vapour liquid under equilibrium and find out the
composition of vapour leaving the condenser refrigerator.
Now, coming to the conversion of hydrogen in the reactor, for reaction equilibrium we
assume the law of mass action. We use the law of mass action and then we assume to be a
mixture of ideal gases and find out the conversion of hydrogen in the reactor. Of course, we
get the minimum power required; the equilibrium value of composition and the maximum
conversion in the reactor.
18
Now, as we have been discussing, the process calculations course a mini thermodynamics
course. So, now, if you take a full-fledged chemical engineering thermodynamics course,
what are the improvements possible in this prediction values. So, let us start with the power
required for compression of the feed gas. For enthalpy change calculation in the earlier case,
we assumed the gas to be ideal, but now we will assume the gas to be here as a real gas, what
is the implication? The enthalpy which was assumed to depend only on temperature, will us
take the dependency of enthalpy both on temperature and pressure which makes it a better
value.
Now, coming to the composition of vapour leaving the condenser and refrigerator, for vapour
equilibrium we assumed all ideal conditions Raoults law, Henry’s law etcetera. Now, we will
assume a modified Raoults law, modified Henry’s law, how do we modify? In the earlier case
we took mixture of ideal gases, but now we will say it is a non ideal mixture of real gases. So,
we take into account the non-ideality in the gas phase.
Also for the liquid phase, we assume ideal mixture of liquids, but now we will take it as non
ideal mixture of liquids. So, we take into account the non ideality both in the vapour phase
and the liquid phase and make better prediction of the equilibrium value, when we say better
prediction as we have seen in the beginning, better prediction means closer to reality.
19
Now, coming to the conversion of hydrogen in the reactor, we assume of course, reaction
equilibrium. We assume law of mass action, but we will use a more general expression based
on general equilibrium relationship.
Now, again we will assume non ideal mixture of real gases. So, here we take into account the
non ideal behaviour of the gases. So, the improvements in the chemical and thermodynamics
course is that, we take into account a non ideality and the predicted values are going to be
closer to experimental values because we take into account non ideality.
So, that gives out the scope of thermodynamics course. Now, in thermodynamics, we talk
about process going from one equilibrium state to another equilibrium state and
thermodynamics always gives us the limits of performance as we have seen. For example, it
gives a minimum work required in the compressor, equilibrium composition which would
attain if they have an contact for a very long time which has the maximum composition and
the maximum conversion possible in the reactor. So, it talks about minimum, maximum,
equilibrium etcetera.
Now, what is outside the scope of thermodynamics? It is the rate at which the process
happens how fast it happens, how slow it happens, it is not under the scope of
thermodynamics. So, it talks about limits of performance, talks about process going from one
state to another, does not talk about how fast the process happens.
20
So, that brings in the scope of transport phenomena because we need to take into account the
rate at which the process happens so that you can find out the size of equipments. Size of
equipments is not under the scope of thermodynamics we need to predict them and that is
where scope of transport phenomena comes in.
So, to predict actual performance and size of equipment, rate of the processes has to be
considered that is the central theme behind the scope of transport phenomena. So, transport
phenomena considers or includes the rate at which processes takes place and transport
phenomena includes three closely related topics, namely fluid mechanics or momentum
transfer which deals with transport of momentum.
And then heat transfer which deals with transport of energy and mass transfer which deals
with transport of mass when we say mass, it mean mass of species. So, subject of transport
phenomena is required to take into account the rate of processes rate which process happens
how fast, how slow and it required to predict the actual performance.
We have thermodynamics limits itself to limits of performance, but we like to predict the
actual performance, find out the size of equipment. So, we need to consider rate and transport
phenomena and the subject of transport phenomena includes three closely related topics fluid
mechanics or momentum transfer, heat transfer, mass transfer deal with transport of
momentum, transport of energy, transport of mass of species.
21
Lecture – 02
Measurement and Prediction - Part 2
Now, how does this improve the scope of transport phenomena compared to the scope of
thermodynamics? Now, as we predict the actual performance or size of the equipment, what
does it mean?. Let us go back to our examples, in the earlier case we predicted the power
required for compression of the feed gas, it is a minimum value.
If we predict based on the process calculation course it is less accurate, if you predict based
on the thermodynamic course it is still more accurate, but still, it is a minimum value. You
are not getting the actual value. But, using a transport phenomena approach you to find out
the actual value which will be much more closer to reality.
Now, similarly the conversion of hydrogen in the reactor, we found out the maximum value
either based on the assumption that gases behave ideally or they behave non ideally, but still
gives the maximum value only. But, using a transport phenomena approach you can find out
the actual value of a conversion based on the size of the reactor. And, the composition of
22
vapour leaving the condenser and refrigerator they were found out assuming phase
equilibrium.
Once again, of lower accuracy with process calculation knowledge still more accuracy with
using a thermodynamics knowledge, but still they are equilibrium values. Suppose you want
to find out the actual value which is related to the size equipment size heat exchanger then
you need to use a transport phenomena approach. So, we have said that the size of the
equipment is not under the purview of thermodynamics. The moment we use a transport
phenomena approach we can determine the size of the reactor meaning the mass of catalyst,
length of tubes, number of tubes.
We can find out the size of the condenser, refrigerator which is a heat exchanger, find out the
area of the heat exchanger, the length of tubes, number of tubes, and of course, the size of the
liquid vapour separator namely height and diameter. So, to find out the size of these
equipment, we need transport phenomena approach and to consider the include the size of
these equipment on the performance we require a transport phenomena approach.
Now, we will take several examples, not necessarily connected to this flow sheet. Take
several examples from fluid mechanics, heat transfer, and mass transfer and then compare the
scope of thermodynamics and scope of transport phenomena approach. That will also give
you what are the scope of transport phenomena and how does it compare with the
thermodynamic approach.
23
So, the first example which are going to consider is the power required for pumping,
supposed if we have water to be pumped from one level to another and then we are using a
pump. Let us say a household example of pumping water from a sump to an overhead tank.
And, if you use a thermodynamic approach that will give you the minimum power required to
pump water from one level to another level because it neglects frictional losses, it gives you
only the minimum pumping power required.
But, if you use a transport phenomena approach, you can calculate the actual power required.
Why is it possible? Because, we include frictional losses, the liquid flows through the pipe
losses due to friction happen because of the contact to the wall. We include that so, we can
calculate what is the actual work required, the power required to pump water from one level
to the other. And so, we know more work has to be supplied compared to the ideal work that
is predicted from thermodynamics.
So, the thermodynamic approach gives a minimum work required, transport phenomena
approach gives us the actual work required including the friction losses. An analogous
example is flow through a pipe; suppose if you have a flow of let us say a liquid flowing
through a horizontal pipe with no change in cross-section. The thermodynamic approach will
not give us any pressure drop at all. But, if you consider the transport phenomena approach,
you include the frictional losses and you can find out the pressure drop due to flow through
this pipe, because of friction of the wall.
Also, we can calculate what is the velocity profile across the cross-section of the pipe. The
velocity is 0 near the wall and it is maximum at the center of the pipe. So, velocity varies
across this cross-section. So, the transport phenomena approach will also help us to find out
what is the velocity profile across this pipe. So, one is the transport phenomena approach
gives the max; the actual work required. Now, also includes friction and gives the velocity
profile as well.
24
The next example is from heat transfer; consider two examples here. The first example is heat
transfer in a furnace wall, let us say we have a furnace and this is a furnace wall. And, let us
say we have a high temperature at the left side of the wall and the low temperature at the right
side of the wall. So, what is the scope of thermodynamics? Thermodynamics will tell you the
direction of heat transfer and then which is the direction of temperature decrease, but, does
not consider the rate of heat transfer.
But, if you use a transport phenomena approach it considers the rate of heat transfer by
conduction which is due to the temperature gradient. And, you can calculate what is the rate
of heat transfer taking place through this furnace wall and also calculate what is the
temperature profile across the width of this furnace wall. Well, thermodynamics tells you the
direction of heat transfer, transport phenomena tells you the rate of heat transfer, how fast it
takes place. Also, tells you the temperature profile, how temperature varies along with the
thickness of the furnace wall.
Now, another simple example would be, suppose if you take little warm water and then place
it in an ambient temperature and allow it to cool. What does thermodynamics tell you? It tells
you the final equilibrium temperature which is the same as ambient temperature. But,
thermodynamics does not tell you how fast the equilibrium will be reached, does not tell you
how the temperature varies is a function of time, how long it takes to reach equilibrium.
25
Now, or how the temperature reaches equilibrium value either linearly, exponentially does
not come up from thermodynamic analysis. From the transport phenomena approach, you can
find out how the temperature cools down. How the temperatures cool down from the high
temperature to the ambient temperature and also find out how long it takes to reach the
equilibrium value. So, as we have discussed earlier all the time factor, length factor, area
factor are all considered in the transport phenomena approach.
Now, another example from heat transfer with respect to the heat exchanger. Let us say the
heat exchanger and then you are given two inlet temperatures and then you are given one
outlet temperature. And, let us say inlet temperature is the hot and cold fluid, and you are
given the outlet temperature of the hot fluid also. Now, using a simple energy balance which
is based on thermodynamics you can find out what is the outlet temperature of the fluid and
outlet temperature of the cold fluid.
Now, the rate of heat transfer is not considered. So, the area of the heat exchanger which you
said is equivalent to size, length etcetera the heat exchanger is not considered. We also do not
consider and take into account the direction of the flow whether they flow counter-current to
each other or co-current to each other. So, thermodynamics will tell you what is the outlet
temperature of cold fluid no doubt about it but does not consider the rate of heat transfer.
Hence, the size of the heat exchanger is not considered and does not consider and take into
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account what is the influence of the direction of the relative direction of motion between the
two streams whether co-current or counter-current.
But, if you use a transport phenomena approach, let us take the same case you have given two
inlet temperatures and one outlet temperature. Transport phenomenon approach considers the
rate of heat transfer and that rate of heat transfer is proportional to the temperature difference
between these two fluid streams, the hot and cold fluid streams. And, hence you can
determine the area and length of heat exchanger, what is the temperature profile along the
length of the heat exchanger. You can also answer the question whether the counter current
mode or a co-current mode is better for contact.
So, just because it takes into account the rate of heat transfer, your scope of analysis, scope of
prediction widens a lot. As you have seen here the length of heat exchanger, the temperature
profile along the length, and also the influence of relative contacting direction was also taken
into account.
Now, few examples from a mass transfer. The first example is the vapourization of a solvent.
Let us say we have a very volatile solvent and we like to predict the rate of vapourization of
the solvent. So, if you use a thermodynamic approach, use Raoult’s law. What can Raoult’s
law give us? Raoult’s law can give us what is the concentration of this volatile solvent in the
gas which is in just contact with the liquid phase. So, that gives the saturation value and that
is the scope of thermodynamics.
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And, it does not consider the rate of mass transfer, it does not give the rate of mass loss of
solvent. But, if you use the transport phenomena approach, we consider the rate of mass
transfer which is your diffusion which is depends on the concentration gradient between let
us say the surface of the liquid and the top of the tube. Because, of this we can determine the
rate of loss of solvent and the concentration profile along the length of the tube as well.
So, transport phenomena approach considers the rate of mass transfer, in this case is because
of diffusion. Diffusion is because of concentration gradient because, of that we can find out
or predict what is the rate of loss of solvent. What does it mean? Suppose, if you leave this
tube for let us say a day or two how much would the solvent would have been evaporated.
And of course, going to be very less quantity, but still you can find out what is the rate of loss
of solvent. And of course, you can find out what is the concentration profile of solvent vapour
along the length of the tube.
Another household and then mouth-watering example would be let us say have raw gulab
jamoon and then putting in sugar syrup, equilibrium sugar concentration can be predicted
from thermodynamics. But, if you are very eager to take the gulab jamoon, the transport
phenomenon will tell you how long you have to wait. And, still more interested you can
predict the concentration profile of sugar inside the gulab jamoon. So, that is the scope of
transport phenomena, in terms of rate and then the concentration profile.
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Another example from mass transfer model with chemical engineering application of
absorption. Suppose, if you have a stream of air and ammonia and you want to observe
ammonia using water, for the thermodynamic approach we use Henry’s law. And, then based
on that you will find out what is equilibrium concentration of the gas and liquid phases. You
are given the let us say the inlet concentration of liquid, you are given the inlet concentration
of gas. And, based on Henry’s law, based on mass balance you can find out what is the
equilibrium concentration of streams leaving; that is a concentration which they were given
infinite time and they would attain.
So, rate of mass transfer is not considered, that does not consider the height of the column,
the direction of flow something similar to heat exchanger. Now, if you use the transport
phenomena approach, you consider the rate of mass transfer; that rate of mass transfer
depends on the difference between actual concentration and the equilibrium concentration,
that determines the rate of mass transfer between the two phases. Moment you take this rate
into account you can find out what is the height of column required to achieve a desired
percentage removal. Let us say you want a 90 percent of removal then what is the height of
column packed column required.
And, you can also find out the actual concentration of ammonia and the gas and liquid phase,
just like heat exchanger we can find out is a co-current mode or counter current mode better.
So, something analogous to our heat exchanger there we had area, length of pipe; here we had
height of column. There we had accelerated temperature profile, here you have concentration
profile. Once again there we can analyze the relative direction of motion of fluids, here again
we can do that.
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Another example, very practical example related to wastewater treatment, suppose if you
have a colored water and then we want to remove color from that using an absorbent like
activated carbon. So, what can thermodynamics tell us? Thermodynamics can tell us what is
the maximum concentration in the solid phase, if you allow it to equilibrium which means
very long time the solid phase and the liquid phase this is in equilibrium. You can find out
what is the maximum concentration in the solid phase.
Once again does not consider rate of mass transfer, how long it takes equilibrium is not in the
scope of thermodynamics. Come to a transport phenomena approach you consider the rate of
mass transfer. Now, mass transfer takes place from the bulk liquid, it has to reach the solid
surface and then from the surface to the interior of solids. These rate of mass transfer of these
two steps are considered and you can find out what is the time required to reach equilibrium.
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So, rate of mass transfer helps us to find out what is the time required to reach equilibrium.
Just one example from the reactor, suppose we carry out a reaction in a reactor at a given
temporary and pressure. What is shown as an example of a reactor where you have inflow
and then outflow and let us say we carry out a reaction in this. So, analyze this
thermodynamically and we can find out the maximum possible conversion as we have seen
earlier. If it is irreversible reaction, it is 100 percent and if it is reversible some limited
conversion possible.
Thermodynamics does not consider the kinetics of the reaction, it also does not consider the
time of contact between the reactants. What is the time available for the reaction in the
reactor, how long they spent time by the reactance and the reactor. All these are not
considered in arriving at the conversion. In fact, for thermodynamics there is no size at all,
We cannot draw even equipment based on thermodynamics. It is just a presentation by a box,
there is no size attached to our equipment.
Come to the transport phenomena approach, you calculate the actual conversion. How do you
calculate the actual conversion? First you take that kinetics of the reaction, include the rate
constant and etcetera. Also consider the volumetric flow rate of the reactants, consider the
volume of vessel or weight of a catalyst. And, also the what is the fluid flow pattern inside
the reactors also considered in arriving at the conversion. So, transport phenomena approach
arise with the actual conversion compared to the maximum value predicted from a
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thermodynamic approach. It considers the kinetics, flow rates, the volume and the contacting
pattern.
So, that brings us to the summary of the first part of introduction. We started experiments and
theory, looked at measurements which you would like to predict using a model which you
call a simulation. And, prediction of process variables either based on thermodynamic
approach or transport phenomena approach. Process calculation course just a subset of
thermodynamic approach. The thermodynamic approach tells us the limits of performance,
gives us minimum work required, equilibrium composition, maximum conversion.
Does not consider rate of transfer?, be it, heat transfer, mass transfer, momentum transfer and
length, area, volume, time are all not at the scope of thermodynamics; all those are not
considered. We saw transport phenomena deals with flow of fluids which is discussed under
momentum transfer. Flow of energy or heat which is discussed under heat transfer and flow
of species discussed under mass transfer. What is scope of transport phenomena approach?
Considers the rate of momentum, heat, mass transfer because, of that we can calculate the
dimensions namely length, area, volume, time is also brought into picture.
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Lecture – 03
Overview of Transport Phenomena
(Refer Side Time: 00:13)
So this is the second part of the course introduction. We have split the course introduction
into three parts and this is the second part which gives an Overview of Transport Phenomena.
What is an outline? Origin of the subject a transport phenomenon, what are the transport
phenomena as such and then three levels of studying transport phenomena.
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To know about the origin of the subject transport phenomena, we will have to little bit dig
into the history of chemical engineering, and to do that we should understand the term
Paradigm. Paradigm if you look at the definition of the word paradigm, it says a specific way
of viewing scientific reality is the way in which you look at a scientific reality.
Another way of defining is the mindset of a scientific community. To quote an example let us
say from physics, first we had classical mechanics then we had quantum mechanics. So, with
the advent of quantum mechanics the whole mindset of physics changed in which you will
get physical theories changed which means that the big paradigm change or paradigm shift
has happened; then let us say with respect to physics. Let us see what happens with respect to
chemical engineering.
To begin with, there is no paradigm in chemical engineering, chemical processes were

studied within the context of various industries. So, each industry was studied separately. Let
say we have industries for manufacture of soap, dyestuffs, sugar, sulphuric acid plant. Your
plan for say manufacturing sulphuric acid was studied separately. Let us say another plan for
the manufacture of sodium hydroxide that was studied separately.
So, these every plant was studied separately and without the mindset of a unifying principle
and that is why we say there is no paradigm. We said paradigm something can mindset of
unifying and to begin with there was no unifying mindset we said there was no paradigm, to
begin with chemical engineering. Now slowly with the maturity of the field arrived the first
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paradigm that was roughly in 1915, the first paradigm was the introduction of the concept of
unit operations.
So, what they realized was we need not study each industry separately, the unit operations
namely equipment for heat transfer, momentum transfer, mass transfer all same or similar
across industries. So, it is enough if you study the concept of unit operations and so then you
can apply to several industries. So, instead of studying industries, the focus came to unit
operations. So, no longer a study of how to manufacture a specific commodity was required,
if you understand the unit operation concept then you can apply to several processing plans.
The study of unit operations was became the focus, what is a necessity of this paradigm or
systemization; everything looks different. But you want to systemize all these chemical
industries into the concept of unit operations. So, the necessity for systemization was the
objective of the first paradigm.
What about the Second paradigm in chemical engineering? Chemical engineering still more
matured and that saw the emergence of second paradigm chemical engineering in late 1950.
What is that second paradigm? The main reason driver for that second paradigm is the
textbook on transport phenomena by Birds Stewart and Lightfoot in 1960 that was the main
drive. So, processes in any unit operations were the same in terms of momentum, energy and
mass transport. So now, instead of looking at several unit operations what realization came
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was that the principles or processes, which takes place in any unit operation are the same
namely momentum, energy and mass transport. So, the study shifted from unit operations to
these fundamental processes, so that once you study these processes; you can study any unit
operation and hence study any plant as well.
So, what was the objective of this paradigm, what is a need? the need for a deep scientific
knowledge of the phenomena. First paradigm need was systemization; now the need was for
a deep and scientific knowledge of the phenomena. To begin with those more of chemical
technology slowly became chemical engineering and then it became more of chemical
engineering science. Then we extended chemical engineering to fundamental science which
means we linked it closely to physics, mechanics, thermodynamics and mathematics that was
the big change that was brought in by second paradigm some.
An engineering subject was linked to science and so we extended chemical engineering to

fundamental sciences namely of physics, mechanics, thermodynamics and mathematics. This
we call as the first principles approach. What do we do in a first principle approach? We
analyse problems in terms of fundamental chemical and physical sciences; write down
conservation equations to describe the phenomena, that is what we did to began with we had
a small tank we wrote a mass balance. So, we write conservation equations to describe the
phenomena and solve the equations.
So, that is the first principles approach which is analysing terms of physical principles and
writing conservation equations and solving them. So, if you want to summarize this
paradigms in chemical engineering, the first and second paradigm alone. To begin with it
were technologies, technologies were split into unit operations; unit operations were split into
transport processes. So, if you go from the reverse direction; if you understand transport
processes, you can understand unit operations. If you can understand unit operations, you can
understand technologies.
What is the advantage of studying let us say technology verses unit operations? Technologies
can be infinite based on every chemical there can be a technology. But when you come to
unit operations much more limited unit operations are there you can apply to vast number of
technologies, still if you breakdown transport process very limited transport processes but
with that you can explain lot of unit operations and extend to technologies that is advantage.
So, technology has many possibilities; transport process are physical principles are very few
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with that you can remember, we said the need for modelling is that you study very few
principles update for a wide range of processes exactly that is objective here.
So, what are the transport phenomena? We the first part; we just had a slight saying that
transport phenomena includes fluid mechanics, heat transfer, mass transfer. We will little bit
elaborate on that here. Subject of transport phenomena includes three closely related topics
Fluid mechanics it is deals with transport of momentum, Heat transfer transport of energy,
Mass transfer it deals with transport of mass of various chemical species.
Now question arises; why the three transport phenomena should be studied together, why do
we always a beneficial to study these transport phenomena together. Several reasons are
there. First we said we have split the unit operations into transport processes, in many of the
unit operations multiple transport phenomena happen together. Let us say you have a
momentum transfer and heat transfer taking place you have transport of heat and species
taking place. So, many at a times; it is not just one transport phenomena which happens,
multiple transport happens and that is why it is advantageous to study them together.
Second reason the basic equations which govern this transport phenomena are very closely
related, this of course you will see as we go along the course. And not all the equations, the
mathematical tools to required to solve them are also very similar and at the fundamental
level the molecular mechanisms are very closely related. That we would say more
fundamental reason to study all the three transport phenomena together, the molecular
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mechanism which cause the transport of momentum, energy and mass all close very closely
related that is also a reason why these transport phenomena should be studied together.
Now, what are the three level a hierarchy of studying transport phenomena? Now describe
the transfer transport of momentum, energy and mass. Please note that whenever we say mass
it means mass of species here. So, we can do at three different levels. First is a Macroscopic
level and a Microscopic level and then of course a Molecular level. This use of words macro,
micro or molecular depends on the book that is being followed, we will use the nomenclature
based on our books which are going to follow. So, the meaning of macroscopic microscopic
and molecular that depends on the book which you follow and then we will rest it to a
particular scope.
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What is this macroscopic level of transport phenomena? We write a macroscopic balances
over an entire equipment. what is shown in the above slide diagram is a equipment wherein
you have some inflow where you have some outflow and then there is some heat added and
then some work added. Now when you analyse this process at the macroscopic level you
write a balance equation which means a conservation equation and that is written over the
entire equipment. So, macroscopic balances are written over entire equipment which are
called as integral balance equations. What do they account for? They account for change due
to introduction and removal through the entering and leaving streams.
So, it accounts for whatever entering through this stream leaving through this stream, what is
entering? It could be momentum, it could be energy, it could be mass of species or total mass
and then what else does it account for various other inputs to the control volume from the
surrounding. So, we have example for as examples we have heat here we have work here. So,
integral balance accounts for whatever is entering through the inlet, outlet streams and
whatever interaction of the surroundings. Attention is not focused on the details like velocity,
temperature, concentration profiles, remember when we discussed about difference between
thermodynamic transport phenomena approach.
We said transport phenomena approach can give us velocity profiles in a pipe temperature
profile in a furnace wall and then the concentration profiles etcetera. Integral approach the
macroscopic level description integral balance does not pay attention or we do not focus on
this velocity profiles, we just write overall balance and account for whatever is crossing
through the inlet, outlet streams and whatever interaction with the surroundings.
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Usually we start with the macroscopic description which is much simpler, most of the time
we result in either a algebraic equation or if it is transient we result in or in differential
equation.
Let us look at the microscopic level; microscopic balances are written over a small region in
equipment which we call as a differential balances and that is what is shown in the above
slide. What is shown is taking a small region here and that is shown magnified here and you
write a balance here what is entering leaving etcetera. Earlier case we took an entire
equipment we wrote the balances over the entire equipment, here we take a small volume
inside the equipment. So, macroscopic balances are written over a small region in equipment
is called differential balances.
Now we describe changes in a small region; very small region and in this approach we get
information about velocity profile, temperature profile of course pressure profiles,
concentration profiles within the equipment. So, whenever we are interested in getting this
profiles, we need to write a microscopic balance or differential balances and then we will be
able to get these velocity profile which is much more detailed than just doing integral balance
equation. So, detail information required for better understanding of the process, obviously
when you get the velocity profiles concentration profiles we are understanding the processes
much better and microscopic balance as helps in that way.
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Of course, the equations are much more difficult to solve mostly result in partial differential
equations. The molecular level which is not within the scope of the present course, but just to
introduce that; here we look at the molecular level what happens between molecules and we
tried to understand the mechanism of transport phenomena in terms of molecular structure
intermolecular forces, we describe molecular motion in terms of velocities momentum
etcetera.
So, for example, here we apply conservation laws for the collision between molecules. Of
course, this goes text transport phenomena to the molecular level, this is not within the scope
of this present course.
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So, three levels of studying transport phenomena is associated with three length scales, when
we say length scale to give a quick description length scale means a length of the region over
which we are writing in the balance equation to quick understanding. For example, the first
approach it is a macroscopic approach where we wrote balance over the entire equipment, so
which may be few centimetres to meters. So, that is what we mean by length scale order of
magnitude roughly what is a size of the equipment over which you write a balance equation,
why meters? you may write a integral balance over a tall distillation column also over heat
exchanger which are few meters long.
The microscopic balance as we have said we take a small region inside the equipment and we
write a balance equation, so that size may be few microns to centimetres. So, we start
describing at a local level and what is happening locally, so the size of the domain over which
we want to describe is order of micron to centimetres. That is why we are able to describe
what is happening inside the equipment.
Of course molecular scale goes down up to 100 or 1000 of nanometre scale, once again
which is not within the scope of this level; so these molecular mechanism is between
molecules. Obviously, the size length scale is of order of nanometres.
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To summarize this second part of the introduction, we saw transport phenomena which
emerges the second paradigm in chemical engineering and it involves three closely related
topics namely momentum, energy and mass transport; they are all related. And there are three
levels of description namely molecular level, micro level and macro levels of description and
we are going to focus only on the microscopic and macroscopic levels of description in this
course.
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Lecture – 04
Scope of Course
So, let us move on to the third part of the introduction where we are going to look at the
Scope of the Course, what exactly we are going to discuss in this course. First, so far we have
been discussing about thermodynamic approach transport phenomena approach, the title of
the course is Continuum Mechanics and Transport Phenomena. So, we need to justify why
we study continuum mechanics and transport phenomena that is what; we will answer to
begin with. What are the course objectives and learning outcomes and then the course
overview and of course the textbooks.
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So, why Continuum mechanics and transport phenomena? To answer that question, first we
should split that title in the two namely continuum mechanics and transport phenomena. So,
to answer the question what is continuum mechanics? To answer that we should first know
what is continuum. we will discuss in detail about continuum hypothesis, but for today’s
lecture let us give a small introduction about continuum hypothesis or what does continuum
mean. Just in one line we know matter, beat, gas, liquid, solid are made up of molecules.
So, if you zoom in and analyze we will have to analyze in terms of molecular behaviour, but
in continuum hypothesis when we mean continuum we ignore all the molecular structure. We
say that matter occupies continuously all the space if you give molecular picture there are
void spaces, but if you give a continuum picture you have gas, liquid, solid occupying
continuously. So, assume matter, beat, gas, liquid or solid as continuous, though at the
molecular scale they are not continuous ignoring all the molecular detail that is what we
mean by continuum.
Now, what do we mean by mechanics? We want to formally define mechanics; it is the study
of external effects, for example forces on a physical object. Now, what is that physical
object? It could be a solid in which case become solid mechanics, how does a solid respond
to an external force solid mechanics and when we say solid we consider solids whose volume
changes, not a extremely rigid solid which does not change at all that is not the scope of solid
mechanics. And of course, if the object is a fluid then it becomes fluid mechanics.
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So, mechanics deals with study of external forces and how do they respond, it could be as
object, it could be a solid which gets a solid mechanics, it could be a fluid which gets a fluid
mechanics. Now, mathematical equations that describe the physical laws or common to both
the subjects, if you look at the equations which govern the mechanics of solids and mechanics
of fluids those equations are almost similar and that is why we study the subject of continuum
mechanics.
So, what are these physical laws we will mention shortly, study of solid and fluid mechanics
through a unified approach. Why do we do that? As I told you the equations are similar. So, it
is advantageous if you study solid and fluid mechanics parallelly, you can know the link
between them and that is why we study solid and fluid mechanics through unified approach
and that is why we say as continuum mechanics. The scope of continuum mechanics extends
from solids to liquids to gases mean all are encompassing subject is continuum mechanics
and mention about physical laws. What are the physical laws? The conservation equations
formulated based on the laws of physics, namely laws of conservation of mass, a momentum
and energy.
Usually we talked about conservation of momentum and then energy and then species mass.
The scope of continuum mechanics this mass refers to the total mass; so here we have
conservation of laws; conservation of total mass, momentum and energy. To summarize
continuum mechanics the scope of continuum mechanics, it involves the study of external
effects forces on solids and fluids, equations are similar and that is why we study them
together and the conservation laws are related to the conservation of mass, momentum and
energy.
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Now, why continuum mechanics and transport phenomena? To answer that question let us
look at the scope of continuum mechanics as way just now listed. Study of solids and fluid
mechanics through unified approach and conservation of equations formulate on the laws of
physics namely conservation of mass, momentum and energy. Let us also list down what we
have mentioned in the scope of transport phenomena, we said subject of transport phenomena
includes three closely related topics, fluid mechanics deals with transport of momentum, heat
transfer transport of energy, mass transfer transport of mass of species.
So, this course going to combine both of this study of continuum mechanics and transport
phenomena why do we do that? First main objective is that we have laws of physics which is
what we discussed in our continuum mechanics course. We have the conservation equations
which is usually discussed in a transport phenomena course which applied in chemical
engineering. We like to bring a close link between the laws of physics and the conservation
equations of mass, momentum, energy and species mass using in chemical engineering.
This link is brought out more clearly when we discussed continuum mechanics and transport
phenomena together. The conservation equations play a major role in chemical engineering,
the close link between the laws of physics and the conservation equations of the mass is what
is brought out in this course. We said, transport phenomena emerged as a second paradigm
and one objective of this second paradigm was extending this chemical engineering to
chemical engineering science and that is also reflected when you combine the continuum
mechanics and transport phenomena approach.
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Introduces this transport phenomena as an extension of science, when we say science of
course, we mean by we meant subject of physics here rather than a separate engineering
subject, that is one objective of introducing or discussing continuum mechanics and transport
phenomena together. The extension of physics to transport phenomena is clearly brought out
when we discuss continuum mechanics and transport phenomena, otherwise transport
phenomena stands a separate engineering subject. This also justifies that transport phenomena
emerged as a second paradigm.
Also this approach introduces transport phenomena to be continued in other detailed separate
courses, the entire scope of transport phenomena cannot be covered in one single course. But
this combine approach introduces, so that we can continue this in other separate courses. So,
those course of course, is a fluid mechanics a heat transfer and mass transfer.
So, what are the course objectives? The first objective is to understand the fundamental
phenomena governing chemical engineering processes. That is we said the need for second
paradigm is that to have a better understanding and that is objective of this course also. If you
understand the fundamental phenomena you can extend to unit operations than to the whole
process plant as well.
So, the course objective is to understand the fundamental phenomena governing chemical
engineering processes, the fundamental phenomena are few, but you can apply for a wide
range of processes. Second major objective as we discussed sometime back is to relate the
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laws of physics to chemical engineering through transport phenomena. We have the laws of
physics on one side, we have the conservation equations use in chemical engineering in one
side, which forms under the topic of transport phenomena we like to relate these two. If you
want to understand thoroughly we like to know the origin of the conservation equations from
the laws of physics.
So, we will spend a lot of time on derivation of the conservation equations and the derivation
of the conservation equations follows a general method for all the conservation equations. So,
we keep in mind the derivation procedure is same across all conservation equations. Of
course, ones we derive we wish to see the application of the conservation equations, where do
we apply to predict we can called as simulate fluid flow, energy flow, mass flow behaviour of
equipment’s that is where we began with remember of first slide.
We said we want to predict and this after deriving the conservation equations we will apply
them and use it to predict or simulate fluid flow, energy flow, mass flow behaviour of
equipment’s. Since this course combines continuum mechanics and transport phenomena
another objective is to relate fluid and solid mechanics, which is something unique I would
say to this particular course where we tried to relate fluid and solid mechanics.
So, what are the learning outcomes, what is that you can expect at the end of this course, you
will be in a position to derive the a conservation equations of mass, momentum energy,
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species mass from the laws of physics that was our objective also. So, the end of this course
you should be able to derive from the laws of physics the conservation equations.
Explain the conservation equations of inflow, outflow it is a balance equation. So, you will be
in a position to explain the physical significance of the different terms in the conservation
equations. The conservation equations are as such really involved equations. So, you will be
in a position to simplify them and apply the conservation equations to solve chemical and
allied engineering problems as well.
For example calculation of force, heat work based on integral balance equations, calculation
of profiles of velocity, temperature, concentration based on differential balance equations. Of
course, you will be able to relate solid and fluid mechanics as well. We said the topics of
transport phenomena are closely related, so you will be able to recognize the analogy
between momentum, heat and mass transport as well. In terms of physics, in terms of
equations, in terms of applications also this will be brought out as we go along the course.
At the end of this course you will also be prepared to take up the next level courses on fluid
mechanics, heat transfer and mass transfer. As we discussed, this introductory course sets a
stage for you, so that whatever left out at this course can be completed in separate courses on
fluid mechanics heat transfer and mass transfer.
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That is the course overview; this is what we will be covering exactly in this course over next
several lectures, the continuum mechanics and transport phenomena, The course can be split
into two parts namely continuum mechanics and a transport phenomenon. Continuum
mechanics as we have seen just now has two parts in it; is the solid mechanics part and the
fluid mechanics part. Transport phenomena has three parts in it which I have said several
times momentum transport, energy transport and mass transport.
Let us see how do we go about, what is a sequence we follow. We start with fundamental
concepts. Among the several fundamental concepts these concepts or usually discussed in
different book, but those concepts are common for fluid mechanics, energy transport, mass
transport as well. Among the different fundamental concepts what we discussed mainly is the
difference between in system and control volume. System has a same scope as you would
have come across thermodynamics.
Control volume as we have seen some examples the entire equipment, a small control only
with an equipment, what the distinction between the system and control volume. Why do we
do that? The laws of physics, we said that we are going to relate laws of physics to
conservation equations. The laws of physics are for a system; conservation equations are for
control volume. So, we need a theorem we need a mathematical tool to go from one to the
other and that is what we discussed in the Reynolds transport theorem.
So, fundamental concepts involves distinction between system and control volume and the
Reynolds transport theorem which takes us from the laws of physics for system to the
conservation equations of control volume. Now, we start deriving the conservation equations
from then on words, conservation for total mass and then the linear momentum, energy
balance and species mass balance. We start with the total mass balance under each of this
balances we first derive the integral balance and then a differential balance.
So, we take the total mass balance, first derive the integral mass balance and then derive the
differential mass balance. As we have seen some time back integral balances as a entire
equipment, differential balance inside the equipment as of now let us keep it simple like that.
And then we move on to the linear momentum balance, I should mention that this Reynolds
transport theorem is what will be used to derive the balance equations; to derive the balance
equations for total mass, linear momentum, energy balance and species mass balance as well.
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Now, move on to linear momentum balance first derived the integral balance, by doing a
linear momentum balance for the entire equipment. Then move on to differential balance we
do not derive the complete differential balance in one stretch it goes through several phases.
We discuss about total stress, strain rate and Newton’s law of viscosity, but to understand this
terminologies these physical concepts, it becomes easier for us to go to solid mechanics and
discuss these terms.
So, what we do is shuttle back and forth within fluid mechanics and solid mechanics three
times, we go to solid mechanics understand stress come back to fluid mechanics understand
total stress. Go back to solid mechanics understand strain, come back to fluid mechanics
understand strain rate, go back to solid mechanics understand hooks law, come back to fluid
mechanics understand Newton’s law of viscosity. This also is in the line of the object of the
course that to understand the close analogy between solid and fluid mechanics.
One objective is to easily understand in term is understand terms solid mechanics, second is
to know the close analogy between these two and finally derive what is called Navier stocks
equation, which will help us to solve for velocity profiles in fluid flow. Then we move on to
the second part of the course transport phenomena which as I said as three parts momentum,
energy and mass transport. Momentum transport also deals with fluid flow it has same scope
of fluid mechanics. So, we just look at the similarities or small differences between fluid
mechanics and momentum transport how they are analogous.
So, just in lecture we will discuss how momentum transport is similar to fluid mechanics.
Typical transport phenomena book discusses fluid flow under the heading of momentum
transport. We are discussing under the heading of fluid mechanics and just look the similarity
to momentum transport more on that when we come to that part of the course. Move on to
energy transport here again we derive the energy balance, first the integral balance and then
the differential balance, once again using the Reynolds transport theorem. And we also look
at the Fourier’s law of heat conduction and the differential balance will be used to solve a
temperature profiles.
Move on to mass transport which means species mass transport. So, derive the species mass
balance equation ones again integral balance and the differential balance and discuss the
Fick’s law of diffusion and the differential balance will be useful for deriving concentrative
profiles. Now, under each of this conservation equations we look at applications for integral
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balance equations and the differential balance equations, once we discuss integral balance
equations we will look at some applications.
Once we derive differential balance with total mass balance we look at applications of
differential balance equations. Likewise throughout the course we have lot of examples to
illustrate the applications of the equations which we have derived both for integral balance
and the differential balance. At the very end of the course we discuss another method of
deriving the conservation equations which is called the Shell balance method. Shell balance
method is just a subset of what we have discussed; what we have discussed earlier using shell
balance method, we can also derive the same differential equation the subset of the
differential equations.
So, we look at application of shell balance to derive differential equations for few examples
across fluid flow, energy flow and mass flow or species mass flow. One main focus would be
on curvilinear coordinates meaning cylindrical and spherical coordinates, throughout the
course to pay attention on the concepts and not to focus on complexity we will focus only on
Cartesian coordinates only at the very last part of the course, we will take some examples of
curvilinear coordinate systems namely like pipe flow etcetera.
Usually transport phenomena start in the six semester or so. So, how does this continuum
mechanics and transport phenomena course differ from a transport phenomena course in a
higher semester? This will be useful if you want to take part in this course and if you are still
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in a higher semester. In terms of concepts, the concepts are same we discuss about transport
of momentum, energy and mass in both the courses of course, that cannot be different.
In terms of view point there is the difference you said one of the objective is to link laws of
physics to the conservation equations. So, this more of a course which closely links science
which we mean physics and transport phenomena that is being emphasized. So, you have a
feel that you are slowly graduating from your second semester to the third or fourth semester
extending the concepts learnt in physics to chemical engineering. Transport phenomena
course higher semester most more oriented towards engineering more in towards application.
In terms of approach or the scope of the course this particular course has introductory scope.
So, we introduce the transport of momentum energy and mass, so that you continue in
separate course as a later on. But a transport phenomenon course in the higher semester is
looked upon as a unification of concepts learnt in the earlier courses on fluid mechanics heat
transfer and mass transfer. So, a introductory course that is a unifying course.
Terms of application of course, we are going to look at very simple applications, as I told you
we will hardly look at any cylindrical geometry spherical geometries, we will not look at
convective transport between interfaces. Applications in a six semester course or little more
advanced, terms of solution methodology, we solve all the problems starting from the general
conservation equations. Having derived the conservation equations we start from that,
simplify that and apply solve the problems.
Usually in a transport phenomena course a shell balance approach which we mentioned some
time back, which we will discuss towards end of the course; will be used to solve the
problems and to provide the link between these approaches only we discuss the shell balance
towards the end of the course.
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Before listing the textbooks I like to mention the idea of this course introduction to get a
wage idea of what is going to come fourth not to give a very clear picture. Some of the
terminologies, concepts, topics which I would have mentioned may not be very clear to you.
Many of the introduction is for a transport phenomena course. Some of the concepts will
become clear or many of the concepts will become clear as we go along the course and a full
introduction will become clear after a taking the next level of courses in fluid mechanics, heat
and mass transfer.
So, coming to the textbooks for this course for fluid mechanics there are several very good
books, the book which we will follow is one by Cengel and Cimbala it is a very good books
in terms of explanation and in terms of very colourful pictures. In terms of which improves
understanding and fox and McDonalds classic book in it is 9th edition now, a very good
organisation lot of problems really lot of problems both examples and exercises and we are
also going to use many of them in this course.
Once again for solid mechanics lot number of books are there very latest books are there, but
we are going to follow two old books I would say one is by W. D means. I would strongly
recommend to read this book. If you want to gain fundamental understanding about stress and
strain those are little bit difficult concepts to understand.
This books puts them in terms of a separate in a separate chapters small chapters about 26
chapters are there it is like a story book, size also designed that way. So, gives a very loose it
introduction to stress and strain, of course for geologist small change in sign convention will
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be there. But otherwise a very well written book slowly takes you through stress and strain
without getting stressed.Other book Parnes as I told you so many books are there, solid
mechanics which fitted the scope of this course where in I use examples from that book as
well, in by Raymond Parnes.
Coming to transport phenomena there is no second though it is the book by Bird Stewart and
Lightfoot. Now, there are several editions for this book we have the first edition, second
edition and then you also have introductory transport phenomena very recent book. The first
edition is much more easier to read compared to the second edition.
So, if you are lucky enough to get the first edition please read that, second edition will be
more involved but easily available as well. Introductory transport phenomena in terms of
topics are almost same, but being introductory the derivations of all the steps or the steps in a
particular derivation all shown in that book that is the difference problems, scope almost the
same at the other book, but he shows the every step in the derivation.
So, if you want to derive something you can easily look at it. Another book also I would saw
equally very good book is by Welty and other authors fundamentals of momentum heat and
mass transfer very student friendly book compared to the second edition of BSL I would say.
So, in terms of suggestions first it was Bird Stewart Lightfoot and then fundamentals of
momentum heat and mass transfer, very readable book and very well structured as well. With
that we come to the close of this introduction to this course and we will continue with our
lectures on the regular topics next lecture onwards.
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Lecture - 05
Continuum Hypothesis
We will start with course overview which was there the title of this course Continuum
Mechanics and Transport Phenomena. Of course, that splits into continuum mechanics part
and transfer phenomena part. In that we are going to start with the Fluid Mechanics part and
within that Fluid Mechanics, we are going to start with the fundamental concepts. That is
highlighted. Fundamental concepts has several topics in it.
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First we start with the Continuum Hypothesis where we discuss what we mean by the term
continuum, then we discuss two approaches for describing flow. One is following the fluid
flow and one is at a particular point and then, we discuss substantial derivative, a derivative
which is something special to continuum mechanics and transfer phenomena, a general
transfer phenomena.
Then we discuss how to visualize flow patterns and then, more importantly discuss what do
we mean by a system which is same as the system we come across in thermodynamics course
and then, control volume which is representing maybe a heat exchanger reactor etcetera.
Then the laws of physics are stated for the system and we need conservation equations for the
control volume. So, we need a theorem which takes us from system to the control volume and
that is the Reynolds Transport Theorem. So, we will discuss that at the end. So, these topics
will be covered over a few lectures.
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So, let us start with term Continuum Hypothesis. What you see here is beaker of water and if
you see it with the naked eye, you feel it is completely filled with water, but now if you keep
zooming in, zooming and magnifying it and then if you magnify to large extent, you will see
water molecules there and then there are void spaces. So, fluid appears as continuous to the
naked eye, but at the molecular level it is made of molecules.
Now there are empty spaces between the molecules as we have seen. Now we want to
quantify fluid properties on the microscopic length scale which is at the scale of the water in
the beaker and let us say a few millimeters or few micrometers in the volume in the beaker
and we are not going to quantify on the molecular length scale which is now scale of
nanometers, and which means that you are going to ignore all the molecular details and
assume fluid as a continuous medium. That is what we mean continuum hypothesis.
Though at the molecular level, it is made up of molecules, we are just going to ignore that
molecular picture and we are going to say everywhere without leaving any space, the space
occupied by liquid or gas whatever matter it is. That is what we mean continuum hypothesis.
Now what is the implication of this? All the fluid properties can be taken as continuous
functions of space. If you take the molecular picture, there will be discontinuities at these
locations. If you assume a continuum hypothesis, you can assume continuous variation of all
the fluid properties. That is the implication of continuum hypothesis.
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Now, what is a need to make continuum hypothesis? First of all we should know it is an
artificial model. Why it is an artificial model? The reality is actually consists of a lot of
molecules of water with void spaces.
We are making an approximation to that artificially as for convenience. So, what is the
convenience we are talking about? As we have seen we are not going to consider the motions
of individual molecules, forces acting on them, the velocity distributions etcetera. All those
are not going to be considered because we do not consider the molecular details the way in
which we discuss involves only fewer and fewer details, and we are going to summarize
represent behavior of billions of molecules in terms of few continuous functions. What are
those continuous functions? Density, pressure, velocity, temperature, concentration all these
are measurable by instruments, can measure pressure; can measure velocity, density,
temperature, concentration.
So, the molecular behavior of billions of molecules is represented by few continuous

functions. As we have seen continuous functions have values throughout the locations which
ignore molecular behavior and these continuous functions are measurable quantities namely
density, pressure, velocity, temperature and concentration. So, these continuous functions
indirectly represent the molecular behavior which to be exact we should represent in terms of
their velocities, momenta acting on them, forces acting on them etcetera,. Now, what is lost?
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What is that we have lost? We have lost the molecular behavior and that is not important for
engineering purposes.
We do not talk in terms of forces acting on individual molecules; we do not talk about the
molecular velocities. We just talk in terms of variables which we measure in our industry or
day to day activity, in terms of density, pressure, velocity, temperature, concentration. So,
whatever last is not important from our level of requirement or for our level of accuracy. So,
details of molecule arrangement and motion is lost, but not important for us.
To explain further about this continuum hypothesis what I have shown here is a small
volume, very small volume and where there are molecules inside the volume which I have
considered and now I am going to vary this volume from very small volume to very large
volume and find out the density within that small volume.
So, I plotted density on the y axis, and the volume which are considering on the x axis. Now
if I take very small volume, the number of molecules within that volume is going to be very
less let us say a few molecules, 5 molecules, 10 molecules. So now every time you make a
measurement, there is going to be huge fluctuation in density. That is what this region shows
sometimes mega density, here sometime as a density here. Taking a small volume there are a
number of molecules are going to be present in that region are going to fluctuate, a lot and
number of molecules is going to determine the mass and then has a density and then this is
going to fluctuate a lot. Now let us say the measurement volume increase. Now more number
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of molecules are present in that volume let us say a few hundreds. Now the fluctuation, the
density is slightly smaller compared to the earlier smaller volume, number of molecules on
average maybe varying let us say from 90 to 110. Instead of varying from 1 to 10, it may vary
from 90 to 100. The variation is going to be less, that is why the density which you measure
or calculate is going to vary over smaller range compared to this larger range.
Now let us say if you keep increasing the volume, the fluctuation, the density decreases
almost become without any fluctuation. So, this volume let us say something kind of optimal
volume. So, what we have seen is as you increase the volume which are going to sample, the
fluctuation in the density reduces and becomes almost without any fluctuation. Now let us see
what happens if you keep increasing the volume further.
Now, let us say if you increase the volume what happens, the volume occupied by this region
is going to span over a larger region and then you are going to lose out on this spatial
variation. What does it mean? let us say in this particular room you have some temperature
variation, velocity variation. Our ultimate objective is to capture the variation spatially also.
So, let us say near the air condition the temperature is low. Somewhere near the door it is
slightly warmer and there is temperature distribution and velocity distribution as well.
Suppose if your volume keeps increasing and increasing, you lose out on this spatial
variation. So, you cannot capture the spatial variation. So, at one end you have discontinuous
and fluctuating nature which we call as molecular uncertainty. So, that is also not preferred.
On the other side if the volume is extremely large, you lose out on the spatial variation which
was a larger volume, of course there won't be any fluctuation, but you won't be able to
describe the density across different spatial points or velocity or temperature. So, we do not
want very low sampling volume and then we do not want very large volume also, both are
disadvantageous to us. One is termed as molecular uncertainty; other is called the
macroscopic uncertainty. Why is it? Because the volume over which was sampling is large
and we will not be able to describe the spatial variation. That is why I said some optimal
volume which we do not hear as δ v * which is not too small, which is not too large as well.
Now, what is this volume? how do you get an idea of this volume? Based on measurements
and simulation, it has been found that. If you have 106 molecules, remember we said few
molecules, 10s of molecules, 100s of molecules, 1000s of molecules if in your space that are

106 molecules, then you get a stable measurement without any fluctuation.
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Now let us see what is the volume that would contain roughly 106 molecules if you use ideal
gas law and then at standard conditions of temperature and pressure and then use Avogadro’s
number of molecules. For the case of air if you take an extremely small volume of 10-9
millimeter cube extremely small volume, you have 106, 107 molecules of air. So, very small
volume contains our desired number of molecules. How what is the other way of looking at
it?
Suppose if you take a cube of 0.1x0.1x0.1, what does it mean? You let us say a centimeter
and then one-tenth of that there is a millimeter, one-tenth of that and you imagine a cube of
point each of point one side. So, let us see our usual measurement instruments that we easily
occupied that volume. You know it is a very small instrument. It will occupy certainly even
more than that. Even the most very sharp instrument will occupy by 0.1x0.1x0.1.
What is a number of molecules present in very small region? 2.5x1013 molecules for air
which are far away from the required 106 molecule. So, even the measurements which are
making practically occupies a volume where it is representative of much more than 106
molecules.
So, what I discussed here is the variation of density with sample volume and we do not want
molecular uncertainty, we do not want macroscopic uncertainty, we want a small volume
which is not very small, which is not very large, has enough number of molecules, so that
there are no fluctuations. At the same time we will be able to capture the spatial variation
also.
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How do you quantify this range of validity of the continuum hypothesis? So far we have been
discussing qualitatively, now we want to put some numbers and quantify this is a region over
which continuum hypothesis is valid, over which I can apply my equations and this region
where I cannot apply the equations. So, this whole course we are going to assume continuum
hypothesis. So, you should know this region over which the equations which we are going to
make in this course are going to be valid. Now such a number is called the Knudsen number
which is defined as the mean free path divided by the characteristic length.
mean f ree path

K nudsen number = characteristic length
What is this? Mean free path is the average distance travelled by the molecules between
successive collisions. The molecules are in constant collision and what is the average distance
which they travel between two successive collisions,. That is a mean free path. What is a
characteristic length? Characteristic length is just length roughly the length of the dimension
of the pipe or region over which we have our flow is being considered. For example, if you
have a flow through a pipe, the diameter of the pipe can be a characteristic length.
So, Knudsen number is defined as the mean free path divided by the characteristic length.
The Knudsen number should be much smaller than one and the limit given is 0.01. So, all of
our equations are the scope of this course is for Knudsen number less than 0.01. The
equation, which we derive in this course may not be valid when Knudsen number crosses the
limit order of 0.01.
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Now, let us take an example to get an idea of this. If you consider air atmospheric pressure,
the mean free path 68 nanometers that can be calculated. Now let us take this air flowing
through let us say pipe of characteristic length of different dimensions shown in the slide. Let
us say if it goes through a pipe of 100 millimeter diameter, then Knudsen number is
extremely small, much smaller than 0.01. Now, keep reducing the size of the pipe, let us say
air goes through a 10 millimeter pipe. Still your Knudsen number is small, then 1 millimeter
pipe the Knudsen number of small 10 microns, it is still smaller than 0.01, but now if this air
flows through a pipe of 1 micron diameter, the Knudsen number crosses the limit of 0.01.
Now the continuum hypothesis may not be applicable over this range or beyond this. If you
go smaller and smaller sizes than this, then continuum hypothesis breaks down. So, our scope
of the whole course plays let us say lies within this region quantified by Knudsen number less
than 0.01.
Now, let us take some examples to get an idea where continuum hypothesis is valid and
where it is not valid, ok. Flow of air through a pipe and heat exchanger maybe let us say a
few centimeters to few inches. So, our Knudsen number is going to be much smaller. So, it is
going to be certainly valid. Now let us say flow of air through a microscopic device maybe
because we are almost on the verge so may or may not be valid to be safer side.
It may not be valid if you want approximate, you can take continuum hypothesis to be valid.
Suppose this air flows through a nanometric device, then continuum hypothesis will not be
valid. Your Knudsen number will cross the limit of 0.01 and you cannot apply the equations
which are going to derive in this particular course.
Let us take another example of membrane separation. The membrane separation, the size of
the membranes are going to be let us say the order of nanometer range once again you cannot
apply the continuum hypothesis for this case. All these cases what we have discussed so far
the flow through nano device, the membrane separation etcetera. the Knudsen number was
large because of the smaller characteristic length. The nano device has characteristic length of
order of nanometers. Similarly for the membrane process, the pores are the order of
nanometers.
So, the Knudsen number became larger because of the very small value of the characteristic
length. Let us take another case where the Knudsen number is large because of the large
mean free path. That is what happens if you consider rarefied gases. What do we mean by
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rarefied gases, gases at extremely low pressure. So, you have very few molecules per unit
volume.
So, they travel a large distance between successive collisions. So, even though your space
may be larger, but your mean free path is extremely large making the Knudsen number
having a larger value, then thus causing breakdown of continuum hypothesis. So, the
continuum hypothesis can break down either because of a very small characteristic length
which is usual case. Certain examples exist where the continuum hypothesis breakdown
because of the larger mean free path and that tells us the scope of the equations we are going
to discuss in the whole of transfer phenomena course. Remember in the introduction, we said
the three length scales are involved in a transfer phenomena discussion. One is the
macroscopic which was are of equipment size. One is macroscopic which is inside the
equipment; one is the molecular length scale. So, these all revolve around the molecular
length scale and that is not within the scope of this particular course.
So, we have quantified this continuum hypothesis in terms of a Knudsen number and that is
what we have done in this particular slide.
What is the mathematical advantage or mathematical implication of continuum hypothesis,

ok? The calculus which you have learnt in your mathematics course, itself can be used only if
you assume continuum hypothesis. You cannot even use calculus if continuum hypothesis is
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not valid. So, even for your calculus to be used you require continuum hypothesis. What does
it mean?
d
The rate of change, dx , integration all those are defined only if you assume continuum
hypothesis. Let us see how is it? I think all of us are familiar with this definition of the
derivative
df
dx
= [ f |x+Δx −f |x
Δx ]
df/dx is equal to, you take two spatial locations which are separated by a small distance x
and x + Δx . Take that function value at x + Δx , take the function value at x and then divide
Δx , take the limit Δx→ 0. That is how we define the differential of a function.
Now what is to be paid attention is the limit Δx→ 0. We are saying Δx→ 0 which means
that this function should be describable at every spatial location, that is what we defined as
the continuum hypothesis. If you are not assuming the continuum hypothesis, there will be
some spaces and you cannot take Δx→ 0. The fact that we are taking Δx→ 0 means that
that function is should be definable at every spatial location. That means, for example, let us
say f is density. I should be able to describe density at every spatial location. Only then you
can even define a differential. We are going to come across differential equations throughout
this course and the moment you see a differential that is meaningful only if you assume
continuum hypothesis that is the mathematical significance of assuming high.
So far we have seen the physical significance of the continuum hypothesis. What we have
seen is the mathematical significance, mathematical implication. We may take this limit very
frequently in this course, but you should remember that this limit assumes the continuum
hypothesis.
Now similarly the definition of integral let us take this example. Let us say I have a function
and then I want to find the integral of this function between two limits. Now this integral can
be represented by a summation. How do you do that?
[ ]
xm N
xm
∫ f (x) dx = ∑ f i (x) Δx ; Δx = N
0 i=1
You have to take the values of the function at different x and then multiply by the Δx , sum
over the number of increments and this integral is represented by the summation. When you
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have this Δx , the width of each segment tends to 0 or the number of elements which you
consider is very large which means that here also you say that this is valid when Δx→ 0
which means it continuum hypothesis to be valid.
So, both for defining integral we will come across integral expressions, when we discuss
integral balance equations and differential, when we discuss about differential balance
equation, when we write a macroscopic balance we will come across integrals, when we write
a microscopic balance we will come across differentials and we should know that these
differentials and the integrals are valid only in the limit of Δx→ 0 which requires the
assumption of the continuum hypothesis. And of course, all these implies that whatever
property when I say property density, velocity, etcetera, temperature all those should be
continuous functions.
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Lecture – 06
Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions – Part I
Now, move on to the next concept of explaining Two Approaches for describing Fluid Flow.
There are two approaches for describing fluid flow one is called the Lagrangian description
and other is Eulerian description. What we will do now is see what do we mean by
Lagrangian description and what we mean by Eulerian description.
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Now, before even discussing that we should know what do we mean by fluid particle, how do
we imagine in a fluid particle. If we refer books frequently refer a term called fluid particle,
fluid parcel. We will spend some time seeing how do we imagine a fluid particle how do we
visualize a fluid particle.
So, let us look at the definition first. Says that a fluid particle is a small deforming volume
carried by the flow that it has some characteristics. Let me list and then explain to you.
Always contains the same fluid molecules and then is large enough, so that its properties are
well defined and then it is small enough, so that it quickly adjust to changes.
Now, first characters always contain the same fluid molecules; how do you imagine. What is
shown here (above refer slide) is a flow and then the cross section of the flow keeps changing
along the flow direction. Now, to imagine a fluid particle you should imagine as if you dye a
small portion of the fluid with some colored dye, and then see what is happening to the dyed
fluid molecules. So, you are always keeping your attention on the molecules which are dyed
to begin with. So, always contains the same fluid molecules. So, in our case the dyed
molecules to begin with.
Now, it is large enough, so that it’s properties are well defined that is what we have seen
sometimes back. Our volume cannot be extremely small, cannot be extremely large, so our
volume should be small enough, but should contain enough number of molecules that is what
we mean here by is large enough so that is properties are well defined and should be small
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enough, so that the spatial variation is considered that is what it says here as, so that quickly
adjust to changes. So, this large and small or same as what we had discussed sometime back.
When I say well defined enough number of molecules in our case more than 106 molecules
and small enough, so that you consider. You cannot consider the particle which is so large,
you lose out on the spatial variation, you consider a small fluid particle though that you can
account for the variation within the flow direction in any other direction.
So, you can imagine this fluid particle as made up of large number of molecule fluid
molecules. So, then you can imagine fluid to be model as numerous set of small fluid
particles. Now, so initially we said a fluid molecules lot of fluid molecules put together form
a fluid particle or parcel, lot of fluid particles or parcels made makeup a fluid. So, that is the
hierarchy. Fluid molecules as enough number of fluid molecules make up a fluid particle or a
parcel and then you can imagine the fluid to be made up of numerous fluid particles. So, in
terms of imagination that is how we visualize.
Now, there is one small characteristic which I have not discussed that small deforming
volume. We have discussed what small volume is deforming volume. What do we mean by
deforming volume? And that is what shown here. This is the group of molecule which have
been initially dyed, and then as it flows through the channel the cross section reduces, and the
whatever happens to the flow also has happened to the fluid particle, it has got an elongated,
and then the height has decreased, the length has increased.
So, whatever has happened to the fluid also happens the fluid particle. The fluid particle
should mimic what is happening to the flow. if you put it to the other way, a fluid particle is
small deforming volume carried by the flow. Why deforms? When the fluid undergoes
deformation the fluid particle also undergoes deformation, it mimics what has happened to
the fluid flow.
Always contained the same fluid molecules, and large enough, so its properties are well
defined. Small enough, so that quickly adjust to changes, and fluid can be modelled as a
numerous set of small fluid particles.
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Now, what we will do is demonstrate this fluid particle. The example which are considered
here is the flow between two parallel plates and this example which we will come across
several times throughout this course. You have two plates, and the length and height between
the two plates and the width are shown in the slide. You have flow taking place between
these two plates in the right direction, and that is shown is here schematically (above refer
slide). Let us see the front view of that. These two lines represent the plates and this region
represents the region through which fluid flow takes place.
Now, if you measure the velocity or predict the velocity profile, after several lectures, several
classes we will get this velocity variation along this height for the moment we see that the
liquid clings to the upper surface and so its velocity 0. Similarly, it also clings to the lower
surface the velocity 0, and shows a maximum velocity in the center. So, this is the velocity
varies along the distance between the two plates.
Now, we will use this example to demonstrate what fluid particles are. Have a small
demonstration here; let us run it (see in the video). We said fluid particle is one where we dye
a enough number of molecules and keep tracking that, and that is what happens here. Let us
say I take a group of a large number of molecules, large enough number of molecules, color it
with red dye and keep tracking that fluid particle. and as I said, the fluid particle contains the
same set of molecules which have identified to begin with. Similar, I make and consider
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another fluid particle here dye with green color and keep tracking what is happening to that
fluid particle. Similarly, I have shown several fluid particles.
What is that I am trying to show here (see the video)? We are identifying a group of
molecules with some identification. For easy identification we can just color it by
imagination or color it in this way, and then the molecules are dyed are being followed over
the a region of interest and here we have seen several fluid particles, a color with different
dyes and then they always contain the same fluid molecules that is of importance and then we
are a tracking them.
Now, we said another characteristic of fluid particle is that which I have seen the earlier
figure is that whatever happens to the flow also happens the fluid particle. It should mimic
what is happened into the fluid flow. This demonstration show you that the example I chosen
here is the flow between two plates, but in this case the distance between the plate decreases,
which we call as a converging nozzle, the reason for choosing this example is that because of
the reduction in the area reduction in the height for the fluid flow, the velocity increases
along the length of the fluid flow direction. So, in the earlier case there are two parallel plates
and the distance was constant throughout.
In this case once again we have two plates, but in this case the distance between them
reduces, the area for flow over which a flow happens reduces in this direction, so there is
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increase in velocity along the flow direction. That is the reason we have chosen this particular
example. Once again this is the example will consider the later as well.
So, now, let us run this simulation (see the video to understand better). Let us see what
happens. What I have shown here is once again large number of molecules are being dyed
with red and then I am tracking that fluid particle along the length of this channel. Now, this
is what is seen earlier also. We identified a group of molecules and tracked them along the
region of interest. Now, if you observe this carefully, the locations of the particle shown here
are at constant times intervals, for the same time instant the distance traveled is larger as it
goes towards the end of the channel, along the length of the channel because of the increase
in velocity it travels larger distances for the same time interval.
Now, if you zoom this region alone (see in above referred slide), what we have shown you on
the right hand side is that just zoomed portion of this. Now, if you see, if you run this video
what you see here is that there is a change in the dimensions of the fluid particle, the length of
the particle keeps increasing as it travels along the channel, the height of the fluid particles
keeps decreasing as it travels along the length of the channel.
The increase in length is because of the increase in velocity along the channel direction and
correspondingly there is a decrease in height. So, this is what we meant by saying that fluid
particle, whatever happens to the flow also happens to the fluid particle. So, now, these two
simulations kind of summarizes in terms of video the sentences which are described earlier.
What is that we said? A fluid particle is a small deforming volume that is what we are seeing
here.
It is small so that we capture what is happening in the fluid domain. It has enough number of
molecules, there are no molecular uncertainties. And of course, small as we have seen, so that
we can consider many fluid particles and describe what is happening in the entire region and
then by considering several fluid particles, we can describe the entire fluid in terms of fluid
particles.
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Now, we can distinguish between the two approaches a fluid flow description namely the
Eulerian description and the Lagrangian description. And that is what we are going to do
now.
Now, what is shown here is a chimney (see in above referred slide), through which there is a
flow of flue gas. Now, our objective is to describe the temperature in this region. Our
objective is the same, the way in which we are going to do this in is in two different ways.
Our objective is to describe the temperature in this region somewhere near let us say top of a
chimney.
Now, how do we measure the temperature here? Two different ways. First one, I will take a
temperature sensor and then place at a particular location. Let us say because of flue gas the
temperature can fluctuate can vary as a function of time. So, at this particular location I
measure the temperature as a function of time. Likewise, I keep the temperature sensor let us
say thermocouple or simple thermometer amount be applicable for simple imagination
understanding can imagine a thermometer. Keep at different locations in this region and then
measure the temperature at different spatial locations. So, the position of the measurement is
fixed and then you are measuring the temperature as a function of spatial location and time as
well.
Now, the temperature is the dependent variable here, this is a variable of interest to us. Now,
what are the independent variables? The spatial locations x, y, z, and time are the independent
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variables. So, this method of measurement is called the Eulerian approach of measurement or
Eulerian description. You are describing the temperature in this region by making
measurements at one spatial location and of course, at different spatial locations to get the
entire temperature, entire region and that is called Eulerian description. We represent the
dependent variable temperature in terms of the spatial locations x, y, z and the time as well.
So, you should keep note, make note that the independent variables are the spatial location
and time.
Now, let us look at another method of describing the temperature here, in this region and that
is why we discussed about fluid particle. For this discussion the concept of a fluid particle is
not required, almost at least straight away it is not required and this is what you would
naturally do as well. If I asked you to measure the temperature in this region, you will ask me
for a sensor, you will keep at a particular location, you will measure, similarly you will place
a different locations and then measure the temperature and describe the temperature here.
Now, what is the alternative method? Which requires the imagination of a particle.
Let us consider a particle here and let us say the fluid particle based on whatever discussion
we had so far and that fluid particle passes through this region. Now, just imagine once again
that you attach the temperature probe to that particular particle. So, what happens as the
particle flows through this region it is measuring the temperature through the region of
interest as well.
So, in the second case we consider fluid particle and then we imagine a temperature sensor
attached to that. So, as the fluid particle flows through this region it measures the temperature
along the fluid particle.
Now, this method of describing the temperatures in this region is called the Lagrangian
description. Why is that? Because we are following the fluid particle and describing the
temperature for a fluid particle. In this particular case the fluid particle is denoted as capital
A. So, if I track this particular path I will get the temperature of particle A as a function of
time, TA(t). Suppose, if I want another particle let us say I have a particle B here, particle C
here, remember in the earlier case where different particles dyed a differently to different
colors. Similarly, you have particle A, particle B, and particle C. So, now, if you track all
these particles as a function of time then you will be able to describe the temperature in this
region.
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So, in the second case you track different fluid particles and they sense the temperature as
they travel along the path and you will be able to describe temperatures in this particular
region that is the Lagrangian description. Let us see how do we represent that. T, now, this is
for a particular particle called A. So, TA(t). Because we are following the fluid particle;
obviously, we will also get the position of the fluid particle as a function of time.
So, I call that as r vector and that r vector is for a particular particle A and as a function of
time, rA(t). So, we get two kinds of information. Number one, first the variable which are
interested to measure, that temperature as a function of time for that particular particle that is
why we say TA(t) and because we are following the particle; obviously, we get the position of
the particle as a function of time which I call as rA(t).
Now, what are the independent variables in this case? Dependent variable remember is still
temperature, additionally you get the position of the particle also. So, those two are the
dependent variables. What are the independent variables? For example, if I describe in terms
of A and time then the fluid particle A B C D, they are the independent variables and time.
Now, it is little inconvenient to say particles A B C as independent variables, you cannot even
quantify how many particles. So, you need another way of specifying independent variables.
So, what do we say, instead of saying particle A B C, I will tell that at a particular time let us
say some T0 or
0 a position occupied by the particle. So, I specify a particle instead of
numbering as A B C or lettering as A B C. I will tell that I have particle A which was at this
position at time t equal to T0 or time t = 0. I have particle which was at this position, so which
I call as r0. So, instead of A, B, C, D, I replace it with r0 which is the initial position and time.
So, as eventually the independent variables in a Lagrangian approach are the fluid particle
and time, but fluid particle is inconvenient to be described, so we use initial position and time
as the independent variables in the Lagrangian approach. So, it should be kept very clearly in
mind that the dependent variable is same, the independent variables are different. In the
Eulerian description the spatial coordinates whichever usual x y z and time are the
independent variables. Time is anyways common to both of them. In the case of Lagrangian
approach, because you are following the fluid particle those fluid particles are the in
independent variables, but because it is inconvenient identify particles by numbers or letters,
we identify them by position at a particular time let us say initial time, so the independent
variable becomes the initial position and time.
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So, what we have seen here is take an example of flue gas flowing through a chimney. We
have described the temperature in this region using two different approaches Eulerian
description and Lagrangian description. One is at a particular location, other is fluid
following a fluid particle.
One other way of explains Eulerian description is that you are at that particular point if you
want to attach meaning of fluid particle to that it sensors different fluid particles, is that right.
So, in this case we are following one fluid particle, in the case of Eulerian because your
sensor was placed at one particular location it senses the temperature of different fluid
particles which cross through that point. So, that should be kept in mind. So, one is in terms
of independent variables other in terms of the particles which are being considered.
Lagrangian is one particle, Eulerian is several fluid particles which cross that particular
portion of interest.
Having discussed this in detail we will extend this to two other examples. This photograph
shows a very busy road in Chennai and this road is just outside our institute IIT, Madras. One
of the busiest roads I would say and a lot of traffic here. And our interest is not the traffic
right now, our interest is the air pollution caused by this traffic here. And let us say we are
interested in measuring that. Air pollution could be in CO2 concentration particulate matter,
any other impurities as well.
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Now, analogous to the description what we had earlier. I can describe the pollutant level in
this region, two different ways. What is the first way, I would keep sensors at several spatial
locations in the road and then make them measure the pollutant constant let us take CO2, I
measure the CO2 concentrate, I put CO2 sensors all along the road and I take readings of CO2
concentration as a function of time, then I will be able to describe the CO2 concentration in
the entire region which is our Eulerian approach. At a fixed location the CO2 sensor measures
the concentration as a function of time put several sensors and then you can measure.
Now, what is the Lagrangian method? We follow a fluid particle. Now, our fluid particles are
very large here, they are nothing, but our vehicles, so attach one sensor to all of them. As they
travel they will give us the pollutant concentration. Not so precise in telling fluid particle, but
easy to see our particle here all our vehicles are a particle which is the Lagrangian
description. So, first fix sensors measure the concentration, second fix sensors to this so
called fluid particles vehicles and measure the CO2 concentration in that region.
Now, third example. And you would be wondering why temperature first concentration
second, then only velocity. In our usual flow of topics its velocity first, and then temperature
second and then concentration. For obvious reasons temperature most easily imaginable
variable for all of us, easily we can sense a temperature, temperature of course, outside is hot,
it is cold inside and of course, heat transfer is the most favorite subject for all the students
also. So, that way also and easy to explain in terms of temperature. We start with velocity it is
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become little difficult to imagine that is why temperature. Similarly, concentration also, you
can easily have a quick imagination for concentration measurement, and that is why velocity
comes last.
So, what is that we are interested in? Very nice example. You have flow through a pipe and
of or any region of interest and I want to describe the velocity in that particular region. Now,
once again two different ways, first is to use a instrument to measure the velocity to different
spatial location. So, I will put a sensor here, I will put a sensors at different locations. We will
later on learn in a separate fluid mechanics course that these kind of measurements can be
done using pitot tubes, pitot tubes instrument to measure the local velocity across this region.
So, you use a velocity measuring device. So, place that at several locations and measure the
velocity. So, this is our Eulerian description.
Alternatively, how do you measure the velocity is in the Lagrangian approach? Little more
explanation is required for that. What we do is we seed the flow with what are called
neutrally buoyant solid particles. First let me say what is seeding. Seeding is just adding
along with the fluid, add these neutrally buoyant solid particles. Now, what are these
neutrally buoyant solid particles. The solid particles they have two characteristics, number
one very small size or (Refer Time: 25:13) say 10 microns, 20 microns, extremely small size
or even of the nanometer range, they could be even 10 nanometers, 20 nanometers range. So,
they have two characteristic as I said, one is very small let us say 10 nanometer, 20
nanometer size; second is that as the name indicates they are neutrally buoyant.
What does a neutrally buoyant mean? Their densities are almost same as that of the fluid
which we are studying. For example, if we are studying velocity of water, the density these of
these solid particles should be around let us say 999 plus or 1000, around 1000, around 999
almost close. So, why do we have these characteristics? We want the solid particles to follow
the fluid motion.
So, there should not be any difference at all between the fluid motion and the solid motion.
So, if the solid particle is almost like a fluid particle what does it mean? Very small size and
then density is also same as fluid. We cannot have exactly like that, so our size is something
of are of nanometers and then densities almost close to water. These are called neutrally
buoyant solid particles.
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So, we seed them to the flow, and then we pass laser sheet on that, that is what is shown here
you have a source of laser. And using some laser optics you pass a laser light sheet on the
region of interest and then using a high speed camera you take two successive images at very
short time intervals. Just like taking a snapshot something like our burst. So, you take the
image using the camera, a high speed cameras. Let us say you take two measures differing a
few microseconds or milliseconds difference. So, what is that we have done? We have taken
the Lagrangian position of the particles. So, using these two frames you will be able to get the
velocity of the particles, Lagrangian velocity, then you can of course, convert to Eulerian
etcetera.
So, Lagrangian measurement of particles involves seeding of the fluid, and then passing a
laser light sheet over it, and then using a high speed camera to capture a image, and then
images to be taken a quick time instants, very small time difference and using the position of
the images you can find out the Lagrangian velocity of the particles, and the velocity in the
region.
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Lecture – 07
Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions Part 2
Having seen so many examples of two different ways of flow descriptions, Eulerian and
Lagrangian, we will put them in down terms in terms of words. Now, you notice a difference
here, the order of the title says Lagrangian and Eulerian. All of an example the way in which
I discussed, first I discussed Eulerian and then I discussed Lagrangian.
You will see this reasons for that shortly. First is Lagrangian. Now, a Lagrangian approach is
based on the our imagination that fluid is made of fluid particles even to start describing
Lagrangian I said let us start taking a fluid particle. So, the concept of fluid particle is
integrated with the discussion of Lagrangian. Then what did we do? We said we will identify
the fluid particles. So, Lagrangian approach involves identification of fluid particles, we said
we will identify by coloring them.
And then we said we are following the fluid particles as they move as a function of time that
is what we did. In all the cases, we track the fluid particles as they moved in the region of
interest. And then describe in terms of position and velocity, temperature, concentration of
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fluid particle as a function of initial position of fluid particle and time. The one dependent
variable is either velocity, temperature, concentration which you are interested in because we
are tracking them. Another dependent variable is a position which automatically also gets
measured because we are tracking the fluid particle. What are the independent variables as I
have told you the initial position of fluid particle which we denote as r0 and time.
In terms of expression, r the position of fluid particle is for a particular particle temperature
for a particular particle as I have discussed earlier instead of saying A, I will say r0. So, the
position of the particle and then the temperature of the particle those are the dependent
variables. Independent variables are initial position and time.
Another name for Lagrangian description is material description. Why is that, because you
are following a material particle following a fluid particle and that is why we called
Lagrangian description as material description, because we are following a fluid particle.
What is the Eulerian description? Now, for Eulerian description, I need not talk about fluid
particles. Though we said it is equivalent to sensing different fluid particles falling through,
the point to begin with I will not talk about fluid particles. How do you describe the fluid
motion here? By specifying the fluid property. What are the fluid properties? Pressure,
density, velocity, temperature, etcetera as a function of space and time that is what we did.
For example, in this case, the temperature as a function of space and time; so the dependent
variable is temperature, it could be pressure, density, velocity, concentration and independent
variables are spatial location and time.
So, I think we should compare these two expressions. The independent variables are the
initial position and time in Lagrangian description and in Eulerian description, the spatial
location and time are the independent variables. The independent variables are different,
because the way in which you do measurements are different. And these are done at fixed
point in space as the fluid flows pass this point that is what we said several fluid particles
pass through that point at a fixed point, we have a fixed point. The first one is following a
fluid particle. Second case, we have to first fixed point, then different fluid particles pass
through that point.
Other name for Eulerian description is field description. Whenever we say velocity field,
temperature field means that we are describing the temperature variation in a space, velocity
variation in a space, and that is why it is called field description. We come across very
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frequently the velocity field is given by this expression; temperature field is given by this
expression.
What do you mean by field? For example, let us take this particular room. As I told you
earlier temperature near that condition may be lower, near the entrance may be a slightly
warmer which means that there is spatial variation of temperature in this room. Similarly,
velocity varies let us say in this room. I want to describe this T temperature as a function of x,
y, z that is called temperature field. Similarly, the velocity as a function of x, y, z that could
also vary with time that is why we say it is a field description.
So, when you come across first time field, it may not make much sense, but as you become
used to that, the word field just tells you that spatial variation in terms of x, y, z and could be
time as well. We do not say field for Lagrangian description, we say only field for Eulerian
description. The moment I say field let us say velocity field automatically implies that I am
talking about the Eulerian description.
What are the difficulties in Lagrangian description? Natural way, natural way is not a
difficulty. This natural way is one the reason why the previous slide I listed Lagrangian first
and Eulerian second. why is it naturally we will see that shortly. If you say naturally, if you
want to list the sequence, I should have discussed first Lagrangian, then only I should have
discussed Eulerian. The reason I discussed Eulerian first is that, that is more easily
understandable. The case of a chimney first I said put a temperature sensor, make a
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measurement, so it is easy to understand. If I say follow a fluid particle and follow that, and
measure the temperature, little more difficult to imagine that is why in all the examples we
discussed Eulerian first that is how we do an experiment in a real in a lab, but Lagrangian is
more natural. Why is Lagrangian more natural?
Now, all of us would have studied particle motions, solid motion in physics. So, for example,
we would have discussed about studied about Newton’s second law of motion for a solid
particle. Moment I say solid particle easy to imagine. Now, our Lagrangian description
remember every description was same following a fluid particle we had some position of
particle for differentiate to get velocity, differentiate to get acceleration, everything almost
same only difference is instead of a solid particle like a ball or an object, it has a fluid particle
here that is why the Lagrangian description which is based on description of a fluid particle is
a natural way.
Why, because the laws of physics etcetera are all for a solid particle, also should be
applicable for a fluid particle. So, the natural way, natural sequences first Lagrangian, and
then Eulerian. Just because we are so used to Eulerian way of measurement measuring
variables, I discussed Eulerian first and then Lagrangian second.
That is why in the previous slide when we discuss summarized everything in terms of words,
I first discussed Lagrangian and then I discussed Eulerian. So, natural order is Lagrangian
and Eulerian in terms of physics, in terms of theory. In terms of measurement, Eulerian
becomes first, because we are very used to that easy to measure Eulerian also. I said that
image a fluid particle, attach a temperature sensor to that, so it also difficult to imagine. But if
I say take a thermocouple, put it a point a measure become easy to measure also and see also
not even imagine, that is why in terms of reality in terms of measurement Eulerian is first. In
terms of theory, in terms of principles, Lagrangian is first. Please keep that in mind.
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Difficulties in Lagrangian description natural way. Now, we have seen why it is natural way
just the laws of physics are all for Lagrangian description only. It extends straight from
particle mechanics. Whatever you did for part solid particles, you have to just extend for fluid
particles yeah and that is where the difficulty starts. When I say take a solid object, take a
ball, easily imagine. You want to play with it, you can play or you want to analyze the force
acting on it easily you can do. But now fluid particle, you first spent enough time defining a
fluid particle. We had one slide, we had animation all that were required to tell you what a
fluid particle is, but for a solid particle, moment I say solid in one second or few seconds is
enough to tell you what a solid particle is, but just to make you clear what a fluid particle is,
we took enough time to explain what a fluid particle is, so much more different for fluid
particles, though the laws should be valid both for solid particle and fluid particle. So, keep in
mind our objective of discussing solids and fluids analogously under the team of continuum
material or continuum hypothesis. And the continuum hypothesis whatever we discussed
usually, discussed taking fluid as example, because these are discussed in a fluid mechanics
books, but all those are applicable both for solids, gases etcetera, but easy to understand for a
liquids or fluids.
So, We cannot easily define and identify fluid particles as they move around that we have
seen very clearly. And fluid is a continuum that is what we have seen from macroscopic point
of view. So, interactions between fluid particles are not as easy describe as the interaction
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within solid objects. If two particles collide you can write a force balance, momentum
balance, all those are applicable no doubt, but easy to write for them.
You can find out what is the velocity momentum before collision, after collision, etcetera,
you wrote an examples in that physics course, but, same are applicable fluid particles much
more difficult to do for fluid particles. So, interaction between fluid particles, why
interactions, we have considered fluid particles throughout the region, so they can interact as
well. So, describe those interaction becomes difficult not as easily as you do for solid objects.
And we have seen this as well. Fluid particles continuity form as they move in the flow this
hardly does not happen for solid objects when two balls collide they hardly deform they are
very almost rigid. So, you not worry about deformation at all. But fluid particles no way
possible almost invariably they deform and so you will have to account that as well. So, all
these make the like make the Lagrangian approach difficult. Keep that in mind what we
should keep in mind is that the loss of physics are from a Lagrangian point of view or for a
fluid particle only, but description in terms of Lagrangian becomes difficult for us.
What I shown here is field and Eulerian representation discussed this as a function of location
and time, spatial location and time ok. And it could be the variable could be density,
temperature, pressure, or could be velocity acceleration concentration any of these variables.
As I told you sometime back velocity field, when I say velocity field, v is a vector here which
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means that it could have different components vx, and then vy and then vz, and that is a
function of x, y, z, and time or we can also call as a temperature field.
So, the word field is associated with Eulerian representation, it just means that variation
across spatial along spatial coordinates. What is shown here is a velocity field for flow
between the two parallel plates is called the vector plot. It shows the magnitude of velocity is
shown by the length of the vector, length of the arrow here. And then it shows the how the
velocity varies between the distance between the plates along the lateral direction, and then
how velocity varies along the direction of the flow.
You look at how velocity varies here, and then as the flow passes through this plate. Look a
look at the velocity how it varies between the two plates. And this is called a velocity. When
a when I want to say this vector plot, I will say that this figure represents the velocity field at
different distances along the plate. So, velocity field, temperature field, just tells about
variation spatial variation and also time as well in this case just a steady state.
So, first to demonstrations to represent the Lagrangian description, Eulerian description.

Think the geometry and the plates are same as I discussed earlier, flow between two parallel
plates. Now, let us straight away run this simulation ok. What we say Lagrangian description
is identifying a fluid particle and tracking it, and that is what has been done here. We have
identified a fluid particle, and then we are tracking that as it flows through the domain.
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For example, let us say this black particle identify with black dye and tracking it as it flows
through the region. Same example or same demonstration was done for defining a fluid
particle also. Fluid particle Lagrangian or analogous to each other that is why same
simulation being shown, but there I used it to demonstrate what a fluid particle is.
Here I want to show say illustrate or demonstrate that a Lagrangian description we identify
fluid particle and track that particular fluid particle. And as we have seen we can track
different fluid particles as of a nomenclature this is A, this is B, C, D etcetera. So, different
fluid particles we said instead of A we will use initial position. So, for example, I can let us
say this is initial position 0, let us say some 0.2, 0.4, similarly let us say minus 0.2, minus 0.4.
So, I can give some initial positions to identify the fluid particles ok, instead of saying A, B,
C, D etcetera.
Example to illustrate Eulerian description, we will have a small demonstration here once
again the same physical system. So, now, let us the flow between two parallel plates. Let us
run this video and see what is happening. What I shown here are fluid part fluid flow entering
and then leaving as shown different mean fluid flow is entering here, represented here as fluid
particles here.
What do we say in Eulerian description I put my sensor at one loc one location and measure
the velocity? So, in Eulerian description, I put my sensor at one particular location and we
said different fluid particles pass through that point. This for example, as we said may be a
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pitot tube, I put a pitot in this region it gives a velocity, but the velocity is representative of
different fluid particles passing through the same point. So, this is what we do in Eulerian
description. We are we are fixing our sensor at the particular location and making
measurement of a particular point by sensing different fluid particles passing through that
point
In the earlier case, we dyed one fluid particle and followed it this is a Lagrangian description.
In this particular case, different fluid particles pass through your measuring point, your
measuring point has fixed. And you make the temperature and velocity measurement as the
case may be.
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Lecture – 08
Substantial Derivative Part 1
We have been discussing the fundamental concepts. In that we have discussed the continuum
hypothesis and then the two different approaches for describing fluid flow. Now, we are
going to discuss special derivative, derivative which is characteristic of continuum mechanics
and transfer phenomena, what is called as substantial derivative. Now of course, other topics
follow later on.
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To begin with, we will look at the types of derivatives which are familiar to you,
∂
The partial derivative = ∂t
d
The total derivative = dt this should be familiar to you from your calculus course.
D
Now, a new derivative which is represented by Dt , which will have a new physical
significance. Now, as you go along the course you will understand where is it used, how is it
used, we will have a better feel with the physical significance, but right now, to give a quick
motivation.
Suppose, if we extend Newton’s, second law of motion for a fluid particle, we know
Newton’s second law for a solid particle. Suppose, we extend for a fluid particle, then we
would write the Newton second law as the force acting on the fluid particle is equal to the
mass of the fluid particle multiplied by the acceleration of fluid particle.
F f luid particle = mf luid particle af luid particle
What I have done is expressed the well-known Newton’s second law of motion for a fluid
particle, which we would have written so far many times for a solid particle.
Now, just to tell you that this acceleration of fluid particle can be expressed in terms of this
new derivative which you are going to call a substantial derivative, right now there is a
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motivation. As we go along the course, we will use this derivative several times and several
places you will understand as we go along.
So, as I told you the name of the derivative substantial or the material derivative. Let us
define it first before discussing it and derive an expression for that. So, how do you define? It
is rate of change of a property when I say property, it could be velocity, temperature,
concentration of a fluid particle. By this time you are familiar with what a fluid particle is, we
have discussed in detail, we will be able to visualize it, as it moves through the flow field and
as seen by one moving along with the fluid. To have an example I have shown here the
converging nozzle, which we have seen earlier (see above refer slide).
So, now, we have considered several fluid particles and they move along the length of the
converging nozzle. Now, suppose if you follow, take one fluid particle and then follow its
motion, what is the rate of change of its property? So, rate of change of a property of a fluid
particle as it moves through the flow field. How do you imagine? Suppose, if you sit on the
fluid particle and go through the region of flow, what is the rate of change of the property,
which you would experience; could be velocity, this particular case velocity, it could be
temperature, it could be concentration.
We will take two examples first we will take velocity as an example for property, then we
will quickly analogously do for temperature, just to show you that the substantial and metal
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derivative can be applied for any property. Usually, what is discussed is velocity and
extended for other properties as well. We will discuss both velocity and temperature.
So, why this particular example of converging nozzle as we have seen earlier as the fluid
flows along the length of the converging nozzle, because of the reduction in the cross section
area there is an increase in velocity. So, from the fluid point of view it experiences as an
acceleration. So, if you are sitting on the fluid particle and travelling along with it you will
experience the increase in velocity and that is why this particular geometry, this configure has
been chosen here.
What you are going to discuss is applicable for any general case. So, as a property we will
take velocity as an example. Now, we want to find out the rate of change of velocity of the
fluid particle which is of course, the acceleration of the fluid particle. And how do you
define, because the particle just extend where particle mechanics knowledge of expressing
the acceleration of fluid particle, in terms of derivative of velocity of the particle.
dv particle
Acceleration of f luid particle aparticle = dt
This velocity is a vector here and acceleration is a vector here. So, we have expressed
acceleration of the particle as the time derivative of the velocity of the particle. This exactly
what you would have come across in a particle mechanics course only difference is here the
particle refers a fluid particle, as I have been discussing so far. Now, we use a physical
principle at any instant of time.
Now, the velocity of the fluid particle at a position at a particular instant is equal to the
velocity of the fluid in that particular location.
V elocity of f luid particle = Local value of velocity f ield at the location

(xparticle (t) , y particle (t) , z particle (t))
So, what is the implication of this? The left-hand side is from a Lagrangian viewpoint, we are
telling from particle viewpoint velocity of a fluid particle. On the right hand side, we have the
velocity field, we have already discussed that moment I say field, it represents an Eulerian
frame of reference.
So, why is it local value? We are at a particular position, at a particular instant, the fluid
particle is that particular location. It’s velocity should be equal to the velocity of the fluid at
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that particular location, that is what is represented here as an expression x, the particle
position of the x coordinate of the particle at that particular instant similarly, y particular
similarly, z particle. So, looks like a very simple statement. It has very key importance,
connects a Lagrangian view point to an Eulerian view point. Why is it Lagrangian? Talking
about a fluid particle at left hand side, but talking about a velocity field at right hand side.
Simple intrusion will tell you the particle is representative with the fluid. So, at a particular
instant, at a particular position, the velocity of the fluid particle should be same as that of the
fluid ok, given in terms of velocity field.
If you want to write this in expression, velocity of the particle is equal to the velocity in terms
of Eulerian field.
v particle = v (xparticle (t) , y particle (t) , z particle (t))
Left hand side is velocity of the particle is equal to velocity given in the Eulerian field not at
any location at the location and where the particle is present given by the coordinates x
particle, y particle and z particle.
Now, we said the acceleration of the particle is given by the derivative of the velocity of the
particle.
dv particle
aparticle = dt
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Now, we have used a physical principle and said that the velocity of the particle is equal to
the velocity of the fluid at the position of the particle. This is what we have seen earlier.
v particle = v (xparticle (t) , y particle (t) , z particle (t))
Now, I will substitute in this place instead of velocity of the particle, I will substitute this
velocity of the in terms of Eulerian field. So,
dv particle dv (xparticle ,y particle , z particle , t)

dt
= dt
So, left hand side what we have is velocity of the particle, right hand side we have velocity in
terms of Eulerian field and it is a function of x particle, y particle, z particle and time. What
you have on the right hand side is a total derivative and of course, we know
by chain rule
dv particle ∂v dt ∂v dxparticle ∂v dy particle ∂v dz particle

dt
= ∂t dt
+ ∂xparticle dt
+ ∂y particle dt
+ ∂z particle dt
Right hand side you have a total derivative and it is a function of four variables x y z of the
particle and time and using chain rule, we express in in terms of the partial derivatives. So,
the independent variables are x y z and t. So, first we differentiate v with respect to time and
next, we have we partial differentiate. What do we mean by partial differentiation?
For example here when I differentiate with respect to time x y z, all the three coordinates are
kept constant, which remains at a particular location. So, when I say differential with respect
to time and partially all the other three special coordinates are fixed. So, this represents the
derivative at a particular position. And now, when I differentiate with respect to x particle I
keep the time constant and the y particle and z particle constant; so, whereas, we are
considering variation of velocity in the x direction only.
Now, what is shown here is a fluid particle at a location x particle and y particle. In a time
instant from t to t+dt, it moves to another location where x particle + dx particle, a small
displacement dx particle and y particle + dy particle. Now, if you take the rate of change of x
coordinate with respect to time, you will get the velocity of the particle,
Rate of change of particle position = v elocity
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dxparticle dy particle dz particle
dt
= vx ; dt
= vy ; dt
= vz
Now, we have already seen that the velocity of the particle at a particle instant, particular
location is equal to the Eulerian velocity and that is why I have used here, vx gives the
velocity of the particle in the x direction. We have seen that at any instant the velocity of the
particle is same as the velocity of the fluid, but now, I use the x component of the velocity of
fluid given by the Eulerian description; similarly, in the y direction and similarly, in the z
dxparticle
direction. So, in these expressions, we are going to replace dt
in terms of the velocity
field, x component of velocity of the fluid given by the Eulerian description similarly, vy and
then similarly, vz.
M aterial position vector (x particle , )

y particle , z particle of f luid particle in
Lagrangian f ram = P osition vector (x, y , z ) in Eulerian f ram
The material position vector denoted by x particle, y particle and z particle. So, material
position vector of fluid particle, in Lagrangian frame is equal to the position vector. Why do I
say position vector? Position vector is just like our usual x y z coordinate in the Eulerian
frame.
When I say x y z it is an Eulerian frame when I say x particle, y particle, z particle it is in a

Lagrangian frame. So, once again we replace this x particle, y particle, z particle with x y z.
So, I will make two replacements; one is that these derivates will be expressed in terms of the
velocity of the particles. And hence, in terms of velocity of the fluid in the respective
directions and then similarly, these coordinates of the particles, they are material coordinates.
Why do I say material coordinates as I told you they are position vector of the particle as it
flows to the flow field and what replace that in terms of the Eulerians spatial locations. Yeah
let us do that.
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So,
dv particle
aparticle = dt
∂v dt ∂v dxparticle ∂v dy particle ∂v dz particle

= ∂t dt
+ ∂xparticle dt
+ ∂y particle dt
+ ∂z particle dt
This is the expression which we have written for acceleration of the particle and then we
wrote in terms of the total derivative of the expression in terms of the partial derivatives.
Now, we have seen the time derivative of the x direction coordinate is the vx and similarly,
the y direction we have vy and in the z direction we have vz. So, we will make these
substitutions acceleration of a particle.
dxparticle dy particle dz particle

dt
= vx ; dt
= vy ; dt
= vz
After replacement,
Dv ∂v
aparticle (x, y , z , t) = Dt = ∂t + v x ∂v ∂v ∂v
∂x + v y ∂y + v z ∂z
Now, that acceleration of a particle is a function of x y z and time So, moment whenever you
come across capital D by Dt it represents the substantial derivative. Why substantial
derivative? We are following a material or a substance and hence, called substantial
derivative or material derivative, that is the reason for the name substantial derivative,
material derivative.
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Now, left hand side, I would like to repeat the acceleration of the particle remember it’s a
vector equation, acceleration is a vector, the velocities are also all vectors and these are
components of velocity in the x y z directions (vx, vy, vz). So, if you write v vector is equal to
vx i and then vy j and then vz k, where i, j, k are the unit vectors, the x component of the
velocity field, y component of the velocity field, z component of the velocity field are vx, vy
and vz.
And remember, this has a good significance, acceleration of the particles from a Lagrangian
view point, but that is expressed in terms of the Eulerians spatial location x, y, z are the usual
coordinates, but this is the rate of change of velocity as you follow the fluid particle, which
means it has a Lagrangian meaning attached to it, but it is expressed in the function of x y z
in the flow field. What I have done next is, because the vectroial equation, you can write two
components of it.
Dv x ∂v x
ax,particle (x, y , z , t) = Dt
= ∂t
+ v x ∂v
∂x
x
+ v y ∂v
∂y
x
+ v z ∂v
∂z
x
Similarly, you can write the a vector in terms of ay and then az and of course, i j k, etcetera.
So, ax particle is the x component of the acceleration particle, function of x, y, z and time and
I just written instead of v vector vx. Similarly, vx here I have replaced everywhere the vector
with the x , corresponding x component. So, this gives the acceleration of the particle in the x
direction as the function of x y z and time. Now, what is the most important significance of
this expression. Given the velocity field which we can easily measure, it is in Eulerian
description. We already seen that the Eulerian measurement, Eulerian description is more
practical.
So, given the velocity field v (x, y , z , t) , we are finding acceleration of a fluid particle as a
function of the Eulerian position. This nicely combines the Lagrangian view point and the
Eulerian view point, acceleration of fluid particle, why does Lagrangian, because the rate of
change of velocity as you sit on the particle and follow it. That is why acceleration of fluid
particle represents a Lagrangian variable, v is a Eulerian field, because the function of x y z
and time.
So, if you have a velocity field, if you measure velocity at different locations you can find out
what is the acceleration experience by a fluid particle at different spatial locations. That is the
biggest advantage of this expression. Remember, we said the independent variables for
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Lagrangian description are the initial position and time r0 and t. So, if you have a velocity as a
function of r0 and t you can differentiate that and then get the acceleration, but usually we do
not have access to that information, because that requires Lagrangian measurement.
What a access is to the velocity field information, but using that we are able to get the same
Dv
meaning as a Lagrangian derivative. So, Dt as I told you is called the substantial derivative,
also called as material derivative. This particular case, it is the substantial derivative of
velocity and, because it is substantial derivative velocity it is also called as the acceleration ,
because substantial derivative of other variable is do not have any special name, because it is
velocity we call it as acceleration.
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Lecture - 09
Substantial Derivative Part 2
Let us do the same thing. Follow the same steps for another variable namely temperature.
Two objectives of this, specifically emphasize that the material derivative can be applied for
any property. We have done first for velocity (in the last lecture). It can be done for
temperature, can be done for concentration. Now that is why all whatever we are discussing
are all discussed under the heading called Fundamental concepts. They are not necessarily
related to fluid flow, though a fluid mechanics book discusses all these concepts. These
concepts are applicable for fluid flow, energy, heat flow and then later on species flow also.
To emphasize that also here I am illustrating the substantial derivative of temperature, let us
take an example what do we mean by substantial derivative of temperature. You have here is
a household geyser (see above refer slide). Water flows in, gets heated and then comes out.
Now you have a particle. What is the meaning of substance derivative? Rate of change of
property of a fluid particle, in this case rate of change of temperature. So, as you follow the
DT
fluid particle what is a rate of change of its temperature is a substance derivative Dt .
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dT particle
Now, take example of temperature and what we are interested in is dt
just like we had
velocity earlier we have T of temperature particle here and just like we wrote earlier at any
instant at any particular location along the path of the particle, we said velocity of the particle
is equal to the velocity field. Similarly here the temperature of the fluid particle are more
specifically temperature sensed by the fluid particle should be equal to the local value of
temperature field.
At any instant of time,
Temperature of fluid particle = Local value of temperature field at the location

(xparticle (t) , y particle (t) , z particle (t)) .
So, once again relating Lagrangian quantity to a Eulerian quantity. Now so, the T particle in
the time derivative replaced in terms of the Eulerian temperature T.
dT particle dT (xparticle , y particle , z particle , t)

dt
= dt
And so, total derivative once again we differentiate with partially with respect to the four
independent variables; x particle, y particles, z particle and time.
∂T dt ∂T dxparticle ∂T dy particle ∂T dz particle

= ∂t dt
+ ∂xparticle dt
+ ∂y particle dt
+ ∂z particle dt
DT ∂T
Dt
= ∂t
+ v x ∂T
∂x
+ v y ∂T
∂y
+ v z ∂T
∂z
DT
Now this special derivative is called substance derivative Dt . I cannot use it over
acceleration that is applicable certainly for velocity only. We call this only as substantial
derivative of temperature.
So, now to little bit imagine about this we said we follow the fluid particle something like
sitting on the fluid particle. You would have seen in the movies a person becomes like a fly
and gets into house and so on. So, likewise you imagine yourself as a something like a
temperature resistant and get into it and then you start this stopwatch and then what is the rate
DT
of change of temperature, you would measure and that is Dt , that is how you can imagine
that.
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So, now we will extent this to any variable. Throughout the course we will come across
substantial derivative of course velocity, we came across density, we came across
temperature, concentration. I think we will come across pressure as well and substantial
derivative all have the same physical significance rate of change of property as you follow
the fluid particle.
Dv x ∂v x
Dt
= ∂t
+ v x ∂v
∂x
x
+ v y ∂v
∂y
x
+ v z ∂v
∂z
x
Dv x
Now, of course this x component of the velocity Dt and substance derivative of x
component of velocity; now, the combination of terms (in right hand side) can be represented
in terms of vector notation just to slightly introduce you to vector notation, so that the
expression become very simple and elegant. So,
v = vx i + vy j + vz k
Now, we know the velocity field. It is a vector field and it has three components vx, vy and vz
and we are familiar from calculus, the gradient operator is
∂ ∂ ∂
∇= ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k
So, now if you take a dot product of the velocity field with gradient operator (del),
∂v x ∂v x ∂v x
v .∇ = ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
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So, this set of terms can be represented very nicely in terms of v dot the gradient operator.
Dv x ∂v x
Dt
= ∂t
+ (v.∇)v x
∂
Now in this particular case we have ∂t and then, vx here and then all these terms without the
vx is represented by v .∇ and then to be more formally we say operating on vx.
Similarly, we can write for the substantial derivative of temperature,
DT ∂T
Dt = ∂t + v x ∂T ∂T ∂T
∂x + v y ∂y + v z ∂z
And,
DT ∂T
Dt = ∂t + (v.∇)T
∂
once again this can be put in terms of the v vector and the gradient vector. The ∂t plus v .∇
is called the substantial or material derivative.
D ∂
Dt = ∂t + (v.∇)
D
So, what does this expresses in terms of the vector notation. So, either we can use Dt in
terms of vector notation or in the expanded form, it is better to know both the equivalent
forms of the same expression.
DC ∂C
Dt
= ∂t
+ (v.∇)C
As I told you we can represent substance derivative for any variable. For example, I have
shown above for concentration. So, just to repeat, it says rate of change of a property it could
be velocity, temperature and then concentration of a fluid particle and that is a Lagrangian
time derivative. Left hand side is Lagrangian time derivative. Most importantly we are
expressing that in terms of Eulerian or field variables. That is the most significant importance
of substantial derivative. Right hand side is the Eulerian field, concentration field,
temperature field, velocity field etcetera. And if you use the derivatives in this particular
∂
combination ∂t + (v.∇) operating on any variable, the physical significance what you get
becomes Lagrangian.
That is a significant advantage. If you measure a property in terms of Eulerian variables, you
can get the Lagrangian derivative meaning. Now, that is what I just explained to you knowing
the velocity and temperature field accordingly concentration field or any other field which is
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Eulerian description, the rate of change of temperature following a fluid particle which is the
Lagrangian description can be obtained.
What are the physical significance of this material derivative? What do you mean by that?
We have seen the significance of course it has two components in it. Let us see what are the
meaning of those two components. Now, once again we will start with temperature in the
present case, so that it is easy to understand and then go to velocity.
DT ∂T
Dt = ∂t + (v.∇)T
Now, this is written in the in terms of the velocity vector and the gradient vector. I have
expanded that and written here in terms of the full expression, So that you can slowly get
familiar to both the vectorial representation and the full representation.
DT ∂T
Dt = ∂t + v x ∂T ∂T ∂T
∂x + v y ∂y + v z ∂z
∂T
Now there are two components to it. First is called the local component, ∂t . Why is it local
component? As I told you remember when you derived it when we took the derivative we
kept the x y z constant. So, it is a particular location. So, this tells what is the rate of change
of temperature at a particular location; how can it happen? Because of fluctuation in
temperature, change in temperature in this particular room. Let us say if you are following a
105
fluid particle, the particle is at a particular location, the temperature field has some fluctuation
for whatever region goes from one value to other value it fluctuates. There is some transient
in that, some unsteady state, steady state is not there. So, particle is at a particular location
experiences the change in temperature because of the unsteadiness of the temperature field;
so, the first local component due to the unsteadiness of the property in this particular case
temperature.
What is the next? What is the significance of the next component? It is called the convective
component, v x ∂T ∂T ∂T
∂x + v y ∂y + v z ∂z or (v.∇)T . Why is it happening? Two contributions are
there. First one there should be two conditions for that to be non-zero. What is that? First of
∂T ∂T ∂T
all we have ∂x , ∂y and ∂z . What do they represent? Change of temperature with respect to
spatial coordinates x direction, y direction and z direction etcetera. So, now which means that
there should be this, there should be a spatial variation of the property. If there is no spatial
variation, these terms will become 0 and second term will not contribute.
So, first requirement is that there should be a spatial variation. Secondly, there should be fluid
flow, only then vx, vy, vz will be non-zero, only then you will have non-zero value. So, for the
convective components represents the contribution to the substantial derivative due to spatial
variation of the property and motion of the fluid if either of them is absent, that term will be a
0 and it will not contribute to the derivative experienced by the fluid particle. So, in this case
as the fluid particle flows through this heater (see refer slide), it can have two components.
One at a position particle experiences change in temperature as it moves from one location to
the other, it experience a change in temperature because of this spatial variation and we can
talk about movement only when there is flow.
So, time rate of change of temperature of a fluid particle as it moves through the temperature
field and given velocity and temperature field. what is required? You require the velocity,
you require the temperature field. What is the temperature field? T as a function of x, y, z and
time of course; so, given velocity and temperature of field Eulerian description, you can find
out the rate of change of temperature experienced by a fluid particle as it flows the
Lagrangian description.
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It just extent this to a the velocity we have written the expression for the acceleration of fluid
particle in the x direction which is
Dv x ∂v x
Dt
= ∂t
+ (v.∇)v x
This in terms of the vector notation and then we can expand this same in terms of the
components.
Dv x ∂v x
Dt
= ∂t
+ v x ∂v
∂x
x
+ v y ∂v
∂y
x
+ v z ∂v
∂z
x
This is of course more easily understandable compared to vector notation, but this more
compact notion compared to this expression.
Now because it is derivative velocity, this has a name. Other than our substantial derivative
velocity, this is called the total acceleration,
Total acceleration = Local acceleration ( ) + Convective acceleration ((v.∇) v )

∂v x
∂t x
If temperature, concentration, pressure any other variable, we just call it as substantial

derivative local component and then convective component because it is velocity. We call
this a total acceleration, local acceleration and then convective acceleration.
Physical significance all are analogous. So, two components as we have seen earlier two
components of the material derivative; one is the local component because once again
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because it is velocity, it is local acceleration. So, at a particular position, the particle
experiences change of velocity with respect to time from fluctuation velocity due to
unsteadiness of the property in this case, the x component of a velocity. Second one is the
convective acceleration. As it moves from one place to other place, there is change in
velocity ok. This example from one place to other we have seen. It will experience increasing
velocity.
So, due to spatial variation of the property, this case velocity and motion of the fluid and
physical significance we have seen earlier time rate of change of velocity of fluid particle and
as it moves through the velocity field. of course in the earlier case we require the velocity
field and the temperature field. In this case just of course only velocity field. If you know the
velocity field, you can you know this vx, vy, vz if you know the velocity field, you know all
the derivatives. So, only velocity field is required here. So, given velocity field find rate of
change of velocity experienced by a fluid particle as it flows through the domain and that is a
Lagrangian description.
So, let us take some examples where the two different terms only contribute. The first two
examples are the case where only the local component contributes ( ∂t∂ ) . So, what I have
shown here is a cup of coffee (see above refer slide). You can also imagine cup of tea. Tea is
supposed to be more healthier than coffee that is what I came to know. So, the substantial
derivative of temperature what is that mean as usual. So, imagine a particle there in the fluid
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particle in the cup of coffee and even if you blow air to cool it, there is not much motion of
that, there is no fluid motion. So, because there is no fluid motion this vx, vy, vz are all 0.
There will be temperature variations may be it is slightly colder here, warmer there. There
will be temperature variation, but there is no velocity components.
So, convective term will not contribute, but as the coffee is getting cooled if the particle is at
a particular location, it experiences the rate of decrease in temperature. That is why the rate of
change of temperature experiences the particle as only one component because of the
unsteadiness. Sometime back we discussed unsteadiness is example for unsteadiness of the
temperature field which is the temperature of the coffee reduces. So, the temperature as a
unsteady component in it, there could be spatial variation also because there is hardly any
flow. Convective term will not contribute as I told you it requires two condition. There
should be a flow, there should be a gradient. One of them is not here. So, only the local
component plays a role.
Let us take another example from fluid flow (see above refer slide). What you have here is
pipe of constant cross section, so that there are no velocity gradients. We want to consider a
case where only the first component contributes (only local component). That is why we take
in a case where the pipe of constant cross section throughout. So, that is why the velocity
distribution shown here, it is all same now, but the velocity can be a function of time the v0
whatever can be a function of time let us say vary sinusoidally or some fluctuations are there.
So, what happens in this particular case, this will contribute at a if you are looking at a play if
you are at particular location or the particle is at particular location, it experiences such
change in velocity with respect to time, but now as you follow the fluid particle from one
place to the other, there is a flow. Of course this case only one component is present, but
otherwise these velocity components are present, but there is no gradient in the velocity.
This is the case where second term (convective term) does not contribute because the gradient
in the velocity is not present. That is why is specifically took a case where the pipe has a
constant cross sectional area though there is flow, but there is convective terms are not
present. In this case they just becomes 0 and once again the acceleration experienced by a
fluid particle is has only one contribution from the local component, local acceleration. The
total acceleration becomes equal to the local acceleration.
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Let us take another set of examples where we have contribution from only the convective
component, ((v.∇) v x ) . What is that example, the household example, the geyser example
which I have discussed sometime back? Usually this operates under steady state condition.
You have a constant in flow, constant out flow and let us say water enters at some 30 degrees
leaves at some 70 degree centigrade. So, these conditions are all same.
So, if the particle is at particular location, the temperature field has no unsteadiness in it. It is
just a steady state and steady state field. So, the local term will not be present and that is what
we actually mean by steady state. When we mean steady state at a particular location, there
should not be any change of a property in this particular case temperature.
Now, what happens as there is suddenly flow through this medium? So, vx components are
present, it could be one dimensional or multi dimensional and then, there is gradient also
along the path of the fluid particle, there is increasing temperature as the fluid flows through
this. So, from one location to the other the fluid experiences such change in temperature.
Why does it experience? Because the temperature varies along the path; so, the convective
component contributes and the local component does not contribute. So, the variation in
temperature experienced by a fluid particle has only the convective component. In this
particular case there is a gradient and flow of velocity and the velocity flow is also present.
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Now, let us take another case where we have taken flow through a channel, but in this case
we are specifically allowed for variation in the cross sectional area and you have a larger
cross sectional area, a smaller cross section (see above refer slide). Once again it expands and
the cross section area increases.
So, we have considered a case where there is spatial variation of velocity and now unlike the
earlier case, we are just considering a steady velocity field. The velocity does not change
respect to time. Of course, there is flow. So, vx, vv, vz could be there this particular case only
one component is present and then there is spatial variation also. So, these terms contribute.
So, the acceleration experienced by a fluid particle is only because of the convective
component. The total acceleration becomes equal to the convective acceleration. In these
particular examples if you are at the particular location, there is no change in the property, no
rate of change of the property with respect to time. If you put an instrument in the pipe, it will
not show any change in velocity. If you put an instrument in the geyser, it will not show any
change in temperature, if you travel along then you will experience a change in temperature
and velocity.
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Lecture - 10
Substantial Derivative Example 1
Example: (Refer Slide Time: 00:13)
We will discuss now very nice example from Fox and McDonald. We will clearly understand
the use of the substantial derivative and then the Eulerian frame of references, Lagrangian
frame of reference etcetera. Let us read the example (Above reference slide). Consider
two-dimensional steady incompressible flow, two dimensional because you have velocity
variation in the x-direction and in the y-direction as well, steady as we have seen earlier at a
particular point there is no change in velocity.
The incompressible flow we will discuss later. As of now, you can just say it is something
like constant density flow; through the plane converging channel. Why is it a plane? The
configuration is such that you have two planes like this, usually, a nozzle has a cylindrical
geometry, but that will take us to a cylindrical coordinate system, there again, of course, is an
increase in velocity acceleration takes place, but to make life simple and consider a simple
geometry, we are considering two planes converging to each other. That is why it says plane
converging channel shown.
112
The velocity on the horizontal central line is given by the velocity field, 𝑣 = 𝑣1 1 +( 𝑥
𝐿 )𝑖. So
far, we are been telling a velocity field, the first time coming across an expression for a
velocity field. Now, we know that this v vector has three components vx, vy, and then vz. In
this particular case, we have only the x component, because the vector here is i vector.
Now, why does it say on the horizontal central line, the reason is that if you are away from
here there are there is a y component also. So, only along this central line, there is the only x
component of velocity. Once again, to start with the simple example we are considering along
the central line, if not along the central line I should consider both v x and v y.
So, that is why the example is so well simplified, but same time gives you all the concepts.
What is that you are asked to find out? Find an expression for the acceleration of a fluid
particle moving along the central line. We have a particle at the inlet and it moves along the
central line, what is the rate of change of velocity as experienced by the fluid particle. Then,
we are asked to evaluate the acceleration and the fluid particle is at the beginning and at the
end of the channel.
Solution:
We will use two approaches to solve for the acceleration of the fluid particle. First is the
Eulerian approach and then using a Lagrangian approach. We will clearly see what is the
difference between these two approaches, what is the independent variable etcetera. That
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dependent variable is of course, acceleration ok. Now, a substantial derivative of velocity
gives an acceleration of a fluid particle in terms of Eulerian field variables. We have seen
that; we are going to illustrate that in this example.
The substantial derivative of velocity which is from the Lagrangian viewpoint that gives the
acceleration of the fluid particle, we are asked to find out this in terms of Eulerian field
variables. We require a velocity field to find acceleration and that is what is given to us. We
are going to use the velocity field to get the acceleration of the fluid particle.
So, the acceleration in the x-direction of the particle.
𝐷𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥

𝑎𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐷𝑡
= ∂𝑡
+ 𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑥
+ 𝑣𝑦 ∂𝑦
+ 𝑣𝑧 ∂𝑧
𝑝
Either you can write as 𝑎𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) or 𝑎𝑝 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡); ax represents an acceleration in the
𝑝 𝑥
x-direction of the particle as a function of x, y, z, and t. These are all Eulerian special
𝐷𝑣𝑥
locations which are very familiar every time and of course, represented as 𝐷𝑡
;
In this case, it is a steady-state. So,
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑡
= 0
We will have only the convective component. Even in the convective component, because we
are along the x-axis, there is no y component of velocity. Of course, we are considering only
the two-dimensional case. So, there is no z component of velocity, which is something
perpendicular to the plane of the slide ok. So, there is no z component and since we are along
the x-axis there is no y component. Otherwise, you would have y component as well ok. So
𝑣𝑦 = 0; 𝑣𝑧 = 0
All these are taken so, that you get a very simple expression so, there understand and focus
more on the physics and whatever concepts illustrated by the example.
So, now, our expression becomes simplified
𝐷𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥

𝑎𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐷𝑡
= ∂𝑡
+ 𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑥
𝑝
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We are given the velocity field, the x component of velocity as a function of x. Let us see
what does this mean, how does this velocity intuitively represent the flow.
(
𝑣 = 𝑣1 1 +
𝑥
𝐿 )𝑖
Let us say x = 0; the velocity is v1. What does that mean, the velocity in terms of Eulerian
representation the velocity at inlet position is v1. Now, let us say if you take a channel of
length L and substitute x = L, the velocity here is 2v1. The velocity field of course, gives you
the velocity at any x along the horizontal axis. That is the interpretation for this velocity field.
And it is a steady flow as we have been discussing and so,
𝐷𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥
𝑎𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐷𝑡
= 𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑥
𝑝
Then you substitute for this velocity field vx here and then differentiate that partially with
respect to x.
2
𝐷𝑣𝑥 𝑣1
𝑎𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑡) =
𝑝
𝐷𝑡 (
= 𝑣1 1 +
𝑥
𝐿 )
𝑣1
1
𝐿
= 𝐿 (1 + )
𝑥
𝐿
𝐷𝑣𝑥
In this particular case, you can write as 𝐷𝑥
, because there is no y variations, z variation,
∂𝑣𝑥
times also not there, but generally we write as 𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑥
.
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Now, the acceleration of this particle is
2
𝑣1
𝑎𝑥 (𝑥) =
𝑝
𝐿 (1 + )
𝑥
𝐿
Let us say if we want to tell in words, acceleration of any particle ok, that is at a point x at a
particular instant you have a particle here and what is its accelerations, acceleration of any
particle; remember we said substance derivative relates Lagrangian representation in terms of
Eulerian location that is what it exactly is shown here. Acceleration of any fluid particle that
is at a point x, x is something like our special location at an instance is given by this
expression.
So, if you substitute x; different values of x, you will get the acceleration of a fluid particle as
a function of axial position. Particle experiences acceleration even though the flow is steady.
What do you mean by steady flow? At a particular position, there is no variation of velocity
with respect to time. So, it is a steady-state flow, but because the velocity increases along the
direction of the flow, the fluid particle experiences an acceleration along the direction of the
flow. So, the particle experiences acceleration even though the flow is steady. Usually, we
associate acceleration with some rate of change with respect to time, but in this case, when
we say acceleration, you travel along with the fluid particle, you experience a change in
velocity as you travel resulting in an acceleration ok.
Now, the acceleration of a particle as a function of special location which is x coordinate is

given by,
2
𝑣1
𝑎𝑥 (𝑥) =
𝑝
𝐿 (1 + )
𝑥
𝐿
We want to find out as the question says find out the acceleration at the beginning, at the end.
This means we have to just substitute x = 0, and x = L and that is what we will do now. So,
when the particle is at the beginning of the channel x = 0 so,
2 2
𝑣1 𝑣1
𝑎𝑥 (𝑥 = 0) =
𝑝
𝐿 (1 + ) =
0
𝐿 𝐿
This is the acceleration at the beginning of the channel. Now when the particle is at the end of
the channel, x = L and we get the expression for the acceleration of the particle at the end of
the channel;
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2 2
𝑣1 𝑣1
𝑎𝑥 (𝑥 = 𝐿) =
𝑝
𝐿 (1 + ) = 2
𝐿
𝐿 𝐿
This is twice the acceleration at the beginning of the channel.
So, in this particular case, not alone the velocity increase along the channel, but the
acceleration also increases along the channel. So, acceleration is also twice of that at the
beginning of the channel.
What we had done now? We have followed an Eulerian approach. Why the Eulerian
approach? We use the field information; velocity field information; we were nice meaning for
substance derivative. The whole thing is achieved because of the significance of substance
derivative, just substituted in that, got the acceleration of the fluid particle. Now what we will
do is, get the same expression following a Lagrangian approach. Why are we doing that? So,
that we understand what do we mean by the Lagrangian approach, what do we mean by the
Eulerian approach.
Now, in the Lagrangian approach, what is required is the position of the particle as it flows
through this converging nozzle. So, if you are experimentally measuring, then you will have
the portion as the function of time, but in this case because in the example we do not have
that information. So, what we will do we will use the velocity field itself to get the position as
a function of time.
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Let us do that. So, what we are going to do is, arrive at the same expression at the beginning
and end of the channel for an acceleration of the fluid particle, but following a Lagrangian
approach.
So, obtain motion of the fluid particle as in particle mechanics; exactly what you do in
particle mechanics for a single particle, we do that here for a fluid particle. To emphasize that
I put that is the first statement, obtain motion of the fluid particle as in particle mechanics.
Remember we said, Lagrangian is a natural way because it all carries over from particle
mechanics ok. We are going to use that approach. Now, because we said particle mechanics;
we know that the velocity of the particle can be obtained by differentiating the position of the
particle, simple differentiation.
𝑑𝑥𝑝(𝑡)
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡
𝑝
Then we can get the acceleration of the particle by differentiating the velocity of the particle
ok. All these are exactly what you would have discussed in your physics class for a solid
particle, you are now extending to a fluid particle.
Now, how to get the position of the particle ok. As I told you sometime back if it were
experiments, we would follow the fluid particle, now its portion as a function of time. Being
an example here we will use the Eulerian velocity field itself to get the position of the particle
as a function of time. What do I mean by that? You start here t = 0, you specify some time I
want to know what is the position of the particle? What is the position of the particle given a
particular time? How to get the position of the particle is a question ok?
Now, we have used this during the derivation of the expression for substance derivative, we
will use the same physical principle. At any instant of time
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑡), 𝑦𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑡), 𝑧
This does not mean that the Eulerian velocity is equal to Lagrangian velocity. What it means
is two ways of understanding this expression. You have a flow field and then you are at a
particular location. The velocity at that particular location is equal to the velocity of the fluid
particle which happens to be at that particular location that particular instant. After all fluid
particle represents the flow. So, both velocities should be the same. I will repeat again you
have the particular location, the velocity of the fluid which is Eulerian description should be
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equal to the velocity of the fluid particle, which happens to be at that particular location at
that particular instant.
I will just repeat the statement, but in the reverse direction; looking at the particle point of
view we are tracking the fluid particle. It is at a particular location its velocity is the same as
the velocity of the fluid at that particular location. The velocity of the particle in the
x-direction is equal to the Eulerian velocity but replacing x by xp position of the particle.
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑝)

𝑝
Now, we know that this velocity of the particle is nothing, but the derivative of the position.
So, instead of this velocity of the particle, I replaced it with the derivative of the position of
the particle.
𝑑𝑥𝑝
𝑑𝑡 (
= 𝑣1 1 +
𝑥
𝐿 )𝑥=𝑥𝑝
(
= 𝑣1 1 +
𝑥𝑝
𝐿 )
On the right-hand side, we know that this is the Eulerian velocity, but now it is at a particular
location where the particle is present. So, I replace here x by xp. So, same expression instead
of x, I replace xp divided by L. What does this equation tell you? This will tell you what is the
rate of change of the position of the particle in terms of x direction. How is it related to the
Eulerian field replacing x with xp. So, we have got a differential equation for the position of
the particle.
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So, the rate of change of position of the particle is
𝑑𝑥𝑝
𝑑𝑡 (
= 𝑣1 1 +
𝑥𝑝
𝐿 )
So, it is a first-order differential equation, xp is the dependent variable, time is the
independent variable. We need one initial condition for this. So, we will say at time t = 0, the
particle is at the beginning of the channel. So, I integrate this equation, do a variable
separation.
𝑥𝑝 𝑡
𝑑𝑥𝑝
∫ 𝑥𝑝 = ∫ 𝑣𝑡𝑑𝑡
0 1+ 𝐿 0
What are the limits at time t = 0, the particle is at x = 0. In this case, x p = 0, and then at any
time t the particle is at any position xp. It’s a differential equation that is integrating given the
condition. And doing simple variable separation, integrate this
𝐿𝑙𝑛 1 +( 𝑥𝑝
𝐿 )= 𝑣 𝑡 𝑡
Our objective was to get the position of the particle as a function of time. So, rearrange this
equation so, that you get an expression for the position of the particle as a function of time.
𝑣1𝑡
𝐿
𝑥𝑝 = 𝐿(𝑒 − 1)
What does that time mean? As I told you the particle starts here, you would start your time,
and then it travels along the channel and time starts taking away and this gives you at any
time instant whereas a particle.
Of course, now once you have got the expression for the position of the particle, as I told you
sometime back; in this case, we have got it from the velocity field. If it were an experiment
let us say we discussed the particle image allow symmetry you would get this in experimental
data. Once you have got the position of the particle, then the simple differentiation will give
you a velocity, one more differentiation will give you the acceleration, that is what exactly we
are doing. That is why this exactly the same as particle mechanics applied for a fluid particle.
Now, the velocity of the fluid particle is
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𝑣1𝑡
𝑑𝑥𝑝(𝑡)
𝐿
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑣1𝑒
𝑝
So, you get this velocity, and then an acceleration of the particle is once again you
differentiate the velocity, you will get the acceleration of the particle.
2 𝑣1𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑣1
𝐿
𝑎𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑝
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐿
𝑒
𝑝
What is to be noted here is that the velocity is in fact, the position, velocity, acceleration are
all functions of time. Remember Lagrangian description, what are the independent variables?
Initial position vector, initial position, and time. In this case, initial and then we say
Lagrangian independent variables are for particular fluid particles. What is the particle a
remember; in our chimney example we said particle A, particle B, particle C. Two
independent variables, one is initial position and then time. In this case, because you are
focusing on one particular particle, that initial position does not appear but indirectly it is
there.
It is for this particular particle that let us call particle A explicitly what does the independent
variable that is appearing in the equation is the time. Two independent variables, but because
we are focusing on one particle let us say A only one independent variable time eventually
appears in the final expression. That is to be noted that is a distinction between an Eulerian
representation and a Lagrangian representation.
In eulerian representation, the acceleration of the particle was in terms of x. If you specify x I
can calculate the acceleration fluid particle. In this case, the acceleration fluid particle is in
terms of the time, because we were working in Lagrangian representation and that is what so,
acceleration at any time t of the particle, that was initially at x = 0 ok. So, one independent
variable is t, another independent variable is hidden here. We said particle A, initial position
and that is what is specified and then another independent variable is time, acceleration if at
any time t of the particle that was initially; so which means fixing a particle ok.
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Now, the question said, what is the acceleration of the particle at the beginning of the
channel, and at the end of the channel. It did not tell us time, there was no time straight away
involved in it, but now because we follow the Lagrangian approach our expression involves
time. So, we will have to get a time position relationship. We know the position we have to
find out the time ok.
𝑣1𝑡
𝐿
𝑥𝑝 = 𝐿(𝑒 − 1)
Now to find the acceleration of particle when x = 0 and x = L, in Lagrangian approach as I

told you now acceleration of a particle is expressed in terms of time. So, need to find out the
time at which particle is at the beginning, at the end. We are given the position we need to
find the time.
How do we do that? We have got an expression for the position as a function of time. Use the
same expression, but now what I want to find out is this time. I know the position from the
velocity field we integrated it and got an expression for the position as a function of time, but
now I want to find out the time given the position. So, just rewrite it to find out the time. We
know that first is the position xp = 0. Beginning of the channel we have taken that as an initial
condition t = 0, so x p = L at the end of the channel. You substitute L and find out t.
𝑥𝑝 = 0; 𝑡= 0
( )
𝑣1𝑡 𝑣1𝑡
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑥𝑝 = 𝐿; 𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑒 − 1 ; 𝑒 = 2; 𝑡= 𝑣1
𝑙𝑛⁡(2)
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The particle is at the end of the channel at the time given by t is
𝐿
𝑡= 𝑣1
𝑙𝑛⁡(2)
To find out acceleration we need to substitute this at a time there. We have got both the time
at the beginning and at the end of the channel. So, substitute t = 0. So,
2 𝑣10 2
𝑑𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑣1 𝑣1
𝐿
𝑎𝑥 (𝑡 = 0) = 𝑝
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐿
𝑒 = 𝐿
𝑝
The acceleration of the particle at the beginning of the channel same as what you have got
from the Eulerian approach.
In the second case, the time is given by
𝐿
𝑡= 𝑣1
𝑙𝑛⁡(2)
So, substitute for t and you will get the acceleration as twice which was the beginning of the
channel.
2 2
( )
𝑑𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑣1 𝑣1
𝐿 𝑙𝑛2
𝑎𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑣1
𝑙𝑛2 = 𝑝
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐿
𝑒 = 2 𝐿
𝑝
The same expression which we obtain from the Eulerian approach. So, a very nice example
which clearly illustrates the first use of substantial derivative. You give me velocity field; I
will give you acceleration of fluid-particle using Eulerian variables alone.
123
A second approach is the Lagrangian approach. We all worked in terms of Lagrangian

position, velocity, acceleration, but now the time is a variable. We found out what is a time
corresponding to the position and then and that is what I will show here. I have taken a
channel of length 1 meter, I have taken the velocity as a v1, at the beginning of the channel as
0.1 meters per second.
Let me run the first video. Now what has happened is the particle has started at the inlet and
then it has moved through the channel till the end of the channel. I have done this simulation
from t equal to 0 to t till it reaches the end of the channel and in this case, it was roughly
about 6.9 seconds; 0 to 6.9 seconds.
Now, these are the position of the particle at equal time intervals of 0.69 seconds, and as you
see (referred slide) the distance moved is increasing as it travels along the length of the
channel. Each gives the position at the interval of 0.69 seconds for the same time duration it
covers a longer distance as it goes to the channel; obviously, because of higher velocity. The
fluid experiences higher velocity as it goes through the channel. So, it travels long distances
for the same time interval.
Now let me show again the second simulation, I have shown the successive position of a
particle and the entire particle trajectory as well. I had just shown the instantaneous position
of the particle.
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This shows what happens as the fluid particle flows through the channel as shown here. The
time as I told you I simulated this from 0 to 6.9 seconds. Roughly that is a time where it
reaches the end of the channel for these and it also shows up remember we have got
expressions for the position, the velocity, and then the acceleration of the particle.
So, I have shown the position of the particle, the velocity of the particle, and the acceleration
of the particle and as the particle moves through a channel they keep changing and you can
take a look at it. So, you should focus, for example, this time increases by increments of 0.1,
and accordingly the special location changes, velocity will increase, the acceleration also
increases.
Remember from our expression the velocity also doubles, acceleration also doubles and that
is what happens here. The time increment is 0.1 second; that run simulation for every 0.1
seconds, the x coordinate and the velocity, I have done simulation for 6.9 seconds; so, almost
at the end of the channel 1 meter and the velocity as increased from 0.1 m/s to 0.2 m/s,
acceleration increase from point naught 1 m/s2 to point naught 2 m/s2; that is what happens.
Whatever we have seen more mathematically in terms of expression shown in terms of
simulation fine.
It's gone through a series of steps, I thought I will just summarize them here. In the Eulerian
approach, you were given the velocity field, we find the acceleration of a particle as a
function of position using substantial derivative ok. And find the acceleration of the particle
125
at the required position, because the expressions themselves were dependent on position. So,
given the position, they substitute to find out the expression very simple.
The Lagrangian approach given the velocity field, but we are not using it directly; find the
position of the particle as a function of time by integration. That is the first step we did. Once
you know the position, differentiation once twice will give you velocity and acceleration of a
particle as a function of time; that is to be noted. Now, we need to find out the time
corresponding to the required position. That is what we did because we know the position as
a function of time, then substituted in the expression of acceleration which was in terms of
time ok. So, now, look at the advantage of the substantial derivative, it does a lot of help for
us just because it expressed a Lagrangian rate of change in terms of the Eulerian field, the
number of steps required was very less.
Look at the Lagrangian approach, we had to find out position, velocity, acceleration,
substitution in terms of time etcetera, but remember this is more natural; why? That we did
right from your particle mechanics principles. This is more closer to measurement because
the velocity field is what you are measuring and that is the significance of substantial
derivative ok. It gives you a meaning of Lagrangian derivative just from Eulerian
measurements.
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Lecture - 11
Substantial Derivative Example 2
Another nice example of measuring sediment concentration in a river. Let me read through
the example. After a rainfall, the sediment concentration at a certain point in a river increases
at the rate of 100 parts per million (ppm) per hour. So, look at the sentence here, at the rate of
100 parts per million per hour at a certain point. So, tells you the local rate of change. So,
sediment concentration you guys imagine some concentration, we will use a letter C. In
addition, the sediment concentration increases with distance downstream as a result of influx
from tributary streams. So, this is the spatial variation. This rate increases by 50 ppm per
kilometer. You are given at a point what is the rate of change of sediment concentration, I
will use the word concentration and then what is the concentration increase as you move
down. And you are also given the velocity of the stream, the stream flows at 0.5 kilometers
per hour.
Now, you want to measure the concentration, a boat is used to survey the sediment
concentration because you like to measure a survey's concentration in the entire region. So,
you cannot be at a particular point that is an advantage of this Lagrangian way of
127
measurement, you can move around and measure; otherwise, you will require a lot of sensors.
If it is time-varying, then you require simultaneous sensors in several locations. If it is a
steady-state you can use one sensor everywhere, one by one, and measure. But if the
concentration is varying with respect to time, then you can use one sensor you require several
sensors from the Eulerian viewpoint.
In the Lagrangian viewpoint, you can move around and then measure. Something like in the
example of pollute and measurement, you require several sensors at a special location to
measure the concentration as a function of time. Instead of that let us say you travel in a
motorcycle and then measure the concentration, then you travel and that becomes a
Lagrangian viewpoint.
Now, what the operator is amazed at is to find three different apparent rates of change of
sediment concentration. Why apparent? That depends on how he is moving, so it is an
apparent change of sediment concentration when the boat travels upstream, drifts the current,
and travels downstream. So, one time is going along the stream, against a stream; another
time is just drifting with the stream. Explain physically why the different rates are observed
and you are given the speed of the boat is 2.5 kilometers per hour (kmph), compute these
three rates of change. So, very good examples; it is an exercise from Fox and McDonald.
Additional information to solve this example: (Refer Slide Time: 03:20)
Now, before doing this example, let us look at another interesting topic (above referred slide).
So, now, the slide says types of derivatives and then show some three photographs, all from
128
wiki commons. Probably you may remember participating in a contest where they show some
photographs and identify a common theme between them etcetera. The common theme is the
types of derivatives. Now, you have to match the derivatives of the photographs.
Now, the first photograph (Left-hand side in the referred slide) shows a small bridge; the
second shows a motorboat (Middle in the referred slide); and the third, shows a canoe
(Right-hand side in the referred slide) which is not a motorboat, you will have to peddle it.
Now, why these examples, why these photographs?
Let us look at the first line. Observation of fish concentration in the Mississippi river. Why
fish concentration, why Mississippi river, all these are one simple reason want to illustrate the
discussion in the book by Bird Stewart Lightfoot. The concentration has taken there is fish
concentration the river taken as Mississippi river, this may not be certainly not Mississippi
river, but to illustrate that taken fish concentration Mississippi river compared to taking the
Ganges or a Cauvery here.
Now, the first derivative is partial derivative, is at a particular location. So, what you do? You
imagine that you stand on the bridge (first image) and measure the fish concentration and you
are at a particular location. Fish concentration may change and water measuring is the local
rate of change of concentration. The reason for explaining this now is that this discussion and
the example are very much analogous. Their sediment concentration; here it is the fish
concentration, very analogous. Now, of course, want to project what is given in Bird Stewart
Lightfoot also.
∂c
P artial derivative = ∂t
And the next derivative is the total derivative. Remember when we derived the expression for
substantial derivative, we said this also a total derivative. Given the derivation, we said it is a
dv
total derivative, dt . So, the function of x particle, y particles, z particle, t etcetera. It is a total
derivative only difference is that the velocity there is the fluid velocity.
dc ∂c ∂c ∂c
T otal derivative, dt = ∂t + v xB ∂x + v yB ∂y + v zB ∂c
∂z
So, in general, total derivatives are also given by the same expression. What is the difference
here, of course, written for concentration, this velocity is not equal to the fluid velocity. The
example is given by when the measurement of pollutant in the road, you would travel in a
bike, the velocity of the bike let us say is all almost still air etcetera, then the velocity of the
129
bike will be the velocity will be substituted here. In this particular case, you are going to
substitute the velocity of the boat that is why the subscript here is B.
Dc ∂c ∂c ∂c ∂c
S ubstantial derivative, Dt = ∂t + vx ∂x + vy ∂y + vz ∂z
So, in the second case, you go in a motorboat (Middle image) that has its own velocity that is
an example also given here. So, it has its own x component, let us say y component, z
component of velocity, these are not necessarily same as that of the fluid velocity. So, the
total derivative is a more generic total derivative, a special case of that is the substantial
derivative where these are the same as the fluid velocities. I want to distinguish this because
throughout the course we are going to come across only substantial derivative which is
following the fluid motion. When you are saying following the fluid motion, it cannot be
some other velocity. But total derivatives a more generic total derivative where this velocity
is necessary needs not be a fluid velocity. But here remember vx, vy, vz are the local fluid
velocities.
That is what happens in the third case you go in a canoe (Right-hand side image), but just to
repeat the sentence they're given in the book, you do not feel energetic you just float along
the stream, you do not pedal ok. If you pedal that may have some other velocity. Just get
along that you wherever your steam takes you just follow that, so which means that the
velocity at which you are measuring the concentration of fish is the same as that of the fluid
velocity.
So, in the first case you are at a particular location, in the second case, you are moving, but
some other velocity not equal to the velocity at the stream, but in the third case you are just
floating along with that.
The substantial derivative which is going to come across throughout the course is
Dc ∂c ∂c ∂c ∂c
S ubstantial derivative, Dt = ∂t + vx ∂x + vy ∂y + vz ∂z
Dc
Some books do not differentiate, but some books differentiate. We will differentiate, Dt
represents a substantial derivative.
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Solution:
Now, let us return back to the example. I think all the physics has clear; instead of fish we
have sediment, we will have to use the appropriate velocities. Now, the substantial derivative
of concentration is given by the expression
Dc ∂c
Dt = ∂t + (v.∇) c
This is for you to get slowly used to the vectorial notation, I have specifically used the
vectorial representation. Now, in this particular case, it is the rate of change of concentration
so,
dc ∂c
dt = ∂t + (v B .∇) c
Now, we will just take a one-dimensional case. So, v yB = 0; v zB = 0, and v B .∇ gets

simplified because v yB =0 and v zB =0,
∂ ∂ ∂
v B .∇ = v xB ∂x + v yB ∂y + v zB ∂z
You will have only one term as we have done earlier case also. So, only the first term remains
∂
v B .∇ = v xB ∂x
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So, the expression for the rate of change of concentration; I do not call this as a substantial
derivative of concentration, one of the special cases is a substantial derivative. I just call a
rate of change of concentration is given by this expression.
dc ∂c ∂c
dt = ∂t + v xB ∂x
It has two components that are still there, conceptually it is the same. Please remember that it
has a local component, has a convective component, but their convection takes place at
different rates, different velocities.
Now, we are given the rate of change of sediment concentration,
∂c ppm
∂t = 100 hr
Then as you travel, there is a change in concentration and that is given by
∂c ppm
∂x = 50 km
Now, the velocity of the stream and speed of the boat was given to us
v s = 0.5 km
hr
; v br = 2.5 km
hr
Now, whenever you specify the speed of a boat, it is customary that it is represented with
respect to the stream velocity. Now, you are moving with a stream, all the velocities of the
boat reported are with respect to the stream velocity. But what you like to know is the
velocity with the boat from a stationary point of view. Suppose, if you stand on the shore and
observe the boat velocity that is why I use the notation v br relative to the stream velocity.
Let us put that in terms of expressions, v br represents relative velocity, the velocity with the
boat relative to the stream velocity. Now, to obtain the rate of change of concentration as
measured from the boat, remember these velocities are all with respect to a stationary
observer. What do you mean by a stationary observer? You stand on the shore, you are not
moving along with the boat, you are on the shore you are observing what is the velocity of
the boat.
v xB = v br + v s
So, v br is velocity given, relative to the stream. So, you add the stream velocity. Looking at
the other way, this relative velocity is given as the velocity of the boat and then you subtract
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the stream velocity; relate to the stream velocity what is the velocity with the boat that is the
value given to you. To get the actual velocity, actual velocity meaning velocity as a stationary
observer on the shore would observe you will have to add the stream velocity, and of course,
taking in the relative directions into account, whether it is going along with the stream or
against a stream etcetera. Now, I explain the nomenclature very clearly here,
v s = Velocity of the stream x-direction.
v br = Velocity of the boat (relative to the stream velocity) in the positive x-direction. So,
suppose if it is moving in a negative direction I should take a minus sign for that and,
v xB = Velocity of the boat (relative to the shore/stationary observer) positive x-direction. So,
that makes our sign convention very clear.
So, once all this clear, we can answer the three cases given. First one first it says, for travel
upstream. The upstream means that the boat is traveling against the stream that is a
terminology used; when you say upstream a stream goes in the positive x-direction boat
moves opposite with that upstream to that, so moves in the negative x-direction.
So, the velocity of the boat as we have seen, we have to add velocity with the boat relative to
the stationary observer is equal to the velocity to the boat relative with the stream plus the
stream velocity.
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km
v xB = v br + v s =− 2.5 + 0.5 =− 2 hr
Now, because the boat is moving in the negative x-direction I have used a minus 2.5 here;
and a stream, of course, we are taken to move in the positive x-direction, so plus 0.5 giving us
minus 2 kilometers per hour that is the velocity with the boat as observed from the shore or
station observer.
So, now, simple substitution, rate of change of concentration as measured sitting on the boat
which is moving at the rate of 2 kilometers per hour in the negative x-direction as observed
from the shore.
dc ∂c ∂c ppm
dt = ∂t + v xB ∂x = 100 − 2x50 = 0 hr
So, if you are moving at the boat at these conditions, and suppose if you have something
called the sedimentation meter or meter which shows you sedimentation concentration, and if
you calculate the rate of change, there would not be any change of concentration, that is why
it says apparent change of concentration.
Now, drifting, you just float along the stream. And in this case, the the velocity of the boat
relative to the stream velocity is 0, it is just drifting along the stream. You add the stream
velocity. So, this gives you the velocity with the boat as observed by a stationery observer,
which is the same as the stream velocity.
km
v xB = v br + v s = 0 + 0.5 = 0.5 hr
In this case, the total derivative becomes a substantial derivative. In this case, because the
velocity of the boat is the same as the velocity of the stream, this concentration what you
measure is the substantial derivative of concentration, that is also in objective which I why I
dc Dc
took this example to differentiate between a general dt and capital Dt . So,
dc Dc ∂c ∂c
dt = Dt = ∂t + v xB ∂x = 100 + 0.5x50 = 125 ppm/hr
Now, next, you are traveling downstream, you are just traveling along with the stream in your
boat. And in this case, the velocity of the boat relative to the stationary observer, we will
substitute 2.5, why, the boat is moving in the positive x-direction along with the stream, so
plus 2.5 to that add the velocity of the stream which is 0.5 which results in 3 kilometers per
hour.
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v xB = v br + v s = 2.5 + 0.5 = 3 km/hr
Now, once again substitute, find out the rate of change of concentration, no longer substantial
again some other velocity, so
dc ∂c ∂c
dt = ∂t + v xB ∂x = 100 + 3x50 = 250 ppm/hr
So, now you observe different rates of concentration depending on your velocity which is the
velocity at which you are traveling in the boat.
So, travel upstream,
v xB =− 2 km
hr ;
dc
dt = 0 ppm
hr
For the case of drifting,
v xB = 0.5 km
hr ;
Dc
Dt = 125 ppm
hr
For travel downstream,
v xB = 3 km
hr ;
dc
dt = 250 ppm
hr
So, the observed rates of change differ, because the observer is convicted at different
velocities, he is moving at different resulting velocities is no longer moving at the same
velocity of the fluid. So, at different velocities that is a reason you observing different rates.
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And convective changes may add towards subtract, the first term and second term based on
the velocity either can add or subtract and that is what we have seen. It could either subtract
or it could add as well it could that depends on the condition we have. So, convective change,
a second term may add to or subtract from the local rate of change that is the first term. So,
that is a very nice example that illustrates several aspects of substantial derivative and total
derivative also. Either to measure sediment concentration or the fish concentration could be
pollutant concentration could be temperature.
Just to summarize we have discussed substantial derivative. A derivative following the

motion, more importantly, the Lagrangian derivative in terms of Eulerian variables, and it has
two components to it, the local component and the convective component. So, let us continue
in the next lecture.
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Lecture – 12
Visualization of Flow Patterns: Streamline, Pathline
We are discussing the fundamental concepts wherein we have discussed the continuum
hypothesis. There are two approaches for describing fluid flow namely Eulerian, and
Lagrangian. And, the last lecture, we discussed about the substantial derivative, the derivative
characteristic of continuum mechanics and transport phenomena, and also looked at in detail
the say the physical significance of that the derivatives which are following the fluid motion.
In this lecture, we are going to discuss about Visualization of Flow Patterns, before looking at
two other topics as part of fundamental concepts.
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We have been telling about flow through some geometry, flow through some pipe etcetera
then, but how do you represent that either experimentally or in terms of simulation that is
what we mean by visualization of flow patterns. We have some equipment and there is some
flow through that and you would not describe that in terms of some let us say a representation
of figure and how do you do that.
So there are three different ways of representing a flow pattern. First is a method by
streamlines, and streamlines are a representation of a result of a simulation. You do not
measure streamlines if you have calculated the flow field then we can represent the flow field
in terms of streamlines. That is why it says calculated through simulation.
Now, the second way of visualizing flow patterns is by pathlines, and path lines are measured
in an experiment; you can measure path lines. You can also represent simulation through path
lines, but the moment you say path line we usually relate to experimental measurement.
The third method is through streak lines. Once again it is measured in an experiment. We do
not usually represent the result of a simulation through streak lines. Usually, we represent
mostly based streamlines may be pathlines also, streaklines rarely.
That is why I separated into simulation and experiment; streamlines through simulation, path
lines through an experiment which means measure path lines in an experiment, also represent
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simulation results through path lines, streak lines are predominantly measured
experimentally.
Now, let us start with this definition of a streamline. The whole idea of this lecture is to
define all these lines and how are you going to calculate these three lines and then represent
pictorially. So, let us look at the definition of a streamline. A streamline is a curve that is
everywhere tangent to the instantaneous local velocity vector. Now, first, the keywords here
are; it is a tangent, the next keyword is instantaneous, the next keyword is local velocity. So,
three aspects are there in this definition.
First, it says that it is a curve that is everywhere tangent to the velocity vector. Looking at the
other way, if you have a streamline and if you draw a tangent, that would represent the
velocity. Now, why is it local? Wherever you have a tangent it represents velocity at that
particular location. So, what is shown in the figure (referred slide) is a streamline, and I have
taken a point x, y, and shown a tangent there. So, according to the definition of streamline; a
streamline is a curve that is everywhere tangent to the velocity vector. So, at a point, the
tangent represents the direction of velocity. That is why a velocity vector is also shown and
that is along the direction of the tangent that completes the first keyword.
Second, as I told you local, why is it local? Because the streamline can be curved as shown in
the figure so, the tangent which you draw can keep changing directions. So, one tangent gives
the velocity at a particular location, and the other tangent gives the velocity at other location
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that is why this says a local velocity vector. Thirdly, instantaneous what does it mean? At that
particular instant of time, this is the streamline. So, we have a streamline let us say at some
instant t, and some other time streamline may be different.
So, that is why you when streamlines are instantaneous at a particular instant of time. I think
this should be kept in mind. The way in which time plays a role among these three
visualization patterns is slightly different. So, for streamlines, it is instantaneous streamlines
and if you have given a set of streamlines just by drawing the tangent you will be able to
represent the velocity vectors and their local velocity vectors.
Now, how are you going to quantify this? We have seen in terms of description what are
streamlines is. Let us see how do we go about getting an expression for a streamline. What is
given to us? A velocity field is given to us. As I told you we have done some simulations, we
have done some predictions. We have got the velocity field as a result of that simulation
which means that you know the velocity vector and for the present case we will resist
ourselves to a 2-dimensional case.
dr = dxi + dyj
So, we have vx and vy; two components are there and they could be functions of x, y, and, this
result is obtained from a simulation. Now, we want to represent this in terms of streamlines
So, that quickly I know how does velocity changes? How does the velocity change from one
location to the other etcetera. So, as I told you we start with the given velocity field
represented in terms of an expression
v = vx i + vy j
vx = x component of velocity and vy = y component of velocity and i and j are the unit vectors
along x and y-direction.
Now, we are looking at the streamline in the x, y plane. So, we are interested in the
streamline in the x, y plane. Now, what we will do is use the definition of streamline and put
it in terms of an equation. What does the definition say? If you draw a tangent to the
streamline that is in the same direction as the velocity vector, so, the slope of the streamline
at a particular point is given by the tangent.
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dy
So, we know that the slope of a curve is given by dx
, what is specified is it is along a
streamline. We are along a streamline, we draw a tangent and the slope of that is represented
dy
by dx
. Now, this should be equal to the velocity vector makes an angle let us say theta with
the x-axis and the tangent of that angle should be equal to this slope and we know that the
vy
tangent of this angle is given by vx . So,
( )
dy
dx along a streamline
=
vy
vx
So, this equation is the condition for a streamline. The left-hand side is the slope of the
streamline and we have defined a streamline such that if you draw a tangent which is the
slope will be equal to the tangent of the angle the velocity vector makes with the x-axis.
Another way of looking at this expression is that little more geometrically. I have drawn a
small incremental arc in the figure (referred slide) and as a point becomes closer and closer
that arc becomes the tangent and, components of this vector are dy in the y-direction dx in the
x-direction. Now, we know that the velocity vector is along the same tangent and the
components of velocity are vy and then vx. So, we can take two similar triangles and equate
dy vy dy
dx
on the left-hand side. Then, equate vx
to the dx
. So, the second one is more geometric
first one is just comes from the definition of streamline.
Now, if you extend this to a 3-dimensional case. So,
dx dy dz
vx
= vy
= vz
So, these conditions can be used to obtain the equation for streamline, how do we do that we
will see later. But, right now we have come from a physical definition to a mathematical
expression that represents the physical definition.
We will have to integrate this; we will consider only a 2-dimensional case later on as an
example. So, integration of this equation will give the equation for streamline. How do we do
that we will see take an example later on and then discuss that.
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Streamline represents the velocity field at an instant, I want to emphasize that it is at a

particular instant, streamlines can change as a function of time and if you are given a set of
streamlines then you keep drawing tangent. For example, we have what is shown in the figure
(referred slide) are set of streamlines for flow around a circular cylinder. What you see is just
front view and you have flow entering here and then flowing over a cylinder.
So, all these are streamlines and if you draw a tangent anywhere you get the entire velocity
field that is what this statement tells you. Streamline represents velocity field at an instant.
So, wherever you have can draw a tangent then it will represent the velocity vector at all
those locations so, you can get the entire velocity field. As usual, as I said earlier why that
instant this velocity field can change with time and then you get instantaneous velocity field.
So, in that way, it is very a powerful representation of the velocity field.
For unsteady flow streamlines change with time, we have seen that. And, regions of
recirculating flow and separation of fluid of a solid or easily identified by the streamline, that
is what in fact, is shown here. These streamlines go around the object and then you see some
streamlines here which are closed which represents circulation and you can also see that the
width of the circulation keeps increasing. So, in that way streamlines are a very powerful
representation. They give the velocity field, they also tell you recirculating flow, separation
of fluid of a solid wall etcetera, all can be obtained you get a quick picture of how the
velocity takes place and that is why we said visualization of flow patterns.
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As I told you, in this case, it is flowing over an object, it could be flowing through a pipe
whatever geometry and streamlines visually give a quick representation of the entire flow
field. So, to explain our title these are the flow patterns and we have seen one method of
representing the flow patterns namely streamlines.
What are this path line, let us look at the definition once again. A pathline is an actual path
traveled by an individual fluid particle over some time period ok. Now, we are familiar with
the term fluid particle. If you identify a fluid particle as usual by adding a dye and then you
track the path followed by the fluid particle and that is called a path line. Path line is the
actual path travel by an individual fluid particle; I want to emphasize individual fluid particle
will help you to understand later on when you discuss streak line. So, path lines are for
individual fluid particles.
Also want to emphasize that over some time period, let us say at t = tstart you are at some
position, after some time the particle is at some other position. So, over some time period
what is a path followed by the fluid particle and what is the path depend on that depends on
the local velocity field. So, once again it represents the velocity field. The whole idea is to
represent the velocity field in some form, earlier we have discussed streamlines now we are
discussing the path line. The path depends on the velocity field; it could which could be a
function of time as well.
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So, as I told you mark a fluid particle with dye and take a video. Why should you take a video
because we are following the particle over a period of time, continuously over a period of
time. I want to emphasize this video which you are of course, easily remember so that I can
contrast it with streak lines a little later. So, two things to be noted; one, of course, is a path of
a fluid particle. I want emphasis on individual fluid particles and taking a video keep this in
mind as we go along with streak lines I will contrast with this.
Path line is a Lagrangian concept by the way and I have discussed to be very clear that it is a
Lagrangian concept, when you discussed the Lagrangian concept in fact without doing the
term path line, what did we say, we identify a particle follow the path, followed by fluid
particle. Specifically, I had used the word path line because it was resolved for today’s
lecture, but without using this terminology we said we take a group of molecules large
enough number of molecules dye it and follow the path followed by the fluid particle. In fact,
the Lagrangian concept was introduced using a path line without mentioning the name. Now,
the time has come to relate these two path line is a Lagrangian concept.
Now, material position vector as a function of time for a chosen particle identified by its
initial position. Once again all these terminologies referred to the Lagrangian description. Let
us see how is that first of all, for a chosen fluid particle I mention as particle means a fluid
particle and then material position vector, why material position vector? We are following a
material particle which is a fluid particle and what is its position as a function of the time it
could be a, it could move in one direction, it could move in the x-y axis or along x, y, z
coordinate. So, it is a position vector of course, as a function of time which varies as a
function of time.
Remember Lagrangian description we said the independent variables are a time of course,
and then the fluid particle. For example, in the chimney case we said particle A, particle B,
and then later on we said, refine saying that we cannot number all the particles, I will give
letters for all the particles. We will identify by its initial position that is what this says
identified by its initial position.
So, different ways of explaining the path line so that we relate to the Lagrangian concept. So,
as I told you streamlines depend on the velocity field, similarly path lines of course, also
depend on the velocity field. The whole idea is to represent the velocity field. So, for a known
velocity field two ways of looking at it when I say known velocity field, the velocity field
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could come from a simulation and we want to represent as path lines, but more practically
you have a region and there is a velocity field on the path line gets determined by the velocity
field existing in that region. We have a pipe and there is some velocity field here, the path
line gets determined by the velocity field.
So, when I say known velocity field either an experimental field and you are measuring a
pathline or a velocity field which you result which you calculate from a simulation and what
you require is a velocity field. In one case you have values or functions in the case of
simulation. In the experiment, this region has some velocity field in it and which you do not
know and, but you are measuring the path line to indirectly get the velocity field.
Now, how do you get the path line it is a simple integration. Here we should mention that
based on my description, this path line is the same as the path line we should have come
across in the particle mechanics course. Whatever you have come across in physics course
the distance traveled by a particle at different times exactly the same meaning here, but for a
fluid particle, that is all the difference.
So, We want the position vector as a function of time
tend
x = xstart + ∫ v dt
tstart
You are integrating from tstart to tend. What is that tend? Let us say tstart = 0, if I take tend = 1, I
will get the position vector at the first second; if I take tend = 2, I will get the position vector at
the 2nd second.
So, I want to emphasize here once again; you are given xstart, you are given tstart. You are
identifying the particle by its initial position. So, let us say tstart = 0 and xstart = 1,1 or some
coordinate system. This tend keeps changing depending on the position you want to find out at
the corresponding time. Of course, the vectorial equation we write this into three
components; and do the integration. We will see how do we do that in the application part.
Integration for the same particle with different time tend to get one path line for a particle.
Every word makes is important here for the same particle. Why is it important? To
distinguish this from streak lines that is why it is important. For the same particle with
different time tend, so that we get different positions at different times and get one path line for
a particle. We are focusing on only one particle. You may focus on different particles. By
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focusing on one particle you get one path line. So, as shown here, it focuses on one particle
and getting the path line for one particle. That is why it says for the same particle with
different times tend to get one path line for a particle.
So, let us see a demonstration, our friendly system is the flow between two parallel plates.
We will come across an example repeatedly unless a climax of let us say a fluid mechanics
course, fluid mechanics part of continuum mechanics part you will derive this velocity profile
ourselves, until then we will accept this velocity profile. So, as I told you we have a region,
this is the region between two plates and we have a flow in this direction. And, there is flow
only in the x-direction and this region has this velocity field, and our path line will represent
this velocity field.
Now, what I have shown here is different fluid particles each will give different path lines.
And, they are identified by their initial position that is what we said; we identify a particle at
the initial position. Let us say this t = 0, let me start the simulation. Now, these individual
lines are the path lines. This is the path line for 1st particle, the path line for 2nd particle, path
line at the particle which of the center.
Now, as you see this particle as travels only a smaller distance. This particle the center has
traveled a long distance. So, this particle has traveled a larger distance, all are done at the
same time. So, as we, as once again going back to object we want to represent the flow field
in terms of path line that is what has happened here. These path lines represent the velocity
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field, a particle at the wall moves slower but a particle at the center moves faster and that is
why the centered one has traveled a longer distance compared to a particle which has closer
to the wall.
Now, how does it compare with the streamline? Remember the mathematical representation
of streamline you said
( )
dy
=
vy
vx
In this particular case, there is no flow in the y-direction; there is flow only in the x-direction.
So, the y component of velocity 0, i.e vy = 0; which means that the slope is 0, when the slope
is 0 we know it is just a straight line, and streamline is y equal to constant.
v y = 0;
( )
dy
=0
y = constant
So, the path line is also a horizontal line, streamline is also a horizontal line. So, path lines
and the streamlines coincide with each other. Not any path any streamline; streamline passing
through a location and path line through that same location coincide. You cannot say the path
line passing through (x,y) coincide with the streamline passing through (x1,y1) So, that is not
correct. So, now, this is a case of a steady-state velocity field. This velocity field does not
change with time hence streamlines coincide with the path line.
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Department of Biotechnology
Lecture – 13
Visualization of Flow Patterns: Streakline
So let us move on to streakline. So, a very excellent representation of streakline, thanks to the
book by Hauke G, in fact, the title of the book and the title of this course are almost same. It
is introductory course; the book title is introduction. Of course, restrict to fluid mechanics, we
are going to discuss both fluid and solid mechanics analogously. It also has a transfer
phenomena component in it. So, in that way it is very good representation the title of the
book and the title of course go hand in hand. Thanks to the author for this representation
which gives a very clear picture of streakline.
The way in which I start as of course, indicating that streaklines are slightly difficult
compared to streamlines and path lines. So, let us discuss that. What is shown in the figure is
something like a chimney and then smoke coming out of it. Smoke coming out of chimneys
is an example for a streakline, or if you have a region inject dye and then that is also example
for a streakline. What is shown in the figure is a particle, let us call particle A, in this particle
and this is our point of focus. And the particle A is at initial position at time t 0. At the next
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time t 1 , the particle has moved to next position which was at the initial location has moved,
and then another particle B enters at the same location.
Now, sometime later the particle A was moved to some other location of course, initially it
was at initial position, now it has come to the another location. Now, particle B it was at
initial position, it has now come to same location of particle A and another particle C is just
entering the same initial location. Now, sometime later another particle D is at the initial
position. Particle C which was just entered in the previous time instant is now at the location
of B and D is just entering. So, now, this particle A has taken one path, B has taken second
path, C has taken third path, all depend on the fluid flow happening in that location. I keep
repeating this point because we said visualization of flow patterns. So, when we draw a line
that should represent the velocity field.
Now, all the paths followed by different particles are path lines because it is for a particular
fluid particle. All those are path lines, because we said path line is a path travels by a fluid
particle, path line for A, path line for B, path line for C.
Now, what is the streakline? Connect all these end points of the path lines, you will get a
streakline. So, the curve is the streakline which is the end point of all the path lines. Other
way of putting it is, it tells you the locus of all fluid particles at a particular time, it is a
particular time, but it has a time history associated with that, and all these particles have
passed through the particular point or initial position. So, it is a very good representation with
which you can physically understand streaklines very clearly. Remember when we measure
experimentally by injecting a dye or smoke like this, we are measuring streakline only.
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So, let us move on to how to describe in terms of words and in terms of equations. The
picture in the above slide image shown is a usual representation for streakline that is my
appreciation for this representation of streakline. Clearly it tells what a streakline is, this is
also tells very colorfully about a streakline, a better representation of a streakline. What is
shown here is as I told you dye or a smoke is injected at a particular point; this point which
entered here which was here at the times you are interested corresponds to this particle 1.
So, likewise this particle 1 was at the initial position sometime earlier, now it is moved;
particle 2 was at that location, now it is also moved. Likewise particle 8 is just entering. Our
particle 8 and this particle are analogous each other. There I took four particles, yes of course,
here we have shown for 8 particles.
Now, let us define streakline, a streakline is a locus of fluid particles that have passed
sequentially through a prescribed point in the flow. Streakline is a locus, why is it locus,
moment we say locus something should be constant. In this particular case, what is constant
this point of injection is a constant.
What is common to all this fluid particle, every fluid particle has passed through this point
sometime earlier compare to the present time. You wants streakline at a particular time, these
particles have passed through this point at some time earlier that’s why it says locus. As I told
you earlier path line is for one fluid particle; now streaklines are connecting endpoints of
several fluid particles, that is why locus of fluid particles that have passed sequentially
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through a prescribed point at the flow. What is the prescribed point, in this case wherever
injecting the dye.
So, why is that streakline is important what actually measure is a streakline, you will shortly
see that for steady state case streaklines also coincide with path line and stream lines. So, it is
equivalent to measuring streamline. We may say that we have injecting a dye, I measure a
streakline, but you are not messaging directly a streamline. So, in a steady state case because
the flow is steady and all these coincide with each other, and you are measuring a streakline
actually because the flow is steady so happened that the streakline becomes equivalent to the
stream line. So, we can little more casually you can say I measured stream line, but not
precisely.
So, the location of individual tracer particle is determined by surrounding velocity field that
is what we have seen. As I told you all these path lines, the path line and the location all, the
path line does not matter for us, only this location matters for the streakline, for location of an
individual tracer particle is determined by the surrounding velocity field from the moment of
its injection into the flow until the present time. As we have been saying streakline should
represent the flow there. So, the position depends on the flow field from the moment to the
particular time instant.
Why is it from the moment?, the velocity field could change also during that time could be a
function of time as well that is why it says the depends on the surrounding velocity field
which can change from the moment of its entry of injection into the flow until the present
time. Of course we are following the paths of a continuous stream of a tracer particles from
the time of their injection into the flow until the present time that is what we have done.
Follow the paths of a continuous stream of particles, and we are following the paths, the paths
as it does not is not important to us. We are interested in the final position, but the particles
follow the path lines. So, follow the paths of a continuous stream of tracer particles from the
times of the injection into the flow until the present time.
Locus of treasure particle locations at time t =t present . The present time I denote it as t present is
connected by a smooth curve to get a streakline. That is what we said all this points are
connected by a smooth line to get the streakline. A locus as I explained you because all of
them pass through a particular prescribed point in the flow.
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Now how do you represent mathematically? Now, integration for different particles with
different t inject and same t present that passed to the prescribed point may be let me show in the
next equation as well be easier to explain this statement.
t present
x=x injection+ ∫ vdt

t injection
Now, remember here also we do integration. We want the current position. In the earlier case
x was some initial portion of fluid particle; in this case x is the point of injection. Now, so,
t present represents the time at which we want to plot the streakline.
And now t inject keeps changing because different fluids particles are at this prescribe point at
different time instance. Let us say the example which we will take let us say we want t present is
2 seconds, t inject will vary from let say 0 second, 0.5 second, 0.1 second, 1.5 second etcetera.
In the x injection is same, t inject is different, and so when you do this integration you are doing it
for different fluid particles. Why is it, because the fluid particle at the prescribed location at
t inject keeps changing at different instance of time, so that is why in the early integration I was
very specific the early integration this was the initial position this was the initial time.
And let us say zero and then some given initial portion, we varied the end time and that was
our one fluid particle. In this particular case, injection point is of course same, the present
time is same, but the time of injection is different because we are doing this integration for
when you change t inject represents another fluid particle. We will understand this when we go
to the example. So, now let us look at this example this statement integration for different
fluid particles unlike the earlier case with the different t inject and same t present that pass
through the prescribed point, is it.
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Now, let us have a demonstration for the streakline in the same geometry and same fluid flow
conditions. So, let us straight away look at the demonstration of streakline. The way in which
you have done is or what you have to focus is, here the simulation is run (watch video for
better understanding) such that as if I am injecting a dye here, remember the prescribed point
can change. If you want to get an entire flow field, you will have to change the point of
injection.
So, the way in which you visualize the simulation is that you have a point of injection is at
inlet so, you are injecting a dye at different inlet locations that is how you should visualize.
Look at the initial point, focus at that point, you will see particles continuously entering and
then flowing through the flow fluid. Now, let us run that simulation, I will also stop in
between if you see here particles are continuously entering. And then they move through the
flow fluid.
So, what you see here is particle being continuously injected and they follow the flow field.
Now, let us stop and see, now what we are seeing here is, let us take this particular location. I
have injected dye at inlet position and several fluid particles have passed that particular point
over period of time. Let us say I want streakline at the time where I frozen the video. Now,
this is the position of the particle which is just entered or just the point of injection, this last
one is a first particle which enter the point of injection.
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Now, how do we define a streakline? I should join the location of all these points by a smooth
line in this case which go up and it is just a straight line, is it? I will repeat again. You have
the first particle, second particle, third particle etcetera. And the first particle has followed the
path line, right now it is at the end; and second particle followed the path line, right now it is
after first particle; likewise third particle etcetera and the last particle which is just entering.
We said streakline has one where we join all the present end points of the path lines. Those
end points of the path lines are all lying in the same horizontal line; for this case and you get
the straight horizontal line as a streakline.
And we already seen that the streamline is also horizontal line passing through that y location
the path line is also same. So, for a steady state flow, streaklines, path lines and streamlines
are all the same. Good demonstration to show how in this particular case the steady state
field, velocity field, the streamlines are the horizontal lines, path lines are also horizontal,
streaklines are also horizontal. Of course, as I told you the streamlines along this at this y
location coincide with the path line with this as initial position, coincide with the streakline
taking this as a point of injection. Though we generally say streaklines path lines and
streamlines are all same, but this point which are considering should be kept in mind.
Just a comparison of stream versus path versus streaklines, we have discussed most of the
concepts just like a summary. The three flow patterns, now I think we are kind of convinced
why they are flow patterns; they represent the flow field. Three flow patterns are identical in
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steady flow we have also demonstrated that; they are different in unsteady flow. I have two
examples one for a steady flow; one for a unsteady flow. We will also see how these lines are
different for a unsteady flow condition.
Streamline represents an instantaneous flow pattern at a given instant in time. We are saying
that instantaneous flow pattern at a given instant in time. Path line and streaklines or flow
patterns that have some age we talked about some integration of the time for both of them
that is why a flow patterns that have some age or time and that does a time history associated
with them. For streakline there has no integration, but both for path lines and streaklines, we
did some integration. How does they differ, you will see in example that is why have some
age and does a time history associated with them.
A path line is the time exposed flow path of an individual particle over sometime period. So,
that is a flow path over some time period of an individual particle. And as I told you we use a
videography to measure this. A streakline is instantaneous snapshot because in our case
example was t present at t present what is the streakline, for example, 2 seconds. At 2 seconds what
are the, what is a streakline. So, streakline is instantaneous a snapshot and that is why we can
measure streakline just using a camera. You do not require a videography, just a snapshot,
take a photograph, then you can measure, that is why specifically want you to pay attention to
videography and then photography. Just take a photo, you can take a snapshot of steak line,
but path line will have to follow it and hence require a video.
So, instantaneous snapshot of a time integrated flow pattern. So, quick summary or a good
summary of that how they represent flow pattern and how do they different, one is an
instantaneous flow pattern, others two have time history, individual particle, and it is a time
expose that’s why require a video, instantaneous snapshot just a camera, and it represents
final position different fluid particles.
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Lecture – 14
Streamline, Pathline: Steady Flow Example
We have defined what are streamlines, what are path lines, what are streak lines and then you
also seen physically what do they mean, represent terms of figures, had some animation and
simulations. We also saw the mathematical expressions for them. What we will do now is
take two examples and illustrate how do you really calculate them.
First example is steady state velocity field, second is a unsteady state velocity field. This
example is from Fox and McDonald. What you have here is flow in a corner. So, velocity
field for flow in a corner is given by the equation,
v=Axi− Ayj
So, velocity is a vector. The first time we are coming across a velocity field where both the x
component and the y component are present. The earlier example we are just only one
component. The x component is the function of x only and the y component as a function of
y only. How do you visualize this? This x velocity increases with x . So, if you move along
the x direction the velocity keeps increasing.
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Now, what about this y component? This y component in terms of first of, all it is in the
negative y direction, it is − Ay and its magnitude increases if you go further with increase
with y, though the magnitude of this component increases as Ay increases. So, x component
is directed in this direction, y component is directed in this direction, that also can be easily
visualized because we have flow in this way. Now, the units of velocity are meters per
second, and A the constant is given as 0.3 second inverse.
Obtain equation for the stream line passing through the point ( x 0 , y 0 )=(2,8) and that point is
shown in the given figure. We are asked to get an equation for a streamline passing through
the point (2,8). Then because it is a steady state velocity field, it has to show that equation of
the path line for a particle, as we are discussed not any stream line coincides with any path
line. Path line for a particle at this location at time t =0 will coincide with the streamline
passing through (2,8). So, we are asked to show that equation of the path line for a particle at
( x 0 , y 0 )=(2,8) at t =0 is a same as the equation of the streamline.
Now, we are also asked to find out what is the velocity of the particle. It is starting at the
initial location, it as the velocity, it travels along the path line, and after some t =6 second it
has a velocity, we are asked to find out what is its velocity.
Solution: (Refer Slide Time: 04:03)
So, let us go ahead. Let us first see how to calculate the streamlines. The velocity field is
given to us,
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v x =Ax ; v y=− Ay
Now, we have seen the equation for streamline is that
dy v y
=
dx v x
dy vy
The is the slope of the stream line, is the tangent of the angle made by the velocity
dx vx
vector with the x axis. This condition came up because streamline is a line for which if you
draw a tangent that represent the velocity. Now, just do a simple rearrangement, so that you
can integrate. So,
dy dx
=
v y vx
The reason for writing this is if you substitute for v y by v x you can integrate. Now, I
substitute for v y =− Ay and substitute for v x =Ax .
dy dx
=
−Ay Ax
Now, we integrate, if you integrate you get,
ln ( y ) =−ln ( x ) +lnC
Now, this equation can be represented as
xy=C
Now, xy=C in this particular case represents a hyperbolic equation and that is what
represented as streamlines here. Now, this C differs from one streamline to the other
streamline. How does it get determined? It gets determined based on the point through which
the streamline passes, that is why we were given find the equation of a stream line passing
through a point (2,8).
Now, so plot a family of streamlines. Remember when need a several streamlines we can
draw tangents to all the streamlines at different locations, get the velocity field in the entire
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region velocity vectors in the entire region. So, plot of family of streamlines by varying
parameters C. So, for one streamline you have one value of C.
Now, C depends on the point through which the streamline passes. In this particular case
(2,8). So, for stream line passing through (2,8)
C=x 0 y 0 =2 x 8=16
So, the equation of streamline passing through (2,8) is
xy=16
This is the general expression for stream setup streamlines. All the streamlines for this flow
field are represented by this general equation, xy=C . Based on the point is specify or based
on which streamline you want, how do you specify? You specify a point on the streamline
then this constant keeps changing, and, this center one is the streamline xy=16 .
Now, how do we calculate a path line? Now, whatever integration we have seen earlier we
will become clear now. We will start with the velocity field, given velocity field
v x =Ax ; v y=− Ay
Now, path lines are the path followed by fluid particles and from a time t =0 to given time let
us say 0 to 2 seconds, 0 to 5 seconds etcetera.
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Now, the velocity of the particle in the x direction is given by the rate of change of its x
coordinate. Now, remember we are use this principle that at a particular point it is instant the
velocity of the fluid particle is same as that of the local velocity given by the velocity field,
relating the Lagrangian view point to the Eulerian view point. That is why
dx dy
vp = =v x= Ax ; v p = =v y=− Ay
x
dt dt
y
When I say this it is velocity of the particle in the x direction is equal to the velocity of the
flow field in the x direction. So, by equating this we use our principle which I use several
times, equating velocity particle to the velocity field at that location at that instant.
Now, we have got two ordinary differential equations
dx dy
= Ax ; =−Ay
dt dt
Now, to solve them we need initial conditions, at time t =0 the particle is at x 0 and y 0 .
x=x 0 , y = y 0 at t =0
To solve the differential equations first order differential equation we need one initial
condition for this and one initial condition for this equation that is what we are given in terms
of the initial position of the particle.
Now, we will integrate this equation; we will integrate this equation, do a variable
rearrangement,
dx
= Adt
x
Integrate, you get
At
lnx= At +ln C 1 ; x =C 1 e
So, x is the coordinate of the particle as a function of time. C 1 is a constant yet be

determined,.
Now, we will use the initial condition at time t =0 we have x=x 0. So, substitute
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At
x= x 0 e
So, this is an equation with C 1 evaluated now as x 0. So, when t =0 you will get the initial x
coordinate. So, this gives you as a function of time what does x coordinate of the particle.
Now, let us do this for y direction also. So, I take this differential equation,
dy
=dt
−Ay
After integration you get,
− At
lny=−At +lnC 2 ; y=C 2 e
Let evaluate the constant C 2, once again use the initial condition at t =0 the y = y 0, so
substitute
y = y 0 e− At
This is the equation which gives you the y coordinate to the particle as a function of time.
These two put together constitute the path line for the particle. So, at an instant t , find x and y
the position of the particle. So, if you give time I can find out x and find out what is y . And
for a range of time to the given time you can find out all the x and y coordinates and then
plot the path line.
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The time t varies along the path line. So, and so we can eliminate the time t to plot y versus x
; so, how do you do that? We have got the equation for x , we got the equation for y , and
eliminating t means that let us say expressed t in terms of x and substitute in second equation
At − At
x=x 0 e ; y= y 0 e
At x y0
e = =
x0 y
So, from this equation you can write
xy=x 0 y 0 =C
So, what is the use of this equation? If you give me time I can find out what is the x
coordinate of the particle, I can find out what is the y coordinate of the particle. What is use
of the last equation? If you give me the x axis and y axis I will straight away plot the path
line. At every time I find out what is x what is y , that is utility of these two expressions. The
last equation straight away gives me what is the equation of the path line in x , y coordinate.
What they are asked is the equation of path line passing through (2.8). The question was
prove that the equation of path line for a particle which starts at (2.8) at t =0 , it is same as
that of the streamline. So, equation of path line passing through (2.8) which means that the
particle is at (2.8) at t =0. So,
x 0 =2; y 0 =8
So,
xy=16
This is the equation of path line, which was also the same as the equation of the streamline,
same as equation of streamline. We have seen that for steady flow. We have also
demonstration through flow between parallel plates that path lines and streamlines coincide
for steady flow. You have seen another example now, where path line coincides with
streamline in terms of equation as well.
Let us have a demonstration (shown in the above slide image). What is shown here are
different fluid particles and then we are going to see the path line followed by each of this
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fluid particle. Remember we said path line is for a particular fluid particle. So, if you track
this you will get one path line, if you track this will get the second path line etcetera. And
now, let us run this. So, these are the path lines followed by different fluid particles. This
represents their position at time t = 0 and then these are the x , y coordinates at different
times. Remember along a path line time varies, t = 0 here and t increases along the path line
here. Now, you have seen that of course, the same equation as a streamline.
The third part of the question was to find out the velocity of the fluid particle at some time
instant along its path line; let us see how do we do that.
Velocity of particle at a point x , y=velocity of fluid at x , y given by velocity field
This we have seen several times relating a Lagrangian view point to the Eulerian view point.
So, the velocity of the particle is equal to velocity of the fluid. Now, from the path line
equations for the individual coordinates, we know what is the position of the particle as a
function of time, both the x coordinate and the y coordinate.
At − At
x=x 0 e ; y= y 0 e
Now, we know of course, the x component of the velocity field and y component of the
velocity field, A is also given to us. At t = 0 of course, we know the portion of the particle is
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( x 0 , y 0 )=(2,8). So, if you substitute the x value here you will get the velocity in the x
direction and velocity in the y direction.
m
v x =Ax =0.3 x 2=0.6
s
m
v y =− Ay=−0.6 x 8=−2.4
s
When I say velocity, two face of interpreting this, velocity of the particle in the x direction,
velocity of the particle in the y direction which is same as velocity of the flow field in the x
direction, velocity of the flow field in the y direction.
Now, as we have seen to begin with the x velocity is a smaller value in terms of magnitude,
0.6 and the y velocity is larger value of −¿2.4 meter per second in terms of magnitude, ok,
larger y component and a smaller x components. So, particle here will have these values 0.6
in the x direction and 2.4 in the negative y direction. What does it where as to find out? Let us
say the particle travels over 6 seconds, what is its velocity?
x=x 0 e At ; y= y 0 e− At
Now, as I told you this set of equations gives you the x coordinate and y coordinate particle
as a function of time. So, let us substitute his in this equation t = 6.
At
x= x 0 e =12.1
y = y 0 e− At =1.32
So, this will be the x position of particle 12.1 and the y coordinate to the particle will be 1.32.
Now, we know the position and as usual as we have done earlier we can find out what is the x
component of velocity and the y component of velocity. Once again, represents the velocity
of the fluid particle and the field as well, velocity field as well.
m
v x =Ax =0.6 x 12.1=3.63
s
m
v y =− Ay=−0.6 x 1.32=0.396
s
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Now, if you see these values the x component as the large value 3.63 meters per second and y
is a small negative value relativity just −¿0.4 meter per second. That is why in terms of angle
this the velocity vector here would make for example, in this particular case the velocity
vector would make the roughly about 70 degrees or 75 degrees with the x axis, but this
velocity vector would just make roughly about 6 degrees. And that is why the particle move
moves in this direction here along this direction and here it is moving along this direction.
So, what you have done this to summarize this particular slide as we know the equation x and
y coordinates of the particle at different time instance. So, if you know the time you can find
out the x and y coordinates, use the velocity field, and use this physical concept of
Lagrangian, Eulerian equality, and find out the velocity of the particle.
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Lecture – 15
Streamline, Pathline, Streakline: Unsteady Flow Example
The second example as I told you is calculating Streamlines, Pathlines and Streaklines. In the
last example we are not discussed streaklines, in this example we will also discuss
streaklines. Other objective is to see how to find out these lines and plot them for a unsteady
flow and we have already discussed for unsteady flow these lines are not same. So, we will
also, you will also see that these lines are not same they are not they do not coincide and then
you will also see how to plot a streak line, those are the specific special features of this
example, other things are a little bit common with the previous example.
We start with this velocity field; the velocity field is given by,
x
vx= ;v = y
1+t y
Because the x component is a function of time, it is a unsteady flow field, if it were not then it
is just a steady flow field like in the previous case. Now, this example also illustrate, we have
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been talking about streamline at a particular instant there will also be emphasized here. Now,
streamline as we have seen represents the flow at a particular time instant.
Now, let us start with the equation for the streamline which are using the previous example
dy v y
=
dx v x
And do a rearrangement, convenient for integration as
dy dx
=
v y vx
dy dx ( 1+t )
=
y x
Now, you will have to integrate the left hand side, integrate the right hand side, when you
integrate remember, because streamlines at a particular instant t is just a constant given value
to you, I want streamline at first second, 0 second. So, you integrate as usual with respect to
y, as usual with respect to x keeping just t as a constant.
ln y =( 1+t ) lnx+lnC
Now, we can rearrange
y =C x 1+t
Please pay attention that you have a time here; so this equation is for a particular time t.
Based on the time t for example, which we will see now, we can plot a family of streamlines
at time t by varying parameters. In the previous example there was no time you just vary C
and got a family of streamlines. This case at every instant time of t you will get a family of
streamlines, you will see that now.
Let us take t = 0 and we substitutes t = 0 you get
y =Cx
This is linear. So, these are the family of streamlines. What is it I have done? I have taken
different values of C here and then plotted this equation that is, that is all I have done here
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(shown in the figure) the x axis y axis, taken C equal to 1, 2, 3 etcetera here and then plotted
this linear relationship y =x , y =2 x , y =3 x all these are straight lines.
Now, let us say some other instant it, I take as t =0.5.
1.5
y =C x
Now, it becomes non-linear, just want to say that the streamlines differ. And now I get
another family of streamlines by once again varying the value of C, y =x 1.5, y =2 x 1.5 and
y =3 x1.5 and I get another set of family of streamlines. This is what we have been
emphasizing that this represents set of streamlines at that instant t = 0. The second equation
represent another set of streamlines at time t = 0.5, that is why we say streamlines are
instantaneous. Now, if you draw tangent to that; of course, they are all straight lines you will
get the velocity over the entire region and now if you draw tangent; of course, these curves if
you draw tangent along for all these curves at different locations you will get the velocity
vector in the entire region. A very good example to illustrate that streamlines are
instantaneous flow patterns and they change from time instant to time instant. This was not
the attention of the earlier example, so we took a steady state example.
Path lines for unsteady flow. So, we start with the given velocity field
x
vx= ;v = y
1+t y
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Now path lines from t =0 to given time t which we have seen earlier. These steps are similar
to the previous example,
the velocity of the particle=the rate of change of its x coordinate=the x compound of the velocity field
dx x dy
vp = = ;v = = y
x
dt 1+t p dt y
Now, this step is also we have seen earlier, I have a differential equation, no longer t is a
constant remember, t varies along the path line, so we cannot take it as a constant as at an
first streamline and t is an independent variable.
So, I have to integrate this two equation. We need initial conditions, so
At t =0 ; x=x 0 , y= y 0
So, we integrate these two equations, rearrangement
dx dt
= ; lnx=ln ( 1+t ) +ln C 1 ; x=C 1 (1+t )
x 1+t
So, the equation for the x coordinate of the particle as a function of time is given by this
expression. Now, we will have to evaluate the constant C 1. What is that we know about the
particle? We know that the particle exponent is x 0 at t = 0. So, substitute
x=x 0 =C 1 ; x=x 0 (1+t )
Please keep this in mind when we later on discuss streak lines there will be a difference the
way in which we evaluate the constant, because the condition that we know is different, the
condition what we know here is different. So, we know the initial condition t = 0, x=x 0, so
we get this expression for the x coordinate.
Let us repeat this for the y direction
dy
=dt ; lny=lnt +ln C 2 ; y=C 2 et
d
Now, evaluate the constant of integration as we have done along the x direction, we know the
y coordinate, so substitute t = 0, y = y 0,
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t
y = y 0 =C 2 ; y= y 0 e
So, the equation for the y coordinate of the particle as a function of time is given by this
equation. So, these two equations together tells you how the x and y coordinates change as a
function of time for the particular particle, at an instant find x and y portion of particle that is
that is what I explained you. Now, you can find for a range of time t =0 to given time, the x
and y positions.
Now, as we are done in the earlier case I can eliminate t ; t varies along the path line, so we
can eliminate t , so that I can plot y versus x. Finally, the path line is a plot between y and x.
So, we will have to eliminate t. So, how do we do that?
t
x=x 0 ( 1+t ) ; y= y 0 e
So, we will take the first equation and express t in terms of x and x 0 and then substitute in the
second equation for t which means we eliminated the time variable t.
x
t= −1
x0
y = y0
(e xx −1)
0
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This is the equation for the path line. These two are the equations to get the x and y
coordinate as a function of time, if you are interested in getting only the final expression for
the path line, eliminate t and this will be the equation for the path line which tells you how y
varies as a function of x, which are the y and x coordinates the particles.
Remember for given initial portion x 0 and y 0 and that is what is shown here in this figure I
have taken different initial positions x 0 and y 0 and then drawn the path line. How do you plot
this path lines, how do you calculate them? Let us take one particular path line. The x 0 =0.1,
and y 0 =40, so I know these values, I know x 0 and y 0 . Then it is a matter of taking different x
values and calculating y values. I will just repeat I know the value of x 0 and y 0 in this
particular case 0.1 and then 40. Then what do I do? I vary x and then calculate y using this
equation. So, and such plots are shown here for initial portion of point 0.1, 40.
This particular case if you see the, in this region which means we are closer to the y axis, the
x
given velocity field is given by v x = ; v = y and because they are almost close to the y
1+t y
axis, the x component of velocity is very small, y component has a large value that is why the
particles starting here almost travels vertically. Over the time period the distance travel along
x direction is very less, but of course, travels a long distance over the y axis, because the y
component is much higher than the x component.
Now, similarly if you take this other extreme where the particle lies on the x axis, the y
velocity is 0 and you have only the x component of velocity and that is why it just travels
along a straight line. So, one almost travel along a vertical line and one travels almost, just
almost perfectly travels along the x axis. You can also see that from this equation also when
y 0 =0 , y remains 0 and that is why this particle travels along the x axis. Of course,
intermediate locations have different path lines based on the x 0 and y 0 values. We can also
see that these path lines do not coincide with the streamlines which we have seen, it’s a
unsteady state flow field, we had streamlines change based on the instant and these path lines
do not coincide with the that of those of the streamlines.
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Streak lines; keep repeating this diagram which is very illustrative, as we go along we will
also keep this figure in mind, so that we understand better ok. We are given the velocity field
x
vx= ;v = y
1+t y
That is a starting point remember, visualization of flow patterns. The given velocity field
could be measured could be simulation, we are representing using different visualization
ways.
Just to recall streak lines at an instant of time they are at an instant of time for particles which
have passed through a point x naught y naught over a time period, because I need to introduce
one more time I used nomenclature t ’ . What does what is a meaning of t ’ ? t ’ tells you the
time at which a particle enters or is at the point of interest or enters the domain. In this
particular case the point at which a particle has this location is t ’ for us and that t ’ varies
from 0 to t. What is t ? t is the present time, the example which I have going to take, t is 2 we
are going to plot the streak line at t = 2.
So, we will have to consider particles which have entered from 0 to 2, like 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2. So,
streak lines at an instant of time for particles which have passed through a point x 0, y 0 over a
period of time from t ’=0 to t ’=t .
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The first two steps are same as that of the path line, what is that? Fine integrating the
equations.
dx x dy
=v x = ; =v y = y
dt 1+t y
Now, we integrate this, this step is also same as that for the path line,
x=C 1 (1+t )
Let us do this for the y direction as well
t
y =C 2 e
So, until this the steps are same. Now, how are we evaluating the constant that is the
difference between path line and streak line. In the case of path line we know that the what is
known to us is a t = 0 that particle was at the position x 0 , y 0 . What is known for streaklines is
at some time t ’ a particle is the initial position, some other next t ’ some other particle is here.
So, the condition known to us is at time t =t ’ we know the coordinate, not a time t = 0. We
know the condition at which the particle is entering, first particle let us say 0 then first,
second, etcetera.
So, t ’ time at which a particle is at x 0, y 0 . I would define that to begin with itself, time at
which a particle is at x 0, y 0 . So, the conditions, the initial conditions which we know are
'
At time=t ≤ t ; x=x 0 , y= y 0
For an example t, we are going to take as 2 seconds. So, t ' we will take as 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5 up to
2. So, at time some t ' less than or equal to t we know the position of the particle; x=x 0 , y = y 0
. So, to evaluate the constants I should substitute t =t ' and then x=x 0. In the earlier case we
just substitute t = 0 initial time and we evaluated the constant, but here the what we know
about the, what is that we want to know the to evaluate the constant, we should know the
position of the particle at some particular time. In the earlier case it was time t = 0, the
present case it is at some time t =t ' .
So, we use this equation, substitute t =t ' and of course, x=x 0 and evaluate the constant as
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x0
C 1= '
1+t
Now, similarly we do for the y direction,
y0
C 2= '
et
x0 1+t
x=C 1 ( 1+t ) ; C 1=
1+t
'
; x=x 0
( )
1+t
'
Similarly in the y direction
t y0 t−t'
y =C 2 e ; C 2 = t'
; y= y 0 e
e
Now, what is the significance of this equations? To do that let us go to the figure shown in
the above slide image, these are equations for the path line of particles, different particles
which were at x 0 , y 0 at t ' , and t is a time which varies along the path line. So, these are just
path line equations, but for different fluid particles. Let us take the example here, let us say
our point of injection is 1,1 so x 0 , y 0 is 1,1. Now, I consider the fluid particle which was at
this location at t ' =0, our current time is t =2.
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So, I how do I use this equation? I substitute t ' =0 and vary t from 0 to 2 seconds and then get
this curve which represents the path line of the particle which was at this location at the 0th
second. Right now the particle is here and this a path line which was followed by the fluid
particle.
Now, let us take second particle which was at this location at t ' =0.5 seconds, what do I do?
Now, I take t ' =0 .5. Once again vary t now from 0.5 to 2, I get the path line of the fluid
particle which was at the location (1,1) at the 0.5 th second. Similarly, this is the path line of
fluid particle which was at (1,1) at the 1st second this path line is not visible in this scale and t
dash equal 2 the particle has just entering, so it is at (1,1) itself, it is not even just into the
domain.
So, we have got several path lines for t ' =¿ 0, 0.5, 1 and then 1.5 and then 2. So, these two
represents the x and y coordinates of the different fluid particles. The difference become
comes because of the fact that t dash varies for different fluid particles. Now, so we drop path
lines from t ' to the current time t that is what we have done, x 0, y 0 is 1 in our case, the current
time is 2 seconds.
An example as I have illustrated t ' =¿ 0 we get x and y by varying t = 0 to 2. Now, how do we

get the streak line which of our interest? You can get, you can join all the endpoints of the
path line. Please keep this figure in mind the streak line is obtained by connecting the
endpoints of all the path line and exactly if you do the same procedure here and then connect
by a smooth line you get the streak line.
Other way of doing that is; for the case of path line t varied along the path line, but for a
streak line what varies is t ' , the time at which different particles enter at our location 1,1, that
t varies from 0 to 2. And, so in this case we eliminate t to get equation of streak line, how do
' '
you do that?
Take the first equation for the x coordinate as a function of time and rearrange that for t ' .
' x0
t= ( 1+t )−1
x
In the case of path line we rearrange for t; of course, there was no t ' there and then substitute
in the expression for y. In this present case we rearrange for t ' , because that is a variable to be
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eliminated, we get this expression for t ' and then substitute in the second equation for y, so
that we have an expression relating y and then the x which are the y and x coordinates along
the streak line.
x0
y=y e
[ t−
x
( 1+t )+1 ]
0
How to use this equation? Remember we are interested in plotting streak line a particular
time instant and that is in this case t = 2. And what is x 0 , y 0 ? Our point of injection (1,1). So,
I know constant value of t = 2 and x 0 , y 0 is known to me, and then now I vary x and then find
out y and then you straight away get the streak line equation or you can straight away plot the
streak line. So, if you are interested in plotting the streak line alone using this method you can
use this equation and get (y, x).
But if you are interested to show this kind of path lines also then use the earlier approach as
we have discussed, where we plot all the individual path lines and then connect the endpoints
of the path lines to get the streak line. This streak lines are what we experimentally measure,
as I have told earlier by injecting a dye or injecting a smoke. If it is a gaseous medium inject
a smoke, let us say colored smoke if it is a liquid medium we inject a dye and what we
measure is this streak line.
If it is steady state then this streak line becomes same as path line and then stream line;
otherwise it is not the same, but we should keep in mind what we measured is actually a
streak line, because we continuously keep injecting particle and we take a photograph which
is their position after some time from their point of injection, time of injection. As I told you
t; of course, a current time a constant, which is in this case is 2.
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So, just to summarize what we have discussed; stream lines are a tangent to the stream lines
gives us the velocity that instantaneous by the same should be clear. Path lines, path followed
by a fluid particle for a period of time, it is for a period of time, measured by taking video ok,
because it is over a period of time.
Streak lines; locus of several fluid particles passing through the same point at a particular
time. We talked about streak line at a particular time and measured by taking photograph.
Keywords are video and photograph, you will never forget, everybody likes camera,
everybody likes video, everybody likes photograph. So, path lines video, streak lines
photograph.
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Lecture - 16
System and Control Volume
We are in the fundamental concepts, the beginning part of the course, where discussed
continuum hypothesis, the Lagrangian and Eulerian approaches for describing flow, the
substantial derivative following the fluid motion and then in the last lecture we discussed
about different ways of visualizing the flow patterns in terms of streamlines, pathlines, and
streak lines.
Now, we are at the end of the fundamental concepts, but two important topics namely system
and control volume are left out. We will define them and distinguish them clearly. Then the
Reynolds transport theorem which is going to form the basis for the derivation of all the
conservation equations.
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Of course, we start with the distinguishing system and control volume. The system is the
same meaning as in a thermodynamics course. Control volume could be any equipment could
be a heat exchanger, a distillation column, or reactor. Then Reynolds transport theorem, we
will do it in steps. First, of course, we discuss the need for the Reynolds transport theorem.
Next, we do the derivation in two steps. First, we derive a simplified form of the Reynolds
transport theorem; we do a lot of assumptions, and then get a simple expression. Once we
understand that we extend that to a more general form. The straightaway derives the general
form would be a little difficult, so we do it in steps.
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So, let us start with defining and explaining what a system is, what a control volume is. In
terms of nomenclature, the system is also called as material volume. You will shortly see why
is it called a material volume. But in terms of nomenclature, in terms of books, it is called a
system or a material volume, both are equivalent.
Now, how do you define a system, how do you imagine a system? As we have imagined a
particle, how do we imagine a particle, we said particle consists of a large number of
molecules, and then we color it with a die. Analogously here, we identify a set of fluid
particles; there we identified a large number of molecules, the molecules constituted the fluid
particle. Now, we are going to identify a lot of fluid particles and that is why you have a
region (square box in the referred slide). At some time t, I inject a dye and color a portion of
the fluid which I call as a system. Then I keep tracking what happens to these same set of
fluid particles that is why I made it red and bold as well that is the most distinguishing feature
or that is what defines a material volume.
At time t, I color a set of fluid particle let say 100 fluid particles, and then at some later time t
+ Δt, let say 1 second, or 1.1 seconds, the different geometry is shown (right-hand side in
referred slide). This material volume has moved from an initial position to final (t + Δt), what
is common between these two is the particles, which are constituting the material volume or
the system is same. Based on the fluid flow, it has undergone some change in shape etcetera.
To repeat again made up of specific fluid particles, you color a set of fluid particles and keep
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tracking them, and what happens to those set of fluid particles. As an entire region that may
change in shape etcetera, but we always keep focusing those let us say 100 particles always a
same fluid particles.
Now, of course, as I told you these fluid particles are carried along with the flow and that is
why there can be some change in shape etcetera. Now, the way in which I describe this
system or material volume almost has the Lagrangian or material description. What do we do
there? There we identified a fluid particle made up of a large number of molecules, and then
we follow that fluid particle. In this case, it is a large set of fluid particles and then I keep
tracking those set of fluid particles and that is why it is a Lagrangian description or also
called as material description.
We said Lagrangian or material description because we are following a material fluid particle
and that is why the system is also called as material volume because we are following a
volume made up of fluid particles which are material fluid particles. So, can be familiar with
both the terminology system and material volume, most of the fluid mechanics books will use
the terminology system. And of course, we are describing properties of a material volume.
So, to just one significant definition or keyword from this slide is specific fluid particles -
always the same fluid particles. We do not allow any fluid particle to enter, any fluid particle
to leave. You always keep tracking the same set of fluid particles, no fluid particle enters, no
fluid particle leaves and which means that this system moves along with the fluid flow that is
why there is no particle entering, no particle leaving. So, the velocity of this material volume
is the same as the local fluid velocity.
If it were different, what will happen, some fluid particles will enter, some fluid particles will
leave, and that is why the way in which we are defined a material volume is all the local
velocities should be the same as the local fluid velocity. So, it just flows along with the fluid
flow, and whatever happens to the fluid flow also happens to the material volume.
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So, let us demonstrate that this geometry is looking similar to our usual flow between two
parallel plates, but with the difference. Here again, we have two parallel plates, but in the
earlier case both the plates were stationary, and a pump or external device made the fluid
flow between the two parallel plates, but in this case, bottom plate is stationary. Now, the top
plate is given a constant velocity and this movement of the top plate causes the movement of
fluid in the region between the two plates. So, the way in which we cause the motion of the
fluid is different both the case. In the earlier case, some external pump made the fluid flow
between the two plates. In this case, we impart momentum or impart motion to the fluid in
the region because of the moment of the top plate. So, the top plate is set in motion that tracks
the lower layer, and so the entire fluid in this region is set in motion.
Now, how does the velocity profile look like, the fluid at the bottom plate, let say water clings
to the surface. When it clings to the surface, it has the same velocity of the bottom plate
which is 0. Now, similarly, the layer of fluid at the top, clings to the top surface, and the top
plate moves at the constant velocity because it clings to that the fluid layer also moves at the
same velocity at other plates.
So, the velocity at the bottom is 0 and the velocity at top is vp. Then at several lectures several
classes we will derive this velocity profile or velocity field, but right now we will take it as a
linear profile, it is a velocity that varies linearly from the bottom plate to the top plate. Of
course, this velocity profile is required to understand what I am going to show now. So,
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typically summarizes geometry, we have two plates. The bottom plate is stationary; the top
plate is as given a constant velocity, and that sets the fluid between the two plates in motion,
and the velocity profile is linear.
Now, what I do at a particular instant of time. I select a region and then let us say coloring
with the red dye, and that is what is shown (refer video for visualization). So whatever you
color defines your system. So, in this case, this region rectangular region defines by A, B, C,
D is your system (red-colored region in the referred slide). Now, because of the fluid being
set in motion, let us see what happens to this system.
Now, let me stop the simulation video (referee lecture video). What has happened now? The
first point, we said the system is made up of a specific set of fluid particles. So, we have to
focus on a let us say some 100 particles are there in this shaded region, we have to focus on
those 100 particles always. Now, those 100 particles are occupying different shapes, let us say
it is a parallelogram after some time, but it was a rectangle initially. Now, why is this
happening? The fluid particles, which are in contact with the bottom plate have the same
velocity of the plate. So, they do not have any velocity at all they are just stationary and that
is why they were never moved as time progressed as well.
What happened to the fluid particles which were in contact with the top plate, they have the
same velocity as that of the top plate. So, they are also moving along with the top plate and
that is why the system which had a rectangular configuration, to begin with has become a
parallelogram after some time and something like my foot is held stationary as if my hand is
alone being stretch, and of course, I completely deform. The point of emphasis here is once
again the system is made up of the same fluid particles, and we track what is happening to
those 100 fluid particles as time progresses.
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Let us take another example. This configuration is very well known to us just to quickly
recap. We have two plates that are stationary and then fluid is made to flow through this using
a pump. Then the velocity is 0 at the bottom plate; the velocity is 0 at the top plate, and it is
maximum at the central line. So, what should we know, the velocity increases from the
bottom plate to the central line, of course from top plate also it increases.
Now, what is that shown just like in the previous case (red-colored resign in the referred
slide), I have colored a portion of the fluid at some time t with a red dye and that defines my
system. And in this case, as the fluid flows, let us see what happens to the system. Once again
we focus on those 100 fluid particles only.
Now, we are following those 100 fluid particles. What has happened now? These fluid
particles which are nearer the wall have a lower velocity. These fluid particles which are near
the center have a higher velocity. So, unlike the earlier case, in the earlier case, the particles
along with AB were just stationary; and then along with CD were alone moving because of
the contact of the plate.
Of course, when I say those particles, all the particles in the system, they accordingly
correspondingly move. But particles near the bottom plate move at a slower velocity and
particles near the center move at a faster rate at a larger velocity and hence once again to
begin with we have a rectangle that has deformed to a parallelogram. The difference between
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the earlier and this cases both the layers keep moving, and but at different velocities; earlier it
was zero and nonzero velocity. But here two nonzero velocities one is a lower velocity and
another is a higher velocity. But the connecting point for all for both the demonstration is that
at a particular time, we color a set of fluid particles a larger region, and then we tracked and
focus on what is happening to those set of 100 fluid particles and the same fluid particles.
Now, let us see what is a control volume. The first control volume is a geometric entity. Why
is a geometric entity? Control volume something you would have used very frequently in
your process calculation course. For example, you would have taken a let us say a mixing
tank, and then two streams are mixed, and then you get a product stream. Then you would
have drawn a dotted line around this mixing tank, the dotted line nothing but a control
volume that is why it is a geometric entity.
What is shown is a control volume in terms of a dotted line and then usually the control
volume is stationary, it can be moving. We will look at examples and then fluid flows through
this control volume. So, let us look at that a volume fixed in space through which fluid may
flow, because sometimes, it may be a batch condition and fluid may not flow etcetera that is
why it says may flow. What I have shown is a control volume the geometric entity because
we have drawn a control volume to our convenience and then fluid flows through this control
volume.
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Now, as far as the fluid is concerned, the sides are imaginary and completely invisible so far
as the fluid flow is concerned. For our convenience, we have drawn a control volume inside
the region, inside the fluid flow region and then here we have a drawn a control volume
around the mixing tank. So, it is for our convenience over which we write conservation
equations. As for the fluid flows, it is just imaginary; it is completely invisible. Just like we
had a key point for the system what is the key point for control volume fluid material inside a
control volume is continually changing.
What does it mean? We have fixed the control volume. At this point of time t, some set of
100 particles, the some set of particles are flowing through the control volume. Some other
time t + ∆t, some other set of fluid particles are flowing through the control volume. That is
why the fluid material inside the control volume is continually changing, incompletely
contrast to the system where the fluid particles which constitute the system were always the
same that is a big and clear distinction between system and control volume.
Fluid particles that make up a system are the same, fluid particles that are inside a control
volume keep changing. Some set of particles at this time; some set of fluid particles at some
other later time. Now, the way in which we are described you can easily recall that this
description is the Eulerian or field description.
Just want to recall, remember we had a chimney example. What did I say, I put a sensor and
then measure the temperature there. And then in terms of fluid particles, different fluid
particles are being sensed by the temperature probe. So, we were at a particular point and
different fluid particles passed through that particular point. Similarly, here also instead of a
point we have a region here and different fluid particles pass through that region, of course, it
is along with the Eulerian or field description, describe the fluid particles inside the control
volumes.
So, to summarize this slide, the key point is fluid material inside the control volume keeps
changing that is the key definition of the control volume. The control volume is drawn or for
our convenience, it could be drawn in a region, or it could be drawn over entire equipment. A
region over we want to describe the conservation, we draw a boundary. Of course, now it
should be clear why it is a geometric entity. The geometric entity to distinguish from a
material entity which is the material volume that is why we distinguish that is a material
volume; this is a geometric entity.
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Let us demonstrate the control volume. The configuration fluid flow between the two plates
is known to us. Now, let us straight go to the video (referee lecture video for visualization).
Different fluid enters, and then crosses this region.
So, now let us focus. I have shown two control volumes. One control volume is shown inside
the region between the two fixed plates. Different fluid particles passing through the region,
let us say at a time, some set of fluid particles were flowing through that control volume and
then at some other time t + ∆t, some other time later, some other sets of fluid particles are
flowing through the control volume.
Now, control volume can be over the entire equipment or an entire region also. So, another
choice for control volume is covering the two plates together. Now, fluid crosses this control
volume and of course, enters the control volume and leaves the control volume. Now, a
terminology the surface that surrounds the control volume is called the control surface. So, to
be more precise, I should say that fluid enters the control volume through this control surface,
and then fluid leaves the control volume through this control surface. Of course, fluid does
not cross the upper controls surface, it does not cross a lower control surface.
If you recall back near the process calculation course, you would have had some mixing
equipment. Then you would have drawn a dotted boundary which represents control volume.
And then when you do a mass balance energy balance, you would consider streams with
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cross the boundary exactly here again. When I take this (inside) as my control volume, I
consider only flows which cross the boundary, and what is happening is not considered.
When I take bigger control volume I focus on what is happening to the fluid flow in this
control volume which is the region inside the between the two plates. So, different forms of
control volume are possible. Once again what is to be understood is that fluid particles that
are in the control volume keep changing with the time that is the bottom line.
Let us look at control volumes in the experimental setups. The right-hand side setup is
something familiar to us that is where we start the whole course in fact, and the left-hand side
setup is a new experimental setup. So, let us run the tank system (referee lecture video). Just
to recall, it is a small tank. It has two inlets and then one outlet. Water enters through both the
inlets and leaves through the outlet.
Now, I have shown different control volumes here. First, let us take this larger control
volume. This larger control volume is around the entire tank. The inflow crosses the
boundary at left, another inflow crosses the boundary at right, the outflow crosses the
boundary at the bottom. This is exactly the same as what you would have done in your
process calculation course. Let me draw something similar to this. Two inflows and then one
outflow and then you would have taken a boundary and for writing a mass balance and
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energy balance. The only difference is that that is a schematic, and what you are seeing an
actual experimental setup that is a difference between these two.
In fact, remember when we start the course we said we will measure the two inlet flow rates
and then calculate the exit flow rate by writing a mass balance, that mass balance was written
around this control volume. Of course, I did not discuss about control volume etcetera it was
too early to discuss. But what is that indirectly we are done we are taken this control volume
and written a mass balance taking mass flows which cross these control surfaces.
Now, I have shown a few other control volumes. What is that? I can take a control volume
inside the tank and analyze what is a fluid flowing in, flowing throughout etcetera. So, my
control volume need not be over the entire equipment, and it can be inside the equipment.
Remember, I just mentioned about integral balance and differential balances. So, integral
balances, of course, I will repeat this later again. For integral balances, we take control
volume over the entire equipment for differential balances we take control volume inside the
equipment.
Now, I have shown a few other control volumes. I can also analyze what is a fluid flow in the
pipe which takes in water to the tank. Similarly, I have shown another control volume
through which I can analyze the fluid flow in this pipe. Similarly, I have shown another
control volume in the exit pipe. So, my control volume could be around the entire tank; it
could be within the tank; it could be even in the tubes which lead the water to the tank or
which takes water out of the tank. So, control volumes, the selection of control volume is
based on our requirement, sometimes based on convenience as well, mostly based on the
requirement.
Now, the setup is shown (left-hand side in the referred slide) is a simple flow through a pipe.
Once again colored for better visualization. What is shown here is a pipe, and then it just
water rises and then falls here. Now, my control volume just like in this case can be the entire
region the bigger rectangle. And I can analyze the fluid flowing through that is in this region,
what is a fluid flow entering, and then what is the fluid flow living and crossing the control
surfaces are as I have shown here I can take a small control volume inside the pipe and
analyze the fluid flowing in out etcetera. So, control volumes could be over the entire
equipment or it could be inside the equipment as well. So, in the earlier case, it was a
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demonstration of a control volume. This slide shows control volume in actual experimental
setups. Of course, you can extend this to equipment and industry, and so on.
Now, let us compare this system and control volume. Taking an example, a very good nice
example from this book Munson et al., Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics. What is shown
here is a fire extinguisher and filled with let say CO2 gas. Now, the fire extinguisher valve is
completely closed. Then at time t = 0, I color the entire gas inside the cylinder with some let
say red color or whatever color and define that as my system.
What is my control volume? The cylinder is my control volume and the dotted line represents
the control surface. So, the control surface is a boundary surrounding the control volume.
And what is that we are done at time t = 0, we identified the contents of the control volume as
the system, and this the entire cylinder as my control volume and the control surface shows
the boundary.
Now, let say a time t = 0, I open the valve of the cylinder. Now, what happens to my system
part of the gas has escaped CO2 gas is escaped. So, now, my system is still whatever the gas
inside the cylinder plus whatever gas that has escaped, why is that we said the moment we
identify a system, and it is constituted of a set of 1000 particles we should always keep
tracking those 1000 particles.
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Let us say about 800 particles are inside a cylinder, and 200 particles escaped. So, my system
still constitute constitutes whatever gas inside the let say remaining gas inside the cylinder
and whatever gas has escaped. Now, what is a control volume? In this case, the control
volume remains the same, the same control surface the same control volume. So, this is a
good example to distinguish what is the system, what is a control volume. We identified a
time t = 0 a set of particles as a system. And we always keep tracking even though they have
moved out of the control volume, but still, my system includes whatever particles here and
whatever particles here. In this case, the cylinder is my control volume defined by the control
surface.
Now, what are the different possibilities for control volume? Shown three different
possibilities. The first case what we have is a flow through a pipe, and the dashed line
represents the control surface. Now, fluid flows inflows out etcetera. This control volume is
fixed. The pipe usually does not move. You have usually had a fixed pipe. So, the control
volume is fixed. And the surface of the pipe does not deform it is rigid and that is why it is a
non-deforming and then fixed control volume, because it is stationary. It is non-deforming
because the surface does not deform, deform meaning change and shape etcetera.
Now, let us take the second case, where our control volume is an engine an aircraft jet engine,
and then we would not analyze the fluid flow through this engine let's say around the engine
etcetera. Now, this is my control surface which defines a control volume. In this case, my
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control volume is moving, because the jet aircraft is moving jet engine is moving. So, my
control volume also you cannot keep the control volume stationary, because otherwise, we
keep it stationary your region of interest would not be there at all it will be moving. So, you
will have to use a moving control volume. What happens to the deformation, of course,
engines are non-deforming, it is very rigid. So, it is a moving and then non-deforming control
volume. Here the control volume is fixed; in this case, the control volume moves.
Let us take the more general case. Example shown here is a balloon, a deflating balloon
which means that the air inside is escaping. Because air escapes you know the surface of the
balloon cannot be rigid it will start collapsing and that is why it is a deforming control
volume. And then if the balloon is deflating it will go here and there which means that the
balloon also moves. We have a balloon completely filled let say we just start releasing air, it
will start to move here and there, and the surface will also start collapsing that is why is a
deforming control volume, it also moves.
So, the most general form of the control volume is a moving control volume with a
deforming surface. Of course, it’s a most general case which becomes difficult for us to
analyze. So, what is our scope? Our scope is the simplest case namely fixed control volume
and non-deforming control volume. So, the entire course all our control volumes will be fixed
and will be non-deforming as well, which is the simplest case of the control volume.
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Lecture - 17
Reynolds Transport Theorem: Introduction
What we have discussed so far is about the system and then control volume. The system is
made up of specific fluid particles, that is why I said stationary within brackets, fixed control
volume within brackets when we define control volume. It could be moving as well, but in
general, they are fixed control volumes. What distinguishes control volume from a system is
that the fluid particles which are in the control volume they keep changing with the time that
is the distinguishing feature.
Now, having discussed the system and then control volume, we are now going to move on to
deriving the Reynolds transport theorem. We said we will do it in two steps, first for the
simpler form and then the more general form. Now, what is the need for the Reynolds
transport theorem that is what we are going to discuss in this slide? Now, the basic laws of
physics conservation of mass, momentum, energy are all stated for a system, let us look at
that.
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● The mass of a system remains constant, that was very obvious as well the way in
which we define the system is at we always focusing on hundred fluid particles. No
fluid particle enters, no fluid particle leaves which means that the mass of the system
is a constant. So, the conservation of mass is stated for a system, the mass of a system
remains constant.
● Next, Newton’s law of motion, let us state that the time rate of change of momentum
of a system, I have emphasized that is equal to the sum of all the forces acting on the
system. When we usually say we say the rate of change of momentum is equal to sum
of all the forces, that is a very casual statement. If you want to very specifically say
the rate of change of momentum of a system is equal to the sum of all the forces
acting on the system. Newton’s second law of motion is not for a control volume,
Newton’s second law of motion is for a system only.
● Now, the first law of thermodynamics, here, many of us should be familiar that the
first law of thermodynamics is for a system that goes without saying, maybe for the
conservation of mass and motion we are not so familiar. But, because the first law of
thermodynamics is discussed in the thermodynamics course, in fact, the first class of
thermodynamics was started with the definition of what is a system, what is a
surrounding. So, it a very familiar that the first law of thermodynamics is for a
system. So, let us state that the time rate of increase of the total stored energy of the
system is equal to the sum of the net time rate of energy added by heat transfer into
the system and, net time rate of energy addition by work transfer into the system, the
first law is known to you what is to be focused is that we refer to the system. So,
usually rate of increase refers to the time rate of change, here it is made more specific
here time rate of increase of the total stored energy of a system and that is equal to the
rate of energy addition; that energy addition could be by heat transfer or it could be by
work transfer. What is more important is the total stored energy of the system and
heat transfer into the system and work transfer into the system. The whole statement
of the first law is for a system, you would have called this as closed systems etcetera,
but still, the first law of thermodynamics is for a system. We have the words net here
because you can have outflow, inflow etcetera; energy can be added removed etcetera
that is why it says net.
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Now, the fundamental concept behind this slide or what is that we should take away from this
slide is that all the basic laws of physics are for a system.
Now, what is a need for the Reynolds transport theorem? If we go back to our first lecture,
where we did experiments in this tank and then used a mass balanced equation to predict the
flow rate, which means that we require a mass balance. That mass balance we required for a
control volume which means that all the conservation equations which we require are for a
control volume.
It could be the larger control volume or the smaller control volume, but still, the conservation
equations are required for an entire control volume, but now the laws of physics are for a
system. So, conservation equations for fluid flow are required for a control volume as we
have seen.
Now, the laws of physics as we have seen in the last slide are all stated for a system. So, we
need to relate the laws of physics as applicable to a system to the conservation equations
applicable for a control volume. Let us emphasize that laws of physics as stated or as
applicable to a system to the conservation equations applicable for a control volume,
whenever I say conservation equation there all for a control volume. So, I need to go from a
system viewpoint to a control volume viewpoint. I should go from the laws of physics to the
conservation equations and that is where we require a mathematical tool that relates the
changes in a system to changes in a control volume and that is what we call as the Reynolds
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transport theorem. So, this Reynolds transport theorem helps us to relate the changes in a
system to changes in a control volume.
The changes in a system are described with the law of physics, changes in a control volume,
or what we require so that for example, we can use in such a case to predict flow rates, to
predict velocity profiles etcetera. Before, deriving the Reynolds transport theorem let us
introduce some nomenclature. Now, in a thermodynamics course you would have categorized
properties as extensive properties and intensive properties; let us do that here as well.
B = Extensive fluid property
What are the extensive fluid properties which are going to come across in this course?
● Total mass,
● Total momentum,
● Total energy, and
● Total species mass.
Let us put them in terms of variables,
● Total mass is denoted by m,
● Total momentum is m x v , and then
2
v̂
● The total energy (û + 2
+ g z) , in fact, I should say total - total energy, one total
represents extensive property another total represents the sum of internal energy,
kinetic energy, and potential energy. So, this energy really means the sum of all these
three forms of energy, these values are per unit mass.
● Mass of the species ( mxi ), you would have done species balance equation in
processing calculation course. So, this is the mass of one component, for example, let
us say there was a stream with sulfuric acid and water this is the mass of the sulfuric
acid.
b = Intensive fluid property
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Intensive fluid property is the extensive fluid property per unit mass; very simple whatever
variables I have explained there just divide by m you will get the intensive fluid property. For
example,
● For the case of mass, you divide by mass itself so, it becomes 1 (m/m),
● In the case of momentum divide by mass, you get velocity (mv/m). So now, this
velocity I can explain in two different ways; one is velocity which is very well known
to us. What is the other way of looking at it? Momentum per unit mass, when you
divide this momentum by the mass you will get the velocity so, two different ways of
looking at velocity.
So, you should be able to view velocity in two different ways as we go along and that is why
I am explaining now so, that you get used to that. First is velocity as such other way is
momentum per unit mass and
● Of course, the energy divide by mass. As already explained to you all energy terms
represent energies per unit mass internal, kinetic, and then potential energy that
should be very familiar to you as well.
● Mass of the species divide by mass is the mass fraction, xi ( mxi /m ), you would have
defined mass fraction as the mass of species by total mass exactly same meaning here
as well.
So, b can take on values 1, velocity vector ( v ), the sum of all the energy in terms of mass
fraction ( xi ). We have seen several examples of intensive property b. They are related as
B = mb
The extensive property is equal to the mass in intensive property of course, the way in which
we started is introducing the extensive property; if we divide by m you will get the intensive
property.
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So, having introduced extensive property and then intensive property, let us move onto see
how do we express rate of change of property for system and control volume. The object of
the Reynolds transport theorem is to relate these two rates of changes, we want to relate the
rate of change of property. When I say property, it could be mass, momentum, energy,
species mass etcetera. We use the general term property, but for easy understanding, we will
always related to mass, becomes easier to understand. So, the rate of change of property for
the system, rate of change of property for a control volume. How do we express that and then
how are they different for a simple case, that is what we will discuss in this slide.
Now, we introduced property B for a system and let us express that in terms of variables
which you would usually measure
B sys = ∑ bi ρi ΔV i = ∫ ρ b dV
i sys
For example, we measure density and so, we will express this B system in terms of the
intensive property and the density, let us see how do we do that. Let us take this example of
the CO2 gas in the extinguisher, we said the gas inside the cylinder is taken as a system. What
I will do now is split into small-small volumes and which I call as ΔV i . Throughout this
course, we are using small v for velocity, capital V for volume that may differ from some
fluid mechanics books, the which we are following is small v for velocity which are used
several times.
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I think first I am coming across volume we are using capital V. So, what does ΔV i mean, I
split this system into smaller and smaller volumes, now each the density can vary within the
system. So, for each volume, there can be associated with density. So, within the system,
there can be spatial variation and the density of each volume is ρi . Then each volume can
have its own property value, intensive value because this takes care of the mass and multiply
with the property by unit mass. So, I get the value of the total property amount of total
property.
The bi is, let us say if it is energy then energy for could be kinetic, potential etcetera if it is
velocity we have seen b could be 1, b could be velocity. So, we allow for variation of the
property within the system, we have split the system into smaller volumes and then multiply
by the density of each of the volumes. So, that we get the mass of each volume which we
have split, and then multiply by the property per unit mass for that particular volume. So, the
whole term (∑ bi ρi ΔV i ) represents the amount of property for that small volume.
i
We sum over all the volumes, i goes from 1 to the number of volumes so, that this entire term
represents the amount of property for the entire system. We split into smaller volumes and
then multiply by density to get the mass of each volume multiply by property per unit mass,
get the property value for that small volume summed over all the volumes then that becomes
the amount of property for the system.
Now, what do we do? We make this volume smaller and smaller which means that the
number of such elements which we consider very large and tending infinity. And so, we take
the sum in the limit of these small volumes become smaller and smaller ΔV which is the
volume of each element becoming smaller we consider this limit.
Now, in the limit of ΔV →0 the summation can be represented as this integral. Remember
there is an assumption behind this representing summation as an integral. What is an
assumption? Assumption of the continuum hypothesis, remember we discussed the beginning
introduced continuum hypothesis; we said we can define differentiation, we can define
integration only when we have assumed the continuum hypothesis. I take here ΔV →0
which is valid only when the material completely occupies all the space, then if it is not there
I cannot take this ΔV →0 . So, it may look like writing the summation as an integral, it was
an assumption of the continuum hypothesis.
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There it was introduced without a particular context, now there is a very good context to
explain the use of continuum hypothesis or requirement of the continuum hypothesis. So, the
summation has become an integral sign remember it is a volume integral; we are considering
the volume of the system and bi has become b, so now, we allow for continuous variation of
rho and b within the volume, that is the distinction between this summation and this integral.
Here we allow for discrete variation, when you write us in summation when you write for
integral we allow for continuous variation of those properties namely density and b. The
moment I say continuous variation, continuum hypothesis invoked we use that to tell that it
varies continuously. What is that we have done? Bsystem has been represented in terms of the
properties rho and then small b.
As we have seen b could be 1 for total mass, for the momentum it is momentum per unit mass
which is velocity and then these energies per unit mass are a mass fraction.
(uˆ + )
2
v̂
b = 1, v , 2
+ g z , xi
Now, Express rate of change of B for system, that expression is as we write for any rate of
change of any value in our calculus
d
B
dt sys
= d
dt (sys
∫ ρ b dV
)
What is important is we should focus on the subscript that is system; for example, it could be
the rate of change of mass for a system; we will take as an example immediately. So, the rate
of change of property for the system.
Now, let us write the rate of change of B for the control volume expression is not going to
change,
d
B
dt CV
= d
dt (∫CV
ρ b dV )
whatever I have written for the system is applicable for control volume also; only the volume
integral is going to change over the control volume defined by the control surface. Now, the
subscript now is control volume; what does this meaning of we will see when we take an
example.
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Why do I do in terms of integral expression? To allow for continuous variation within the
volume, in this case, the subscript says control volume. Of course, B = mb. So, all these
values the intensive properties, if you multiply by m you will get B.
So, let us take an example of this fire extinguisher case and let us take the example of mass.
We will take B = total mass (m) as an example in which case the small b = 1 (m/m). So, the
rate of change of total mass for the system
d
m
dt sys
= d
dt (sys
∫ ρ dV
) =0
Now, the way in which we defined system, the mass of the system is a constant, we have seen
that as a law of physics also because we are focusing on the same set of fluid particles. And
so, the rate of change of mass of the system is equal to 0, because we are considering mass is
0 where other variables are need not be 0. So, in this particular case, because it is mass, the
rate of change of the mass of the system is equal to 0.
Now, the rate of change of total mass of the control volume is
d
m
dt CV
= d
dt (∫ CV
ρ dV ) <0
Now, Let us go back to the example, our system at t = 0 is the gas that occupies the cylinder.
At some time later our system is composed of whatever gas which is escaped and whatever is
remaining, that is why the rate of change of mass of the system is 0. Coming to the control
volume, initially let us say I had some 10 kgs of CO2 inside the cylinder, sometime later some
gas escaped, and let say it is escaping. So, this mass inside the cylinder inside a control
volume will keep decreasing and that is why this value is less than 0. So, while rate of change
of mass the system is equal to 0, rate of change of mass of the contents of the control volume.
We do not say rate of change of mass of control volume, that is not precisely correct. We say
rate of change of mass in the control volume or little more elaborately, we say rate of change
of mass of the contents of the control volume. For the system we can say rate of change of
mass of the system, for control volume, it is mass in the control volume or mass of contents
of the control volume; very precise statements and that value is less than 0.
So, now as I told you the objective of this slide was to express the rate of change of property
of a system, rate of change of property for control volume. We also took a simple example to
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see that these two rates of changes are different, rate of change for a system is different even
for the case of the simple example for the case of taking mass an example. The rate of change
of mass for the system is 0, rate of change of mass in the control volume is less than 0.
Reynolds transport theorem relates these two rates of changes, that is the objective of
Reynolds transport theorem. How is the rate of change of property for the system is related to
the rate of change of property for the control volume and that is what is the objective of the
Reynolds transport theorem.
Let us move on, we are slowly learning concepts to start to derive the Reynolds transport
theorem. First, we discuss about system and control volume, then we introduced extensive
variables, intensive variables. Now, on the previous slide, we discussed about the rate of
change of property for system and control volume, now one more concept is required what is
called coincident system and control volume. In the first step in the derivation of the
Reynolds transport theorem, we will say that we will consider a system and control volume
which are coincident with each other.
B sys (t) = B CV (t)
Symbolically in terms of expression, this is how we write the property of the system, in this
case, capital B is equal to property of B in the control volume at a particular time t. We
quickly say as B system is equal to B control volume in terms of statements B of the system
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is equal to B in the control volume at time t. Now, we will take our well-known example:
flow between the two parallel plates. Now, I have a two demonstrations here (look at the
lecture video), the same demonstrations at different stages; as the fluid flows through
between these two parallel plates. Let me explain what are drawn here (above slide picture).
The top plate, the bottom plate, the access and then the control surface through which there is
inflow, the control surface through which there is an outflow. This nomenclature is required
to understand what I am going to show now; so, the top plate, the bottom plate, and then the
control surface with inflow, with outflow. So, which means these four lines, defines the
configuration of the control volume.
Now, we want to define our system, now I have different choices for defining my system and
what is shown here are different choices for a system. For example I can color a portion of
the fluid as it is shown here (red-colored image in the above slide) and call that as my system,
let me just go ahead.
Now, what is the most convenient way of defining my system? Several options are there
which is more convenient. Remember system was little more imaginary; so, it will be
convenient for us if we define a system whose boundaries are well defined. In the example of
the fire extinguisher, initially, we had the system as whatever was occupying the tank,
sometime later some system escaped etcetera.
So, now system boundary can be anything, but we need to define a system which is more
convenient to us and was boundaries are well defined. So now, you just watch the different
options of system. The best option is when the system coincides with the control volume. The
boundaries and system are also well defined and coincide with that of the control volume for
which we need to derive the conservation equation.
So, that connects the boundaries for the system and the boundaries for the control volume
that as coincide; so, that we can relate the laws of physics to the conservation equations. You
will see a message saying the coincident system and control volume system when that system
exactly coincides with the control volume.
So, I can choose system which is just entering which is just coincident, or leaving which is
most convenient or which is most well defined is the system which is coincident with the
control volume at any instant of time. At every time whatever system is coincident in the
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control volume, that is defined as my system. This is what I have shown in the next video
(see the lecture video), where I have just stopped the animation at the point where the system
coincides with control volume.
In case we are not able to see in the earlier case, the coincident system, and control volume.
Several possibilities for selecting system are there, but the most convenient, most
well-defined possibility is the system which is coinciding with the control volume; remember
it is that every instant of time.
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Lecture - 18
Reynolds Transport Theorem: Simplified Form
So, now we are ready to start deriving the Reynolds Transport Theorem, we have gathered all
the required knowledge to start deriving the Reynolds transport theorem the simplified form
of the Reynolds transport theorem. Now, I told you the reason why we are deriving simplified
form first so that we understand that clearly and then extend to a more general form.
Now, we are going to consider the flow in an expanding section shown physically (in the
above slide picture) in terms of a 3-dimensional view, shown schematically as well. So, we
are going to consider flow in a diverging section and now, the dashed line represents the
control surface at time t and always why control volume does not move. So, control volumes
are always fixed at any time t the control volume remains fixed.
Now, what is my system as we have seen in the previous case? At time t, my system
boundaries also the same as the control volume boundary, the control surface, surface of the
system both coincide that is why this is a fixed control surface and system boundary at time t.
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So, this line represents both my control volume and system at time t. Now, I have inflow
through the left surface and outflow through the right surface.
Now, as the fluid is continuously flowing, we have identified whatever fluid in this region as
my system next time t + ∆ t sometime later system would have moved out of the control
volume or trying to move out of the control volume. What is shown here is a coincident
system and control volume (red colored picture) these are at time t the fluid is continuously
flowing through the control volume. So, our system should always focus on the same fluid
particles they also keep moving.
So, to begin with, we identified or a time t we identified system coincide with the control
volume, but sometime later the system has moved. So, there is some inflow through this
control surface and there is some outflow through this control surface and that is what is
shown here in this diagram schematically. Now, this blue line represents the boundary of the
system at some time later, to begin with, they were coinciding. Now, at some time later
because the system has moved, this boundary and what is shown in this video which is now
frozen are analogous (refer to lecture video for more clarification).
Now, the control surface always, of course, remains the same system has more. Now, what do
we do? We will give some nomenclature for the different regions. Now, this is my control
volume, shown as the dotted boundary. Now, after some time and of course, at the system to
begin with at time t after some time let us say t + ∆ t the system is moved. The boundary of
the system, to begin with, was here (black dotted line) and now it has moved through the
control volume and this is my boundary of the system at some time later (blue dotted line).
Now, given some nomenclature here region 1 corresponds to the volume of fluid which has
entered the control volume over this period of time and region 2 is whatever volume of fluid
which flows out of the control volume. Just to quickly summarize the nomenclature here we
are considering a diverging section with inflow at one velocity v1 and outflow at velocity v2.
To begin with the control surface and the system are coinciding some time later the system
has moved and in terms of nomenclature, we have region 1 which corresponds to the volume
of fluid which has flown into the control volume. This corresponds to the volume of fluid
which has left the control volume through the control surface and so, the new volume is
control volume minus 1 (CV – 1).
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Now, let us express all these in terms of equations.
So, the first one says that B system at time t is equal to B control volume at time t. This
corresponds to the case where the control volume and system coincident at time t. Now, let us
write this expression at time t + ∆ t
B sys (t + ∆t) = B CV (t + ∆t) − B 1 (t + ∆t) + B 2 (t + ∆t)
And writing this statement only we introduced nomenclature 1, 2. Let us see how do we do.
What is that I want to know the property of the system at some time t + ∆ t.
Now, what does the region corresponding to the system t + ∆ t, this region (CV-1). This
region is the region corresponding to the time t + ∆ t. How do I express in terms of known
values. I take this region which is the control volume. So, B of control volume at t + ∆ t and
then I subtract the region – 1, that means subtracting the properties corresponding to that
region, B1(t + ∆ t) and then add region - 2, B2(t + ∆ t).
So, in terms of expression B system at time t + ∆ t becomes equal to B for the control volume
a t + ∆ t and then B in the region 1 at t + ∆ t and then B in the region 2 plus t + ∆ t. Why
there a minus sign because this is a whatever has been brought in is minus and then whatever
has been taken out is the plus sign.
Now, which came up from the geometry of this figure I took the control volume and then
subtracted the value corresponds to region 1 and then added whatever corresponds to region
2.
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We said we want to relate the rate of change of property for the system to the rate of change
in the property for the control volume. Now, the rate of change of property to the system is
∆B sys B sys (t+∆t)−B sys (t)

∆t
= ∆t
Of course, we will take limit delta t → 0 as we go along, this is something known to us.
Now, what do we do we have seen the last light that
And,
B sys (t + ∆t) = B CV (t + ∆t) − B 1 (t + ∆t) + B 2 (t + ∆t)
The physical meaning of this is, If you take let us say mass of the system at time t and mass
of the system at t + ∆t , for the case of mass they are same, but if you take some other
properties they need not be same. Now, B CV (t) is mass in the control volume at time t and
B CV (t + ∆t) is the mass in the control volume at t + ∆t . B 1 (t + ∆t) and B 2 (t + ∆t) are
the mass corresponding to region 1 and region 2 respectively.
So, mass of the system has been expressed in terms of mass in control volume and mass in
regions 1 and mass in region 2 written for any property capital B. Now, let substitute these
two expressions in the equation and see what happens.
∆B sys B CV (t + ∆t)−B 1 (t + ∆t)+B 2 (t + ∆t)−B CV (t)

∆t
= ∆t
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So, the left-hand side we have change in property for the system divided by small-time
interval and for B system as substituted from the expression BCV, B1, B2 etcetera and for B
system at time t it is the same as B control volume and t. So, this states that just mass of
systems equal to the mass in the control volume at the time it both are same because it
coinciding. So, I am replacing B system at t by B control volume at time t.
Now, let us make a small rearrangement on the right-hand side I will take terms together for
the control volume. So, I will take term 1 and term 2 and written them to begin with the first
expression
∆B sys B CV (t + ∆t)−B CV (t) B 1 (t + ∆t) B 2 (t + ∆t)

∆t
= ∆t
− ∆t
+ ∆t
Why do I do this way because I am going to take limit delta t → 0,
∆B sys
∆t
=
dB sys
dt
= d
dt ( ∫
sys
ρb dV )
This is the rate of change of B for the system. Now, we are going to take limit ∆t→ 0 on the
right-hand side, what we are discussing here is only the first two terms put together that is
this term only we are going to see here.
lim
∆t→0
B CV (t + ∆t)−B CV (t)
∆t
=
dB CV
dt
= d
dt (∫ CV
ρb dV )
So, if you take limit ∆t→ 0 it becomes the derivative of the property for the control volume.
We know how to express this in terms of the integral and then this represents the rate of
change of B for the control volume.
As I told you we can tell this as the rate of change of B of the system and then the rate of
change of B in the control volume or for the contents of the control volume. Now, why are
we taking limits why should we take a limit that is question can answer. The equations we are
going to derive are to be valid at every incident of time. So, I want an instantaneous equation
because conservation equations that when derive are to be applicable even for transient
systems.
So, the equation should be valid at every instant of time in the derivation we took t and then
t + ∆ t . So, when I take ∆t→ 0 I get a derivative which is instantaneous. These derivatives
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are instantaneous that is why I take limit ∆t→ 0 so get so that I get a form of a Reynolds
transport theorem which is valid at every instant of time.
We related B system and B control volume at time t and t + ∆ t ; we wrote the expression for
the rate of change of property for the system, substituted that and found out the left hand side
is the rate of change the property of the system, on the right hand side you have rate of
change the property of control volume both are not equal you have two additional terms.
Next, we will see how to express those two terms in the limit of ∆t→ 0.
Now, the expression which we have seen and taken the limit of the left hand side term and
the first term on the right hand side. Now, we are going to discuss the limit for the remaining
two terms.
Now, what does B2 represent? As I told you B2 represents the amount of property it is not
rated, only when you divide by ∆ t it becomes rate. So, B is amount mass, the momentum it is
all amount and which has crossed this control surface and has which has flown out of the
control volume through this control surface. So, rate when you divide by ∆ t it becomes rate.
B 2 (t + ∆t)
So, ∆t
represents the rate at which the extensive property that is why I said amount,
extensive property flows out of the control volume. Why do we say that remember this so
much amount of volume has left the control volume or so much volume has come out of the
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control volume that is why and when we divide the by ∆ t we get the rate at which the
extensive property flows out of the control volume.
Now, nice to define like this, but we always want to express in terms of measurable variables
what are they or in and in terms of variables which are known to us some geometric variables
we have found out the significance of this term, but we need to express in terms of let us say
velocity, density, area etcetera. Let us see how do we do that. Until you do that there is no use
for this term we know the significance, but we need to express it in terms of the usual
properties. Let us do that now.
B 2 (t + ∆t) = ρ2 b2 ∆V 2 = ρ2 b2 A2 ∆l2 = ρ2 b2 A2 v 2 ∆t
B2 is the amount of property corresponding to the volume. How do I express? I take that
volume ∆V 2 that is a volume of the region multiply by density so that I get mass, I used 2
because rho is the density of the fluid in section 2; rho 1 is the density of the fluid in section 1
density can vary from section 1 to section 2. So, I multiply this volume with this density and
then now I get mass of this volume, mass corresponds to this volume and then multiply by
the intensive property so that I get the value of the extensive property.
So, I have taken the volume, multiply by density, get the mass, multiplied by property per
unit mass intensive property. So, when you multiply all these you get the amount of property,
extensive value associated with this volume. Now, let us express further. This ∆V 2 is
volume can be expressed in terms of this area which is A2 into the distance ∆ l2. So, The
volume has been expressed in term expressed in terms of area which is A2, and then multiply
by this distance ∆l2 .
The significance of the distance ∆l2 is the distance moved by the fluid over the period ∆ t.
So, express this ∆l2 which is the length, the significance is the distance traveled by the fluid
over the time ∆ t which is nothing, but the velocity into ∆ t.
So, this expression gives you the amount of the property let us say mass which corresponds to
region 2 and that mass has crossed the surface and has come out of the control volume. We
want the rate. So, we divide by ∆ t taking limit ∆t→ 0, which is just dividing by ∆ t. So,
now, what is the significance of this? The rate at which extensive property flows out of
control volume Ḃ out is given by this expression.
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B 2 (t + ∆t)
Ḃ out = lim ∆t
= ρ2 b2 A2 v 2
∆t→0
When I take ∆t→0 , all these become instantaneous values, that is a distinction between these
two steps. When I take ∆t→0 until then these values all average over a small ∆t . When I
take ∆t→0 they become point values, point in terms of the time they become instantaneous
values.
So, it may look like dividing by ∆t , but the physical significance is that you take ∆t→0 ,
these are an average value over the period ∆t , but now they become instantaneous values at
time t. As I have been telling we want expressions which are instantaneous at every time t.
So, this represents the rate at which extensive properties flows out of control volume. So, we
will quickly go through whatever rate at which property flows into the control volume just
analogously.
So, the rate at which extensive property flows into control volume B1
B 1 (t + ∆t) = ρ1 b1 ∆V 1 = ρ1 b1 A1 ∆l1 = ρ1 b1 A1 v 1 ∆t
B 1 (t + ∆t)
Ḃ in = lim ∆t
= ρ1 b1 A1 v 1
∆t→0
Once again this is an instantaneous value. So, Ḃ out is the rate at every instant of time t;
similarly, Ḃ in also.
So, what is that we have done now? We have taken limits of these two terms. In this slide, we
have seen the limit for these two terms more importantly we have also seen the significance
of those two terms. Like to repeat, Ḃ out represents the rate at which extensive property flows
out of control volume and Ḃ in represents the rate at which the extensive property flows into
the control volume through the control surface.
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Let us put them all together.
∆B sys B CV (t + ∆t)−B CV (t) B 1 (t + ∆t) B 2 (t + ∆t)

∆t
= ∆t
− ∆t
+ ∆t
dB sys dB CV
dt
= dt
+ Ḃ out − Ḃ in
So, what does this tell you? Rate of change of property of the system, rate of change of
property in the control volume is equal to the rate at which the property leaves the control
volume through the control surface. And, then rate at which of course, minus rate at which
the property enters the control volume through the control surface. If it is mass then the rate
of change of mass of the system, rate of change of mass in the control volume or the contents
of the control volume, the rate at which mass leaves the control volume through the control
surface, the rate at which mass enters the control volume through the control surface.
dB sys dB CV
dt
= dt
+ ρ2 b2 A2 v 2 − ρ1 b1 A1 v 1
So, we will also write in terms of the integral expressions. I have expressed this B system in
terms of integral B control volume in terms of integral.
d
dt (
sys
∫ ρ b dV
) = d
dt (∫ CV
ρ b dV ) + ρ2 b2 A2 v 2 − ρ1 b1 A1 v 1
Why do I do that? this is a Reynolds transport theorem for this simplified case and the
variable that should appear here should be ρ , b, geometric values, velocities etcetera that is
why I replaced B system in terms of this integral which involves ρ , b etcetera. So, this is for
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the system, this was a control volume. That is what we have done though we started with B
finally, my expression is in terms of the intensive properties of course, b and the density.
Remember these are at the control surfaces entering control surface through which there is
outflow here and these are properties at the inflow control surface. So, this is for the system
inside the control volume and control surface through which there is an outflow control
surface through which there is inflow.
Now, why did I call this as a simplified form? We have made a lot of assumptions though I
did not very explicitly state that let us look at what are the assumptions we have made so that
we called this a simplified form.
● The first assumption is fixed control volume; we have taken a control volume which
is fixed that is very obvious our control volume has been fixed. We did not move the
control volume; the control volume did not move.
● Second, we are considered the case where there is only one inlet, there is only one
outlet, and then we took uniform properties and I say properties the density, the
property b, and the velocity. All these were taken uniform across the inlet and outlet.
So, there could be variation the property b could vary, the velocity could vary, density
could vary, but we have not taken that into account. We said all these properties are
uniform across the inner cross section, outer cross section. So, uniform properties
across the inlet and outlet.
● The third assumption, what we have done is that we took the area, and then the
velocity was normal to this area. Velocity could make some angle with this area, we
have not considered that. So, we have the way in which even we have shown the
velocity is just normal to the area. If you have phase here the velocity is normal to
this.
So, just to repeat the assumptions: fixed control volume, one inlet - one outlet; uniform
properties across the inlet and outlet, and then velocity normal to sections 1 and 2. The
general form will take out all these assumptions. So, we will derive a general form without
making any of these assumptions. Of course, we will restrict back to fixed control volume I
said the whole scope the causes restrict to fixed control volume, we will keep that. But, we
will derive a general expression where there could be any number of inlet and outlets in fact,
any part of this surface can be inlet-outlet, where the properties change across the inlet or
outlets and velocity can make any angle with the area.
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Just to understand that understand the application of Reynolds transport theorem. The actual
application is in deriving all the conservation equations just to get a feel for what it implies
will apply this Reynolds transport theorem the simplified form for this fire extinguisher case.
So, let us write the Reynolds transport theorem which we derived in the previous few slides
and b is an intensive fluid property.
dB sys dB CV
dt
= dt
+ ρ2 b 2 A 2 v 2 − ρ1 b 1 A 1 v 1
We are going to write for the case of mass, we said b could take on different values. So,
because we are going to consider mass in our case, b = 1. So, in this expression everywhere b
= 1; b1 = b2 =1.
Now, we already discussed several times the mass of the system is constant. So, the left-hand
side derivative is 0,
dmsys
dt
=0
Now, in this particular case to began with we had the gas filling up the entire control volume.
Sometime later we opened this valve and hence there was only outflow there was no inflow at
all. So, there is no inflow. So, v 1 = 0 and v 2 has some value. So, there is the only outflow.
dmCV
0= dt
+ ρ2 (1)A2 v 2
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So, we should know what is the area, what is the velocity, rho 2 etcetera. So, if you rearrange
in a more physically meaningful way
dmCV
dt
= d
dt (∫
CV
ρ dV ) =− ρ2 A2 v 2
This tells the rate of change of mass in the control volume. Once again I have written that in
terms of the integral expression.
So, this is something you would have written in your process calculation course may not be
used it. What it does says is the rate of change of mass in the control volume is equal to the
rate of mass flow leaving the control volume; of course, the negative sign this tells that;
obviously, all these are positive values. So, this tells you that the mass decreases with time in
the control volume that is why I have a negative sign.
If you want to put in more formula is a statement rate at which the mass in the tank decreases
is equal in magnitude in terms of magnitude is, but opposite to the rate of flow of mass from
the exit. So, you would write the law of conservation of mass the conservation equation has
the rate of accumulation is equal to the rate in minus rate out. We do not have any rate in the
term, we have only rated out term.
So, this is a more practical form of the Reynolds transport theorem as applied for mass
conservation in this example of fire extinguisher. Which relates the rate of change of mass to
the rate whichever is flowing. I want to emphasize that this is what is happening in the for the
contents of the control volume this what is happening across the control surface that takes
place across the control surface, flow takes place across the control surface.
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Lecture - 19
Reynolds Transport Theorem:
General Form - Part 1
We are discussing the Reynolds Transport Theorem and we discussed and defined the system
and control volume. The system is made up of specific fluid particles, control volume,
different fluid particles pass through and we looked at the need for the Reynolds transport
theorem, to extend the laws of physics for the conservation equations.
We derived the simplified form of the Reynolds transport theorem with few assumptions and
now we are going to derive a more general form of the Reynolds transport theorem.
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To understand in what way it is general, first let us look at the assumptions, which were used
to derive the simplified form of the Reynolds transport theorem.
● Fixed control volume, we are going to continue with that and then
● one inlet and one outlet; we are going to extend to multiple inlets multiple outlets not
alone that, we are going to extend to, the case where any part of the surface can be
inlet; any part of the surface can be an outlet.
● The properties to be uniform across the cross section, of the inlet and outlet. Now, the
properties being density, the property 𝑣 itself the velocity. Now we are going to allow
for variation of properties across inlets and outlets.
● Then we took the velocity, normal to the inlet and outlet phases, and now we are
going to consider velocity at any angle to inlet and outlet surfaces.
So, we are going to extend to multiple inlet outlets, allow of a variation of properties across
the inlet outlets and the velocity can be at any angle to inlet outlet surfaces.
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Let see how do we extend to a control volume with multiple inlets and outlets and this is the
old geometry which I have seen (upper right hand side image). Now, what is shown here
(down right hand side image) is the network of pipes to represent a control volume with
multiple inlets multiple outlets. You have inflow and then there is an outflow, and then there
is another inflow and this combines with this fluid, and then it leaves through the different
outlets. So, you have a network of pipes with 2 inlets and then 4 outlets. So, in general, you
can have multiple inlets and then multiple outlets.
Why do we extend multiple inlets and outlets? Because of the usual control volume, usual
equipment can have multiple inlets, multiple outlets. What is shown here is a physical model
with multiple inlets and multiple outlets. Let us say you have flow entering here, flow
entering through these 3 inlets, and then flow goes out through these outlets (object
demonstrated in the lecture video). So, as a physical model, so that, we can easily understand
what you mean by control volume with multiple inlets and then multiple outlets.
Now, we are going to make it a little more general by considering any arbitrary shape with
some portion to be an inlet and then some portion to be outflow (left hand side image). How
do we imagine? We combine all the surfaces through which there is inflow into an inflow
surface, and then all the surfaces through which there is outflow into an outflow surface. So,
our control volume is made equivalent to control volume where part of the surface is inflow,
part of the surface is an outflow. So, that it is very general it not be a particular geometric
shape, it could be any surface where part of the surface inlet, part of the surface is an outlet.
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The control volume is drawn to an arbitrary shape. So, that the equation which we are going
to derive is applicable for any arbitrary shape. The brown dashed line represents the fixed
control surface. And then as we have seen earlier, it also represents the system and both of
them are coinciding at time t.
So, just, in this case, the control volume and system had a simple, easily understandable
geometry. In this present case, there is some arbitrary shape, but conceptually they are the
same meaning that you have a fixed control surface, you have a system and both coincide at
time t. Now just like we had the system moved, because of the fluid flow through the control
volume. Here again, this blue dashed line represents the surface of the system which has
moved through the control volume. And just like here, we have region 1, through which there
was flow into the control volume; and then region 2 which represents the volume of fluid
which as cross the control surface and left the control volume and as we have seen earlier we
have control volume minus 1 (CV−1).
So, we have analogous descriptions between region 1, region 2, and the CV−1 for all three
geometries. Conceptually they are the same, in terms of physical meaning they are the same,
only in terms of geometry they are different. Now, well defined geometry in this case some
arbitrary shape, an arbitrary configuration in this case. To better visualize taken a duster
purposefully, which is easily available in a class; and which has some kind of arbitrary shape
here and then of course, these are well defined shapes here.
So, part of the surface is an inlet, part of the surface is an outlet and that is what we have
taken; and as the system moves through the control volume you have region 1, region 2, and
then control volume minus 1 as the remaining region. I discuss the analogy between these
two geometries. So, that most of the steps are common to both the derivations, except a few
terms and hence I discussed the analogy between these two control volumes.
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Now, what are the steps which are common to both the control volumes? The step which tells
that, the rate of change of property of a system in terms of
∆𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠(𝑡+∆𝑡)−𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠(𝑡)
∆𝑡
= ∆𝑡
this step is common to both the control volumes.
Now, here again, we have taken, the system and control volume to be coinciding. So,
𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐵𝐶𝑉(𝑡)
This step is also valid. Now as in the earlier case, here also the system moved partly out of
the control volume and we have corresponding regions 1, 2 and then control volume minus 1.
So,
𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) = 𝐵𝐶𝑉(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) − 𝐵1(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) + 𝐵2(𝑡 + ∆𝑡)
This expression which relates B system at 𝑡 + ∆ 𝑡 to B control volume at 𝑡 + ∆ 𝑡, B region 1

𝑡 + ∆ 𝑡 and B region 2 𝑡 + ∆ 𝑡, is also valid.
∆𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝐵𝐶𝑉(𝑡 + ∆𝑡)−𝐵1(𝑡 + ∆𝑡)+𝐵2(𝑡 + ∆𝑡)−𝐵𝐶𝑉(𝑡)

∆𝑡
= ∆𝑡
Now, the difference in the property of the system is divided by ∆𝑡, where we substitute for B
system 𝑡 + ∆ 𝑡 expression, and for B system at t this expression is also valid.
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∆𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝐵𝐶𝑉(𝑡 + ∆𝑡)−𝐵𝐶𝑉(𝑡) 𝐵1(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) 𝐵2(𝑡 + ∆𝑡)
∆𝑡
= ∆𝑡
− ∆𝑡
+ ∆𝑡
The next step is the rearrangement, of course, it’s going to be valid and later we took a limit
of this equation delta 𝑡→0 that is also valid,
𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑑𝐵𝐶𝑉
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐵˙𝑖𝑛
The left hand side becomes the rate of change of property for the system, and right hand side
becomes the rate of change of property for the control volume.
What is the significance of 𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the rate at which the property leaves the control volume
and 𝐵˙𝑖𝑛 tells the rate at which property enters the control volume. Till this everything is the
same as the derivation which I have done for the simple control volume, but now we have
extended for arbitrary control volume with the corresponding meaning of 1, 2 and then
control volume and system.
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
+ ρ2𝑏2𝐴2𝑣2 − ρ1𝑏1𝐴1𝑣1
Now, this last step, where we found an expression for 𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 in terms of these properties
namely density, the property per unit mass, the area, the velocity both for outflow and inflow
is restricted to the geometry which I have considered or to the control volume which I have
considered. So, only this expression, even in this expression only these two terms
𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵˙𝑖𝑛 are not applicable for any general control volume. What is it going to do now?
Express 𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵˙𝑖𝑛 for any general control volume and that is what I am going to do now.
Now we will extend the expressions here, so that is applicable for any general control
volume.
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Now, let us consider the outflow for the control surface which easier to discuss first. What is
shown here is the outflow control surface denoted by CSout; what do you mean by that? The
control volume is to the left of this. So, you have the control volume and this is the control
surface and flow takes place out of the control volume through this control surface. That is
important because we identify the direction of an area with a normal and that normal is
always outward drawn normal.
So, the control volume, LHS is inside and RHS is outside. So, what I have taken here (upper
right side image in slide) is a small area; small area dA and then the direction of the area is
indicated by the normal to the area and the normal is drawn outward or in short, we say
outward normal, why is it outward normal? The control volume is on this side and this is the
outside to the control volume. Now, what is shown here (middle image in slide) is also a
velocity vector; which represents the velocity of fluid flow through this small area. And now
unlike the earlier case; earlier case the velocity vector was along the normal to the surface.
Now, we have allowed for variation in the angle between the velocity vector and the normal
to the face. We said, we are going to extend to the case where the velocity vector can make
any angle with the normal to the plane and that is why the normal is in one direction. They
have a plane here and then the normal and that normal and the velocity through the face are
making angle θ between each other.
Now, why did we consider a small area dA? We said we want to extend where the properties
change across the surface area. So, that is why, I take a small area, so that, I can integrate
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over the control surface so that I allow for variation across the surface. That is why, we take a
small area dA and we will find out what is the rate of flow of property through the small area,
then integrate for the entire control surface. So, we allow for variation across the control
surface.
Let us do that quantitatively in terms of expressions.
∆𝐵 = 𝑏ρ∆𝑉 = 𝑏ρ∆𝑙𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑏ρ∆𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑏ρ𝑣∆𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑑𝐴
∆𝐵 represents the amount of property which has flown out of the control volume through the
control surface. Now, just like in the earlier case, we will express that in terms of ∆𝑉, where
∆𝑉 is the volume of liquid which has flown out of the control volume, you multiply by
density, multiply by the property value per unit mass. So, these three terms 𝑏ρ∆𝑉 put together
gives you the amount of property associated with the volume which has left the control
volume.
Now, how do we express this ∆𝑉, the volume of liquid which has left the, which is leaving
the control volume. And that is what is shown in this figure, the area dA is shown here and
then this volume ∆𝑉 is equal to the length ∆𝑙𝑛𝑑𝐴. The ∆𝑙𝑛 is the length along the normal to
the surface; we have a surface a small area, we have a normal to that, the volume is that area
multiply by the length perpendicular to that area. And that is what gives us ∆𝑉 = ∆𝑙𝑛𝑑𝐴; what
has to be kept in mind is that the ∆𝑙𝑛 is perpendicular to the area.
Now, what is that we know, what is the length we know? We know the velocity of the fluid.
So, what we know is this distance ∆𝑙𝑛 which represents, the distance traveled by velocity over
a time interval ∆𝑡. To repeat we are given the velocity vector 𝑣 and what is the length we
know, this length ∆𝑙 ; and that length represents, the distance travel by the fluid along the
direction of velocity. So, we know this ∆𝑙 which is given by the velocity into the time
interval ∆𝑡.
What we want is the length along the normal; what we know is the length along the velocity
vector. Which means that to find out this length, I take a projection of this ∆𝑙 along the
direction of the normal; which is nothing, but this length multiplies by the cos of the angle
between them, which is 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(θ). And that is what is shown here, we have b as such rho as
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such ∆V has been represented in terms of dA the small area multiply by the length
perpendicular to the area. That length perpendicular to the area has been represented in terms
of the length ∆𝑙, which represents the distance travel by the fluid in a time ∆t multiplied by
the cosine of the angle between the two directions. So, I take the projection.
Now, this ∆𝑙 we said is the distance travel with the fluid in time ∆t. So, multiply the velocity
into ∆t. So, finally, the expression 𝑏ρ𝑣∆𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑑𝐴 represents the amount of property that has
left the control volume through the outflow control surface. Now, what do we do, as we have
done earlier we will take the limit ∆𝑡→0,
𝑑𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
∆𝐵
∆𝑡
= ρ𝑏𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑑𝐴
This represents the rate at which the property leaves the control volume through the outflow
control surface. But what does this rate represent, whatever rate living through this small area
that is why it is denoted as d𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡; dB represents that this rate is for a small area and the dot
represents it is the rate and out represents that is it is leaving the control volume.
We want this rate for the entire control surface. So, we integrate this d𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 over the control
surface through which there is an outflow.
𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∫ ρ𝑏𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴

𝐶𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡
So, d𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 represents rated which property leaves through the outflow control surface. We
know 𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ can be represented in terms of the dot product between the v vector and the n
vector. So, v is the velocity vector, n represents the direction of the normal. So, 𝑣. 𝑛 gives you
𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ, n is the unit normal vector. So, 𝑣. 𝑛 becomes 𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ.
So, this integral expression represents the rate at which the property leaves the control
volume through the outflow control surface. Now we have taken two things into account by
this integral expression; one, the angle between the velocity vector and the normal vector.
Secondly, by taking a small area and then integrating it, we allowed for various in the
properties namely density, b, and velocity within the area those were objectives. And by
considering a very general shape of the control volume, we are allowed for multiple inlets
multiple outlets that is where we started off; and not even multiple inlets multiple outlets, any
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part of the surface can be inlet or outlet. Now, let us repeat this analogously for the inflow
control surface.
Now, what is shown here is the inflow control surface, what does it mean, the control volume
is on an outward region or outside the region for this control volume. And that is why as we
have discussed earlier, the normal is always drawn as an outward normal which means it
should point away from the control volume. The control volume is in the right and that is why
this is the inflow surface through which there is fluid inflow entering the control volume. And
n always should be drawn, so convention that, you always draw n as an outward normal and
that is why it is pointing outwards.
Now, as we have done in the earlier case, we have considered a small area dA and the
direction of that normal to the phase is n vector, the direction of the velocity through this
small area is v vector and θ as an angle and the earlier case between the normal to the phase
and the v vector; normal to the area dA and to the v vector.
Let us see how do we proceed in this particular case, it is almost analogous which a small
difference.
∆𝐵 = 𝑏ρ∆𝑉 = 𝑏ρ∆𝑙𝑛𝑑𝐴 =− 𝑏ρ∆𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑑𝐴 =− 𝑏ρ𝑣∆𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑑𝐴
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So now, ∆𝐵 represents the amount of property which is entering the control volume. We
represent as, that into the ∆V which is the volume of liquid which enters the control volume
through the inflow control surface multiply by density gives the mass of fluid multiply with a
property per unit mass. So, this will give you the amount of property which associated with
the volume which has entered the control volume through the inflow control surface.
Now, as we have done earlier, we will represent this volume in terms of the length normal to
the area ∆𝑙𝑛 into dA and that length is shown here is ∆𝑙𝑛. Remember that length ∆𝑙𝑛 is
perpendicular to the area. So, we represent the volume in terms of the length perpendicular to
the area and then multiply by the small area dA and that volume is what is given.
Now, what is known to us, as in the earlier case, is known is this ∆𝑙 which is the length along
the velocity vector and that represents the distance traveled by the fluid in a time interval ∆t.
So, we know the ∆𝑙 along the velocity vector, what we want is the ∆𝑙𝑛 normal to the area. So,
we take a projection of ∆𝑙 along this direction and these are related by the cos of the angle
between them. But now the difference between the earlier case and the present case is that; in
the earlier case, the angle was θnow the angle between them is 180− θ.
So, if you take a cosine of that you get minus cos(θ) and that is what is shown here I have 𝑏ρ
as in the earlier expression this ∆𝑙𝑛is represented as ∆𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ with the negative sign. Because
the angle between these two lengths is 180− θ and not θ as in the earlier case, that results in
a minus sign. But keep in mind, in this case, because n vector and velocity vector are in a
different direction, the angle between them, θ still represents the angle between the velocity
and the normal vector; that angle is going to be more than 90. So, this will be negative, the
expression final value will be positive; because we are taken this as an amount that cannot be
negative. So, the final value will be a positive value, because this negative sign and cosθ is
negative they make it as a positive value.
We will discuss more on that in the next to the next slide and let us go ahead. Now the ∆𝑙 is
the distance travel by fluid along the direction of velocity, we express that in terms of the
velocity into ∆t. So,
𝑑𝐵˙𝑖𝑛 =
∆𝐵
∆𝑡
=− ρ𝑏𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑑𝐴
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As in the earlier case we divide this expression by ∆t and then take limit ∆𝑡→0; and what we
get is the rate at which the property enters the control volume over the small area dA as were
in the previous case.
𝐵˙𝑖𝑛 = ∫ 𝑑𝐵˙𝑖𝑛 =− ∫ ρ𝑏𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑑𝐴 =− ∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴

𝐶𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑆𝑖𝑛
Now, as we have done for the outflow surface, we will integrate this expression over the
entire inflow surface; So, we will integrate over the entire area of the inflow control surface.
What I have done is, substituted for 𝑑𝐵˙𝑖𝑛 from earlier expression and 𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ is expressed as
earlier in terms of 𝑣. 𝑛 remember. Even in this case are always θ is the angle between the v
vector and the n vector. So, remember we have still a minus sign and 𝑣. 𝑛 will be negative
eventually 𝐵˙𝑖𝑛 is positive.
Now, let us put them all together,
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐵˙𝑖𝑛
We have written this expression for the Reynolds transport theorem which relates the rate of
change of property for system, rate of change of property for control volume, and what we
discussed was this 𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵˙𝑖𝑛 cannot be represented in terms of simplified expressions.
228
𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐵˙𝑖𝑛 = ∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 − − ∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 ( 𝐶𝑆𝑖𝑛 )
Now we have got more general expressions for them and let us see how do, we simplify that.
Now, two minuses becomes plus and then the entire control surface is split into partly inflow
and then partly outflow.
𝐵˙𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐵˙𝑖𝑛 = ∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆
So, what do I do, I add this control surface out and control surface in into the entire control
surface. Now the question arises, there can be part of the control surface where there is no
inflow or outflow that would not contribute because the velocity will be 0. We will discuss
this also in detail in the next slide.
But for the moment, we have summed up the control surface out, control surface in as the
entire control surface. So, this is the control volume, all these put together the control surface.
Let us say there are 2, 3 inflow control surfaces, and 3 outflow control surfaces, and some
surfaces where there is no flow, at all the surfaces there is this integral will become 0. So, a
summed up and represented as CSout and CSin, as the CS.
Let us substitute that in the earlier expression and then we get
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
+ ∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆
Let us substitute the integral form of B system and B control volume which you have seen
earlier.
𝑑
𝑑𝑡 ( ∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 =
𝑠𝑦𝑠
) ( 𝑑
𝑑𝑡 )
∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
So, this represents rate of change of property for system is equal to the rate of change of
property for control volume and then last term represents the net rate of outflow of property
through the control surface. We will see why is that, shortly. Now, for a fixed control volume,
I can change the order of this differentiation and integration. Let me do that, but with a small
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change, when I integrate and then differentiate once you integrated volume all the spatial
changes are taken care. So, after integrate, only time is the only independent variable.
𝑑
𝑑𝑡 ( 𝑠𝑦𝑠
)
∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 = ∫
𝐶𝑉
∂
∂𝑡
(ρ 𝑏) 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆
So, I will repeat again, this is a volume integral, once you are integrated over volume all the
spatial variants are taken into account. So, after integrate it is a function of time only; and that
𝑑 𝑑
is why we are used 𝑑𝑡
. Now how am I able to bring the 𝑑𝑡
inside? Because the boundary of
𝑑
the control volume the control surface is not changing, so the volume you can bring in the 𝑑𝑡
inside the volume integral. But when you do that now ρ b, both ρ and b are ρ b put together
can be a function of both space and time; and hence this becomes a partial derivative.
You can bring in, because the boundary is fixed, but when you bring in, these can be
functions of space; and hence the total derivative becomes a partial derivative, because their
function of both space and time anyway. And this is the general form of the Reynolds
transport theorem. We look at the significant shortly, but before that what we will see now is
the, this particular term ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 what does it represent, how does it take care of
automatically inflow and outflow.
230
Lecture - 20
Reynolds Transport Theorem: General form - Part 2
∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆
So, we will see how this expression automatically takes care of inflow and outflow. We had
two different terms for inflow and outflow; now we have only one term, but that
automatically takes care of outflow and inflow. As earlier we will start with outflow which is
easier to explain first; this is the control volume (top right hand side image) and the outside
and there is outflow through this control surface and that is why we are drawn an outward
normal. So, inside of control volume and outward normal for this control surface.
Now, what I have shown here are few typical velocity vectors (dotted arrows in the right top
image), because it is an outflow surface so fluid can flow along any direction and what is
shown is also the angle theta between the normal vector and the velocity vector. Now based
on this configuration, we can easily conclude that angle theta is going to be less than 90
degrees for this configuration which means for the outflow control surface and that is what is
also shown here (bottom right hand side image) in another way from this book, the outward
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normal to the outflow control surface, the direction of outflow vectors and the angle is less
than 90 degrees; which means that 𝑣. 𝑛 is going to be positive. So, this integral expression is
positive for outflow.
Let us see what happens at the inflow surface, this is the control volume (left hand side top
image) and there is inside, and the outside and remember, we always draw outward normal.
So, the normal points away from the control volume and the left side surface represents the
inflow control surface.
Now here again I have shown, different possibilities of the direction of inflow velocity
vectors and to represent the angle, the velocity vectors have been extended in this direction
and the angle between the normal and these extended velocity vectors is shown. Now, what is
the value θ can take? Based on this configuration we can easily conclude that θ will always
be greater than 90 degrees; which means that 𝑣. 𝑛 will be negative. So, this expression will be
negative for the inflow surface.
So, 𝑣. 𝑛 automatically takes care of inflow and then outflow boundary based on the angle and
another representation of inflow boundary is shown here (bottom left hand side image) and
once again the angle between the normal vector and the velocity vector will be more than 90
degrees, resulting in 𝑣. 𝑛 < 0. So, the integral expression for the inflow boundary is
negative, and for the outflow boundary is positive. Let us see what happens at the walls and
that is what is shown here (middle image) at walls the fluid clings to the surface of the wall;
which means that the velocity is 0 (𝑣 = 0) at the surface of the wall, which means that there
would not be any contribution from this term.
If the fluid flows or slides along the surface of the wall, then the angle between the normal
vector and the velocity vector is 90 degrees once again 𝑣. 𝑛 = 0. So, whenever you have a
wall either it clings to the surface of the wall or it slides along the surface of the wall, in both
cases the integral term will not contribute. And that is why we represented in the previous
case, summed up just control surface out plus control surface in as control surface; because
you do not have a contribution from the walls where there is no either inflow or outflow.
Now, because this expression is positive for outflow and negative for inflow, this integral
represents the net rate at which property leaves the control volume through the control
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surface. That word leaves is important because if this is positive which means there is
outflow through the control surface; if it is negative which means there is inflow.
So, there could be some surfaces where there is inflow, some surfaces where there is an
outflow and for all the inflow this will be negative, for outflow this will be positive. And if
this turns out to be net value after taking care of all the outflows and inflows is going to be
positive; which means that there is a net outflow of the property from the control volume
through the entire control surface, no longer we say in or out.
So, ∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = net rate at which the property leaves the control volume through the
𝐶𝑆
control surface; we do not say inflow or outflow, it includes the entire control surface.
So, having discussed in detail the new term, other terms are known to us; let us look at the
physical significance we had discussed that few times just to summarize here.
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
So, this is the general form of the Reynolds transport theorem; it is applicable for a general
control volume means that now we allowed for any part of the surface to be inflow, any part
of the outflow, which means any number of inlets and outlets, allowed for variation of
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properties across inlet surface outlet surface, we also allowed for any angle between the
velocity vector and the normal to the face.
So, whatever assumptions we had, they all taken care of that now. Now the left hand side
represents
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑠𝑦𝑠
I specifically added the word time, because the moment you say the rate of change usually it
means with respect to time to be more explicit included the word time rate of change of
extensive property of the system and how do you quickly interpret?
You are taking a small volume dV multiplying by density get a mass of the small volume,
multiply by the property per unit mass, you will get the property for the small volume,
𝑑
integrate over the entire volume you get the property for the system and take 𝑑𝑡
then that
gives you a time rate of change of extensive property for the system. Analogously that is for
the system, rate of change of extensive property of the system.
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐶𝑉
Now, similarly, take a small volume in the control volume, multiply by density, multiply by b
that gives the amount of property in the control volume. When you integrate, gives the
amount of property in the entire control volume. Take time derivative gives you the rate of
change, more specifically time rate of change of the amount of property in the control
volume. A sometime back discussed, we usually say extensive property of the system; we do
not say property of control volume not so very correct, we say a property in control volume
or property of contents of the control volume.
∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐶𝑆
We have discussed in detail the significance of this term, which represents, the net rate at
which the property is leaving the surface of control volume. We have seen why is it leaving,
because it is 𝑣. 𝑛 is positive for outflow and 𝑣. 𝑛 is negative for inflow that is why it is
leaving. Why is it net rate? Because part of the surface can be outflow, part of the surface
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there can be inflow and of course, that is why it is the net rate at which the property is leaving
the surface of control volume.
How do we interpret this? We take a small area and then let us say velocity taking into
account the projection of velocity along the direction of area. So, this gives the volumetric
flow rate we have area multiplied by velocity when I say velocity along the normal direction
to the area, so this gives you volumetric flow rate, you multiply by density get the mass flow
rate; and then when you multiply by b which is property per unit mass, you get the rate at
which the property leaves enters etcetera and when you integrate to entire surface you get the
net rate at which property is leaving.
So, to distinguish the net rate and the time rate, specifically I used time rate for first two
terms; the first two represent rate of change with respect to time because of with respect to
time, there is variation in the property of system, a property in control volume. The net rate is
because of fluid flow, so this rate is because we have a fluid flow; a flowing fluid has with it
associated mass, momentum, energy, and then species mass, so whatever carried by the fluid
flow is represented by the third term. The first two represents whatever change with respect
to time, one for system, one for control volume.
Let us look at two special cases of the Reynolds transport theorem. So, let us write down the
Reynolds transport theorem first;
235
𝑑
𝑑𝑡 ( ∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 =
𝑠𝑦𝑠
) ( 𝑑
𝑑𝑡 )
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
The rate of change of property for the system is equal to rate of change of property for the
control volume plus net rate at which the property leaves the control volume through the
control surface. There are some special case of Reynolds transport theorem
1. Suppose let us say, we are going to apply this Reynolds transport theorem for a tank,
and let us say the tank is operating under steady state condition and since the tank is
operating under steady state condition when I say tank it is a control volume. So,
𝑑
𝑑𝑡 ( ∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝐶𝑉
)
So, we are left out with the left hand side, rate of change of property for the system,
and right hand side we have only the term corresponding to the net rate at which the
property leaves the control surface.
𝑑
𝑑𝑡 (
𝑠𝑦𝑠
)
∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆
Now, these two become equal. So, under steady state conditions, the rate of change of
property for the system and net rate at which the property leaves the control surface
both are equal. Now depending on the property, the left hand side may be 0 or may
not be 0. Suppose we are applying for mass conservation, then we know that rate of
change of mass for a system is 0, so
𝑑
𝑑𝑡 ( ∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝑠𝑦𝑠
)
So, the net rate at which mass leaves the control surface is 0. But suppose if we are
applying this for a momentum balance then the left hand side, we have seen from the
law of physics; that the rate of change of property in this case momentum is equal to
the sum of forces which means there is nonzero. So, in that case, the net rate at which
momentum leaves the control surface will be equal to the sum of forces.
𝑑
𝑑𝑡 ( ∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 ≠0
𝑠𝑦𝑠
)
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So, this net rate at which property leaves maybe 0 or may not be 0, under steady state
condition.
2. Now let us look at the second special case; a batch condition means we have a tank
there is no inflow and outflow that is what we mean by batch condition, which means
that
∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝐶𝑆
There is no inflow there is no outflow. So, this term represents the net rate at which
property leaves the control surface that term is 0. So, now, what are we left with,
𝑑
𝑑𝑡 (
𝑠𝑦𝑠
) (
∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 =
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉
𝐶𝑉
)
On the left hand side we have rate of change of property for the system and on right
hand side we have rate of change of property for the control volume and both of them
are equal under batch conditions.
There can be another situation where both of them are equal; where there is inflow
and outflow, but it so, happens that the net rate of flow is 0. Once again under that
condition, the rate of change of property for the system and the rate of change of
property for the control volume both are equal. Now if you look at the Reynolds
transport theorem, the rate of change of property for the system and control volume
are same, but for this term which represents net rate at which property leaves the
control surface, otherwise, both of them are same.
So, this term is what makes a difference between the two time derivatives. So, since in
this condition batch condition or where the net rate term is 0, then the rate of change
of property for the system and control volume both become equal. Now once again,
whether the left hand side is 0 or not depends on the property for which we are
applying. If you are applying for mass balance the left hand side is 0, rate of change
of property for the system is 0. And so the rate of change of property in this case
mass, so the rate of change of mass for the system is 0 and the rate of change of mass
for the control volume is also 0.
Suppose we are applying for energy balance; what will happen? The left hand side is
rate of change of energy for the system which is nonzero. Because that is equal to the
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net rate at which heat transfer takes place, work transfer takes place, so which is
nonzero. So in that case, the rate of change of energy for the control volume will be
equal to net rate of heat transfer and work transfer. So, the left hand side could be zero
or nonzero depending on the property or the balance for which we are going to apply
this equation.
Now, what we are going to discuss here is the relationship between the substantial derivative
and Reynolds transport theorem. We have discussed a substantial derivative a few classes
earlier and just now we have discussed the Reynolds transport theorem.
There is a relationship between these two and that is what we are going to discuss now. So,
let us write down the substantial derivative for a property b,
𝐷𝑏 ∂𝑏 ∂𝑏 ∂𝑏 ∂𝑏
𝐷𝑡
= ∂𝑡
+ 𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑥
+ 𝑣𝑦 ∂𝑦
+ 𝑣𝑧 ∂𝑧
Now let us write down the Reynolds transport theorem also and then let us discuss the
relationship.
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
Rate of change of property for the system on the left hand side, rate of change of property for
the control volume, and net rate at which property leaves the control surface.
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Now, what is the significance for the substantial derivative on left hand side ( ) represents,
𝐷𝑏
𝐷𝑡
the rate at which property changes as you follow a fluid particle, the fluid particle is
important terminology here. So, we applied the substantial derivative or we derived it for
expressing the rate of change of property as we follow a fluid particle. So, the left hand side
is a Lagrangian representation, which tells about how property changes as you follow a fluid
particle. Right hand side we said it has two components, two contributions; the first term
( ) represents the local contribution that is because of the unsteadiness of the field. When I
∂𝑏
∂𝑡
say field, it could be temperature field, velocity field, whatever field we are applying for, and
the next set of three terms 𝑣𝑥 ( ∂𝑏

∂𝑥
+ 𝑣𝑦
∂𝑏
∂𝑦
+ 𝑣𝑧
∂𝑏
∂𝑧 ) are because of convection, because of
fluid flow.
So, the first component is because of the unsteadiness which is a local component; the second
contribution is from the convective component and the two contributions on the right hand
side are the Eulerian representations. So, as we discussed substantial derivative expresses a
Lagrangian derivative in terms of Eulerian representation. Left hand side we have Lagrangian
description, right hand side we have Eulerian description.
Now, let us look at the significance of the Reynolds transport theorem; the left hand side
( 𝑑
𝑑𝑡 )
∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 is rate of change of property for a system which is once again a Lagrangian
𝑠𝑦𝑠
description or Lagrangian concept. And right hand side, the two terms correspond to the
Eulerian description because they are for a control volume and then corresponding control
surface.
What is the significance of the left hand side, rate of change of property for the system; right
hand side we have rate of change of property for the control volume
( 𝑑
𝑑𝑡 )
∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 that once
𝐶𝑉
again represents the unsteady component, because that component arises because of the
( )
transience; and the second component ∫ ρ𝑏 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 arises because of flow through the
𝐶𝑆
control surface or because of convection. So, left hand side is the Lagrangian representation,
right hand side is the Eulerian representation and we have written the Reynolds transport
theorem for a system.
239
Now, let us compare both and that is what is shown here Reynolds transport theorem relates a
system analysis to a control volume analysis. Now let us look at the analogy between the two;
the substantial derivative also left hand side was Lagrangian representation, in the Reynolds
transport theorem also the left hand side was Lagrangian representation. Coming to the right
hand side in both the substantial derivative and Reynolds transport theorem they represent the
Eulerian representation. Even in terms of contribution, we have two contributions in both the
cases; the first contribution is the local contribution or unsteady state contribution, the second
contribution is from convection or because of fluid flow and that is what is shown here, the
total rate of change of property following fluid has two contributions local or unsteady part
and then the convective part.
So, both in terms of description, that is a left hand side for Lagrangian and right hand side is
for Eulerian; in both the cases, substantial derivative and Reynolds transport theorem. Not
alone that the right hand side even the two contributions are analogous; the unsteady part, the
local part, and convective part. Now, what is the difference between these two?
Now if you look at the substantial derivative as I told you the keyword is the fluid particle,
the substantial derivative is for a fluid particle. The Reynolds transport theorem, we have
written for a finite size system, fluid particle are infinitesimal so more precisely infinitesimal
fluid particles; the Reynolds transport theorem is for a finite size system.
Now, if you recall back we said a system can be considered to be consisting of several fluid
𝐷
particles and that is what is brought out here as well. So, while 𝐷𝑡
is for an infinitesimal fluid
particle; the corresponding integral representation in the Reynolds transport theorem for a
𝐷
finite size system. So, 𝐷𝑡
is for infinitesimal fluid particle, to a formal word the integral
representation when I say whenever if say integral it is for a finite size.
𝐷
So, the integral representation of 𝐷𝑡
is the Reynolds transport theorem. Now looking at the
other way, suppose if you take the Reynolds transport theorem and make the volume shrink to
0, you will get the substantial derivative. In fact, that can be mathematically proved. So, if
you want to go from the Reynolds transport theorem to the substantial derivative, you shrink
the volume to 0. So, you have a finite size system there are several fluid particles, you make
it to 0 which means; you will have only one fluid particle and that is what the substantial
derivative represents.
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So, in terms of physical significance, they are analogous, in terms of size they are different.
One is for infinitesimal fluid particles, the other one is for finite size system, and that is the
relationship between the substantial derivative and the Reynolds transport theorem. A nice
representation is shown in the figure (above referred slide) from this book cengel and cmbola
fluid mechanics fundamentals and applications. And that is the reason, we discuss because
we are discussed substantial derivatives sometime earlier. Now we are discussing the
Reynolds transport theorem. So, want to emphasize the analogy between these two and what
is the difference in terms of scale or length scale; one is for very small infinitesimal particle
scale, other is for finite system scale. That is why whenever we represent fluid particles, we
represent by a dot, but the finite system we will represent by a region.
We have discussed the significance of B, we said B is extensive fluid property, which could
represent total mass, total momentum, total energy, total species mass. In terms of variables,
they are mass multiplied by one, velocity, the internal, kinetic, and potential energy per unit
mass, and then the mass fraction of species.
The b represent the intensive fluid property, the extensive fluid property per unit mass
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
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This same equation represents or we going to use it for different values of b; namely, for mass
total mass it is 1, for the momentum it is 𝑣 and for energy, it has sum of all this internal
kinetic and potential energy and for species, it has this mass fraction (𝑥𝑖). Of course, both are
related by 𝐵 = 𝑚𝑏.
This equation which represents a Reynolds transport theorem is a starting equation for the
derivation of all the conservation equations, which we will see as we go along; of course, it
looks little scary you have an integral expression and that integral expression is within a
differential expression and that likewise, you have two expressions one on the left hand side
right hand side have another integral expression.
So, on the look of it looks a little scary, but you will see that we will simplify them in when it
comes to the applications. We will apply this for deriving the conservation equation for mass,
momentum, energy, and species mass and when we apply we will simplify that, and becomes
very easy for an application.
So, that brings us to the close of this part of the fundamentals. We defined and discussed
system and control volume, the system made of specific fluid particles, control volume
different fluid particles pass through; and we discussed the need for Reynolds transport
theorem, laws of physics are formulated for a system and Reynolds transport theorem relates
the laws of physics as applicable to as system to the conservation equations applicable for a
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control volume. Now this sentence makes more sense, the derivative of the left hand side was
for system the right hand side all related with a control volume.
How exactly we are going to apply that, we will see as we go along. We derived the
simplified form of a Reynolds transport theorem making assumptions and then extended the
Reynolds transport theorem for a general control volume.
So, this brings us to the close of the first part of the course and fundamental concepts. Let us
quickly summarize them,
● Started with the continuum hypothesis which ignores molecular structure and assumes
matter as continuum.
● Two approaches for describing fluid flow namely Lagrangian and Eulerian;
● Looked at the substantial derivative which is derivative following the fluid motion;
looked at different ways of visualizing flow patterns namely streamlines, pathlines,
and streaklines.
● We distinguished system and control volume, the system made of specific fluid
particles, different fluid particles pass through a control volume, and finally
● The Reynolds transport theorem which links the laws of physics for the system
through the conservation equations for a control volume.
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I wish to emphasize that almost all the topics which are discussed under fundamental
concepts are not restricted to fluid mechanics alone. Usually, we discussed all these topics
under fluid mechanics but should be kept in mind that almost all the topics except; possibly
visualization of flow patterns, all the topics are not restricted to fluid mechanics alone. They
are applicable to the flow of fluids, flow of energy, and flow of species mass as well.
For example when we discussed Lagrangian, Eulerian we took examples of temperature

measurement, concentration measurement. Substantial derivative; we discussed about
derivative following the motion for the case of temperature, the concentration, of course,
velocity as well. Similarly, the concept of system and control volume and Reynolds transport
theorem are generic; and in fact, Reynolds transport theorem is going to be applied for the
derivation of conservation equations, all the conservation equations for mass, momentum,
energy, and species mass. So, and that is why all these topics are been put under fundamental
concepts. So, these concepts can be applied and for the derivation of conservation equations
of total mass, momentum, energy, and then a species mass.
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Lecture - 21
Integral and differential balances
So, let us get started, we have completed the fundamental concepts required for this course in
particular we discussed the Reynolds transport theorem, which relates the laws of physics to
the conservation equations. Now, we are ready to derive the conservation equations using the
Reynolds transport theorem and that is what is indicated by these arrow marks (above image).
Start from the Reynolds transport theorem and goes to the total mass balance, goes to the
linear momentum balance, goes to energy balance, and goes to the species mass balance.
So, we start with the laws of physics use, Reynolds transport theorem, and derive these
conservation equations and within each of these conservation equations, we derive the
integral balance and the differential balance. So, if you look at the course overview we have
an integral differential balance and a total mass balance, similarly, we have integral and
differential balance for linear momentum balance similarly integral and differential balance
for energy balance, and similarly for species balance ok. Of course, we are going to take
several lectures to discuss all these and derive all these, but we are into the derivation of these
conservation equations. So, just an introduction to the conservation equations as such.
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So, as we have seen in the last slide we are going to discuss and derive the balance of total
mass, linear momentum, energy, and then species mass. When we say mass we clearly
distinguish total mass in the species mass, species mass comes much later in the course, so
until then mass and total mass are equivalent. We said we are going to discuss both the
macroscopic balance also called as integral balance and the microscopic balance or the
differential balance.
So, we are going to derive conservation equations which state the balance of total mass,
linear momentum, energy species mass, both in the macroscopic form and the microscopic
form alternate names are integral and differential.
● Macroscopic tells you it is over the entire equipment and the form the equation what
you get is integral that is why it is integral balance,
● Microscopic balance is a small region inside the equipment and the equation that you
get is the differential equation that is why differential balance over the differential
element.
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So, a small introduction about Macroscopic balance and the microscopic balance before we
start actually deriving the conservation equations. So, as I told you macroscopic balances are
written over the entire equipment and few equipment’s are shown here. For example, we have
a pipe here (top right hand side image) and the dashed red boundary indicates the control
volume. The control volume now surrounds the entire pipe and it takes into account what is
the fluid flowing in and then the fluid flowing out.
Similarly, for the pump a boundary is drawn around the pump and then it accounts for what is
flowing in and flowing out addition to that you will also supply some power to the pump so
that the fluid is pumped. Of course, the power is not a material stream what is shown are the
fluid entering and fluid leaving streams, in addition to that power is also supplied in terms of
let us say work interaction to the surroundings.
Then a heat exchanger is shown (middle image), once again the boundary is drawn around
the entire heat exchanger, and streams entering the heat exchanger and leaving the heat
exchanger cross the boundary. So, we do a macroscopic balance or integral balance around
the heat exchanger accounting for energy that is carried by a stream into and out of the
control volume.
Similarly for the absorber absorption column, whereas where again we draw a control volume
over the entire equipment over the entire absorber and account for the material which is
brought in, brought out, and then similarly taken in and taken out. Similarly, for the reactor,
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we have the boundary drawn over the entire reactor and we account for the components
which are entering the reactor and leaving the reactor.
In all these cases we do not focus on what is inside the equipment, the boundary is drawn
around the entire equipment. So, the balance of entire equipment that is seen several
examples of that, what are the changes we account for interaction and removal through the
entering and leaving streams. That is very obvious from all these figures that whatever a
material which is brought in, brought out that is accounted for introduction and removal
through the entering and leaving streams not alone material. It could be energy as well when
you do energy balance we account for energy as well. So, when I say account for the change
to interaction removal through the entering and leaving streams, it accounts for total mass
could be species mass it could be momentum it could be energy. A flowing stream contains
any of these, so depending on the balance we do we account for any of these properties.
Now, other than the property which is being brought in and brought taken out by the streams,
you have other inputs to the control volume in the surroundings. They are like external
forces, for example, the pipe has to be supported some force is required what is that force and
then as I told you sometime back we will have to supply work to this. So, work input in some
places there could be heat input, heat output, heat exchange the surroundings, let us say so all
those are interaction with the surroundings inputs and outputs are from the surroundings.
Other than that there could be sources in the control volume itself. For example, there could
be a source of heat you could have a small heating element or reaction is a source of a
component ok, it is not a source of total mass but a source of component. So, all these are
accounted for when we do a macroscopic balance, whatever carried by the entering and
leaving streams and then other interactions with the surroundings in terms of forces heat work
and then other sources in the control volume in terms of heat or reaction. Based on what we
have discussed should be obvious that we focus on the global characteristics of gross
behavior.
We do not look at the local behavior we look at the global characteristics and gross behavior
of the equipment of the control volume. So, what are the global characteristics, for example,
we interest in the mass flow you may find out the unknowns would be finding out mass flow,
induced force, energy change. For example, you may find out what is the power to be
supplied and then what is the mass fluid flow entering leaving that could be our unknowns
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and then similarly what is the induced force. So, though those are the unknowns that will
solve for when you do a macroscopic balance. And then attention is not focused on the details
like velocity, temperature, concentration profiles, we do not look at the velocity profile in the
pipe or the let us say the at temperature profile in the heat exchanger or the concentration
profile in the absorber.
So, we do not focus attention on the profiles and the other way to put that is we do not require
details on these profiles for this kind of analysis and because we write macroscopic balance
when you simplify what you get is an algebraic equation if it is a steady state process. If it is
a transient process you get an ordinary differential equation the reason is we do not consider
the spatial variation. So, all the spatial coordinates are gone so only the independent variable
could be timed if it is a transient process, if that is also the steady state process time is also
not an independent variable.
So, will result in a simple algebraic expression, which is the advantage of doing a
macroscopic balance. So, that becomes easy to solve algebraic equations or even ordinary
differential equations are easy to solve. So, it becomes fast simple, and very practically useful
method. And so far gives the answer that is sufficiently accurate for most engineering
purposes. If you are looking at the engineering level of accuracy then you get answers which
are sufficiently accurate.
So, to summarize the macroscopic balance we do balance over the entire equipment then
account for changes because of the streams interactions surroundings, and sources within the
volume focus on global characteristics gross behavior. In terms of mass flow, the force then
energy change, we do not focus on the profiles we result in algebraic or ordinary differential
equations and a simple practical useful method of engineering accuracy.
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Now let us move on to the microscopic balance the differential balance. Now as the name
indicates microscopic balance we take control volumes are within the equipment which are
very small and in fact, every point is considered as a control volume.
Few examples are shown here (above slide image) a pipe is shown where we take a control
volume which is inside the pipe and then account for changes for this small control volume
make it very small it becomes just a point. And, then similarly for the case of furnace wall is
shown and where we have shown a control volume within the furnace wall and then we
account for changes of what is happening inside this small control volume differential control
volume. And, similarly, in the absorber, a small control volume is shown and then we do
balance for the small control volume.
Similarly, the reactor control volume is shown within the equipment and we do balance
equations conservation equations for this small control volume. So, as we have seen we write
balance over a small region and if you make the region smaller and smaller it just becomes at
a point in equipment, that is why in this case we are able to get more and more details able to
get profiles of velocity, temperature etcetera.
So, describe the change in the small region, as we have seen we described the changes in a
small region and it becomes a small point as well. And because we are focusing on a very
small region, we will be able to get information on the velocity, pressure, temperature,
concentration profiles within the equipment.
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So for example, in the pipe when you write the microscopic balance and then solve you will
be able to get what is the velocity profile across the diameter, in the furnace case the
temperature profile across the thickness of the wall and the concentration profile along the
length of the absorber and similarly the concentration of let us say the reactant or product
along the length of the reactor.
Because we write differential balances over a small region when we solve we get information
about profiles of all these variables which means we are getting much more detailed
information compared to what we got in the macroscopic balance and once you get detailed
information, we have a better understanding of the process and then better design of the
equipment.
Now space is a variable, the way in which I have seen we said we are going to get profiles
which means the special variables. For example, x-axis, y-axis, z-axis, and x, y, z coordinates
are one variable. So, the least what you get is an ordinary differential equation, if it is steady
state process and then only one special variation. Let us say in the pipe the there is variation
along the radius it is all steady state. So, we will have an ordinary differential equation in
terms of let us say r. Let us say in this case along with the thickness of the furnace wall you
are interested in finding the temperature profile. So, the access the variation so you have one
independent variable descending in a differential equation. So, likewise, there is at least one
special variable resulting in an ordinary differential equation, of course, the more general
case would be variation along with the different directions. Let us say in this particular case
we are interested in the variation along the x-axis, y-axis, z-axis all the three directions,
similarly the r, θ , z directions which means that you will result in partial differential
equations. If time is a variable time also adds and then you result in a once again of course a
partial differential equation.
So, you either result in ordinary or partial differential equations depending on the variable,
but what is important is that these equations are going to be more difficult to solve. Earlier we
had just either algebraic equations or if it is the unsteady state we have the ordinary
differential equation with time as a variable. Now least is an ordinary differential equation
without time with only one spatial variable, otherwise, many times result in the partial
differential equation so more difficult to solve certainly. Usually what we do is we make
simply make assumptions and solve the resulting simplified equations.
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These two slides are to give an overview as we derive the macroscopic and microscopic
balances for the different properties, namely mass, momentum, temperature, and species you
will understand what is contained in these slides much better.
This slide shows the control volumes in the experimental setups which we have come across
and discussed earlier. On the left hand side is the experimental setup for flow through a pipe
and the right hand side shows the setup for the flow through a tank. Now, what is shown here
are the control volumes for integral balance and differential balance. On the left hand side,
the red dashed boundary represents the boundary for integral balance, where the control
volume is drawn over the entire pipe through which water flows in and water flows out.
Similarly, on the setup on the right side the red dotted line is the control volume and through
which water flows in and through two inlets and water flows out through one outlet. Once
again the control volume is over the entire equipment through which there is flow in and flow
out. Now, these streams carry with them the mass as such the total mass, and then they also
carry with them the momentum they carry with them energy and then they also if there are
multiple species are.
So, when you do an integral mass balance we account for these properties are carried by the
streams into and out of the control volume. This slide also shows the control volume for
differential balance those are shown by this yellow color boundary dashed boundary. In the
setup of the pipe the control volume is shown within the pipe and in this second setup on the
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right hand side there are different smaller control volumes possible, one control volume could
be inside the tank or the small control volumes could be inside the inlet pipes or in the outlet
pipe as well.
So, these are control volumes within the equipment and we chose such control volumes for
doing a differential balance, and then for the small control volume, we analyze the flow of
total mass, momentum, energy, and species mass. And, because we consider these control
volumes within the equipment and become smaller and smaller that is become a point, we are
able to analyze the profiles of velocity, temperature, concentration by doing a differential
balance by choosing such small control volumes.
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Lecture - 22
Integral Total Mass Balance
So with that introduction for integral and differential balance equation, macroscopic and
microscopic balances. We will begin with deriving the conservation equation for total mass.
So, we are in the part of the course which says total mass balance, conservation equation
terms of integral balance and differential balance. And, then we will also look at applications
of the integral balance and the differential balance that is the integral total mass balance and
differential total mass balance.[]\7
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So, in terms of outline, we derive the integral total mass balance equation starting with the
law of physics and look at applications of integral total mass balance equation and then
derive the differential total mass balance equation and look at applications of differential total
mass balance equation. So, that is the outline under the conservation of mass title.
After deriving the integral total mass balance equation, we would be taking a few
applications and it is volume what are they just give an idea what is that is in store for us. We
will be able to apply the integral total mass balance equation to solve a typical process
calculation problem likes mass balance over a thickener. We will be able to apply the integral
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mass balance equation for flow over a pipe junction and find an outlet say one of the velocity
is one of the flows and, then we will also be able to apply for flow between the parallel plates
and find out how the maximum velocity is related to the inlet velocity and, then under a
transient condition we will be able to find out how does a density vary as a function of time
in a tank through which the air escapes. These are the kind of applications which would be
able to solve at the end of this integral total mass balance equation.
So, the control volumes are now around the entire pipe and entire tank as we have seen in the
previous slide.
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So, let us start deriving the integral total mass balance equation, the starting point for any
derivation is the law of physics and we said that is one of the major objectives of this course
that relate the law of physics to the conservation equation. The very first statement is the law
of physics. What is a law of physics now? law of physics for a system which states that mass
of a system is constant, just to recollect this example which I have discussed few classes
earlier, we had a fire extinguisher and then a time t = 0, let us say carbon dioxide (CO2) gas is
inside the cylinder. I identify the gas inside the cylinder a time t = 0 as my system.
Sometimes later if I open the wall and part of the gas escapes the cylinder still, my system is
constituted by whatever gas outside and whatever remaining gas inside. The control volume
still remains as my cylinder, but the system has partly moved out of this control volume. So,
we said the system is made of specific fluid particles and so by this definition the way in
which are defined as a system. Let us say initially you have a mass of 10 kg, let say 2 kg
mass has escaped and remaining mass is 8 kg but still a mass of the system is 10 kg so a mass
of a system is constant.
Now, we like to write this in terms of a rate of change. So, the rate of change of mass of a
system equal, and mass is constant. So,
The rate of change of mass with respect to time = 0. Now, these are the statements let see
how do we go ahead deriving the equation from this.
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Now, while deriving the Reynolds transport theorem we introduced the extensive property B
introduced intensive property b.
𝑑 𝑑
𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 = ∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉 ; 𝑑𝑡
𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ 𝑏 𝑑𝑉
𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑠𝑦𝑠
We related the B for a system in terms of this integral and the rate of change of the property
can be expressed in terms of the second expression. So, this we have come across when we
derived the Reynolds transport theorem. Now for the present case
B = Mass = m
b = Mass per unit mass = 1
So, just to repeat this is the general equation which is for any property B. Right now we are
focusing on the total mass, so B for us right now is total mass and b is mass per unit mass
hence becomes unity. Let see how do we write for the mass of a system.
𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠 = ∑ 1 ρ𝑖 ∆𝑉𝑖 = ∫ ρ 1 𝑑𝑉
𝑖 𝑠𝑦𝑠
We take our system split into smaller and smaller volumes of ∆𝑉𝑖 and each volume has it is
own density ρ𝑖, earlier we had here b now which was property per unit mass present it is just
unity that is why I have used 1 here and now I sum over all the smaller volumes and now I
want to represent this as an integral. So, I consider very small volumes really infinite of them
and as the number of volumes becomes larger and larger, the volume of each element
becomes smaller tends to 0. So, I evaluate the sum in the limit of each volume tending to 0,
then you can represent the sum as this integral. So,
Mass of the system has been represented as = ∫ ρ 𝑑𝑉.

𝑠𝑦𝑠
So, when you look at ρ 𝑑𝑉 the way as you interpret is in terms of this splitting into smaller
elements and then summing up all the masses of each of the elements.
Now, let us write this expression for the case of the mass of a system
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𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ 1 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝑠𝑦𝑠
We are writing this equation for mass of a system. Rate of change of mass of a system m
system has been written in terms of this integral expression ρ 𝑑𝑉.
Now, from the law of physics, we know that rate of change of mass of a system is equal to 0,
so this equal to 0 comes from the law of physics. The left hand side just tells you rate of
change of mass of a system and the right hand side tells you the same thing, but in terms of
the integral expression for m system. Now, when you equate this to 0 you are invoking the
law of physics that the rate of change of mass of a system is equal to 0.
So, here we have written the law of physics let say an English statement, this is a
mathematical representation of the English statement made in the first bullet. We say rate of
change of mass of system equal to 0 which has been represented in terms of the equation in
the last line.
So, we have brought written the earlier step again rate of change of mass of a system is equal
to 0,
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ 𝑑𝑉 = (0)𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝑠𝑦𝑠
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Now, we more precise we have given a subscript saying for a system. Now what we will do
now is use the Reynolds transport theorem because Reynolds transport theorem relates the
rate of change of property for a system to the rate of change of property for a control volume.
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
So, let us right the general form the Reynolds transport theorem for applicable for any
property, just to recall this first term on the left hand side term represents rate of change of
property for the system, right hand side represents the rate of change of property for the
control volume and then this last term second term on the right hand side tells you the net rate
at which the property is leaving the control surface.
Now, as we are discussing the intensive property is b is mass per unit mass which is 1 and so
we substitute b = 1 in the Reynolds transport theorem and then get a Reynolds transport
theorem applicable for mass.
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
So, how do you read this equation, now rate of change of mass for the system that is the left
hand side term, right hand side first term rate of change of mass for the control volume. Then
the second term on the right hand side tells you net rate at which mass leaves the control
surface.
Now, becomes a little more meaningful earlier we are using the word property now that
property is mass, so we can read out this equation in terms of mass. So, of course, the
Reynolds transport theorem relates rate of change of property for the system to the rate of
change of property for the control volume. In this case, mass so the rate of change of mass for
the system to the rate of change of mass for the control volume and net rate which mass
leaves a control surface.
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = (0)𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
Now, what we do, this is the equation that came from the law of physics. The left hand side
can now be represented using the Reynolds transport theorem and that is what I have done. I
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have taken this equation taken this equation on the left hand side of this equation as
substituted the Reynolds transport theorem and completed the expression for this equation.
So, just want to emphasize that this first equation is the law of physics, the left hand side in
terms of system that has been represented in terms of the control volume and control surface
that is a idea of using Reynolds transport theorem. In the law of physics in the left hand side I
use the Reynolds transport theorem and then so when I do that the left hand side terms are in
terms of control volume control surface of course, get the right hand side term still in terms of
0 for system.
But what is the main thing you achieved here that the integral which was in terms of system
has been represented in terms of integral over control volume and integral over control
surface using the Reynolds transport theorem. Remember Reynolds transport theorem tells
you how to replace the system integration in terms of control volume control surface, this
equation does not come from Reynolds transport theorem that statement comes from the law
of physics. Using Reynolds transport theorem you are able to relate integral over control
volume control surface, right now it is 0 for the system let us see how do we represent that
also for a control volume. Unless all the integrals are in terms of control volume control
surface we will not be able to apply for solving a mass balance problem.
Let us see how do we do that. So, the stage we are in is that we have written the law of
physics and use a Reynolds transport theorem, and obtained this equation.
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𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = (0)𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
In this equation, the left hand side expressions are what we wanted meaning there in terms of
control volume control surface. But, the right hand side is says that 0 for the system has to be
expressed in terms of the control volume.
Now, to recall back when we drive the Reynolds transport theorem both for the special case
and general case at any time t we took the control volume and the system to be coincident at
any time t. Fixed control surface and system boundary at time t, we wrote
𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐵𝐶𝑉(𝑡)
So now, that is what is shown here (above slide image) this is our control volume, we could
choose a system that is partly outside and partly entering. We could choose a system that is
just coinciding with the control volume or which is just leaving the control volume, three
possibilities are there in several possibilities. But what is the possibility is most convenient
was the possibility where the system in control volume coincides. So, that the boundary of
the system in the boundary of the control volume both coinciding with each other. So, the
system gets much more well defined. So, in terms of our the animation which have seen
earlier. So, these are different possibilities for the system we consider the system which is
coinciding at time t, we consider the system to be coincide with the control volume at time t.
What is the implication of that this 0 for system can be replaced with 0 for the control
volume, left hand side is what we want.
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = (0)𝐶𝑉
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
On right hand side, we replace 0 with control volume of course, later on when we start
writing usually do not write this control volume this implied that is for control volume. But at
this stage when you go from system to control volume we should understand how do we
really go from 0 for system to 0 for control volume. This comes from the law of physics and
that the rate of change of mass is 0 for the system and now both are coinciding. So, I replace
0 for system with 0 for control volume.
So, now this equation is the integral form of the total mass balance equation, where all the
terms are in terms of control volume and control surfaces. Now of course, in terms of
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significance the first term on the left hand side represents rate of change of mass within the
control volume, the second term tells you the net rate of mass leaving the control surface of
course right hand side is 0.
So, as I told you we write the conservation integral form of mass balance equation, we do not
specify control volume in the right hand side it is understood.
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
Now we have seen that 𝑣. 𝑛 automatically takes care of outflow and then inflow and 𝑣. 𝑛 is
positive for outflow just to recall and the same diagram is shown here (above slide image)
and the n represents the outward normal. So, always the normal is drawn outside of the
control volume. So, let us say with respect to this physical geometry if some are inflows and
some are outflows, for one phase the outward normal is drawn in the direction normal to
surface and for the other inflow the outward normal drawn in the direction normal to surface.
So in both the cases both out outlet and inlet the normal always points away from the control
volumes. So, this is the outward normal and in terms of the angle between the velocity vector
and the n vector for outflow, that angle is less than 90 degrees, and then the 𝑣. 𝑛is positive for
outflow. And, for the case of inflow, the outward normal is shown and these are the extended
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inflow velocity vectors the angle between the velocity vector normal vector is greater than 90
degrees and hence 𝑣. 𝑛 is less than 0 for inflow.
So, because of this integral automatically takes care of surfaces where there is outflow and
inflow because 𝑣. 𝑛 is positive for outflow the term tells you the net rate at which mass leaves
the control surface. So, let us put this all this very formally in terms of the significance of this
equation.
● The first term represents a rate of change of mass, to be more specific we say time
rate of change of mass, and then it is within the control volume this tells what is
happening to the mass as a function of time within the control volume.
● The second term tells you as we are discussed now, the net rate of flow of mass out
through the control surface remember all these are whatever flows in and out etcetera
through the control surface all these are parts of the control surface through with there
is inflow or outflow. Of course, we already discuss that wherever there is no inflow
outflow the velocity is 0 and this integral will not contribute. So, that is why it says
net rate of flow of mass out through the control surface when I say through the control
surface wherever you have inflow and outflow all other parts one contribute.
● Now, we have a term which is going to play a major role as we go along by
convection by convection, what do a mean by convection? you have water entering
through one tube, similarly water entering through the second tube and water leaving
through the third tube. Now, as we have discussed earlier this stream entering carries
mass with it. All these wherever there is the transport of mass by flow by bulk flow
we call it as convection.
So, this term we will use several times throughout the course right now we are using
the context of total mass, we will say later on extend these two let us say momentum,
energy, species mass etcetera. But all other same physical significance that whatever
flow entering let us say through inflow and outflow with them they carry these
properties namely mass etcetera. So, that is why it says net rate because accounts for
positive and negative in terms of outflow and inflow net rate of flow mass out through
the control surface and by convection. So, every term has a significance there and of
course, right hand side is 0.
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Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Lecture - 23
Integral Total Mass Balance: Simplification
The integral form of the total mass balance equation which we have derived. So usually used
after making few simplifications. So, we will see how do we simplify this integral mass
balance equation.
d
dt ∫ ρ dV + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CV CS
So now, the general form of the mass balance equation allows us to have any part of the
surface as inflow and outflow. That is why it is just integrals over the control surface; when I
say integral over the control surface, the entire control surface is considered, and wherever
there is inflow outflow that can be accounted for.
Now, we will write it for a case where there are well define inlets and outlets, and we have
also seen an earlier schematic of a pipe network where you have two inlets and then four
outlets are there. So, let us write this expression which allows for any part of the surface to be
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inflow and outflow to the case where there are well define inlets and outlets. So, let us do
that. For in case of illustration, let us take two inlets and two outlets.
d
dt ∫ ρ dV + ∫ ρ v.n dA + ∫ ρ v.n dA + ∫ ρ v.n dA + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CV CS out1 CS out2 CS in1 CS in2
There is a first term that represents the rate of change of mass if it is in the control volume
that is retained as such. The term which represents the net rate of flow of mass out of the
control surface, the control surface has been split into two outlets and then two inlets
wherever there is no flow it is not going to contribute.
Now, let us simplify this further. Now we assume that the velocity is perpendicular to area A.
At this stage, it allows for any angle between the velocity vector and the normal vector. Now
I make a simplification saying that the velocity is perpendicular to area A, what does it mean?
Let us say the velocity is exactly perpendicular to area A which means it is along the normal.
Of course, either making 0 degrees or 180 degrees; similarly, this is the outlet and the
velocity is exactly perpendicular to the area which means it is along the normal.
v .n = v n cosθ = v ; f or outlet since θ = 0 degree
Now, that is what is shown here this is the outward normal to the surface and the velocity is a
vector is also along the normal and both are along the same direction. So, θ = 0 degrees so
v .n just becomes v the magnitude of velocity, what is that I have done? v .n has been
represented as a magnitude of v magnitude of n multiply by cause of the angle between them.
The magnitude of the velocity vector is represented by the v scalar. So, v represents
magnitude of velocity and then because the velocity vector and the normal to the phase or
along the same direction θ = 0 degrees; so cosθ = 1.
v .n = v n cosθ =− v ; f or inlet since θ = 180 degree
Now, if you take the inlets, we have two inlets in this case. In this case, if you look at the
diagram this is the normal outward normal and now this is the velocity vector and the
velocity vector is perpendicular to the phase but n and the velocity vector are opposite to each
other, so θ is 180 degrees for the case of inlet surface.
So, once again let us expand v .n magnitude of velocity and that of n multiply by cos of the
angle between them. Now for magnitude of velocity vector, I have used v , and cosθ =− 1 , of
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course, the magnitude of n is unity. So, v .n for outflow becomes equal to v and v .n for
inflow becomes − v where v represents the just the velocity, let us say 5 meters per second,
2 meters per second etcetera the magnitude alone.
So, let us use this and simplify the equation which I have written earlier.
d
dt ∫ ρ dV + ∫ ρ v dA + ∫ ρ v dA − ∫ ρ v dA − ∫ ρ vdA = 0
CV CS out1 CS out2 CS in1 CS in2
So, the difference between the two equations or the simplification is that, well the first
equation allows for any angle between v and n, where the velocity is perpendicular to the area
A which is the case most of the time. So, an easier and practical representation of the integral
total mass balance equation.
So, let us proceed further and when we write as v .n it automatically takes care of this sign,
but if you write in terms of v then v ourselves take care of the positive or negative sign that
should be kept in mind. Now, let us make another assumption density is uniform within the
control volume. You have taken a control volume with multiple inlets and outlets of course,
and within the control volume, I say the density is uniform within control volume and then I
also say that if you take the area the density and velocity are uniform across the area.
So, two more assumptions are made within the control volume, inside the control volume
density is uniform and in the surface area whatever be the surface area inlet outlet etcetera,
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within the surface area the density and velocity are uniforms across that. What does the
implication of that? Let us see how does it gets simplified?.
d
dt (ρ v) + ρout1 v out1 Aout1 + ρout2 v out2 Aout2 − ρin1 v in1 Ain1 − ρin2 v in2 Ain2 = 0
The first term because density is uniform within the control volume ρ can be taken out of the
integral, it is not varying and then what you have is integral over the control volume which
gives the volume of the control volume which is V.
The first term was possible because we assumed density be uniform in the control volume
and I could take density out of the integral sign. Now let us take the first surface integral for
the first outlet. Now we assumed density and velocity be uniform across the area. So, I can
take out both density and velocity outside the integral sign and what I have is integral dA
which is nothing but A. Similarly, for the second outlet and then first inlet and then second
inlet, of course, remember we have a negative sign for inlets otherwise conceptually in every
term we take out the density and velocity out then an integral of dA becomes A. So now, this
equation is, of course, looks much more simpler than the integral expression many times we
can use this assumption. Of course, velocity may not be uniform across the cross section, but
otherwise, you usually take density to be uniform within the control volume.
So, the velocity perpendicular to the area is usually well known assumptions and well valid
assumptions. Velocity may not be uniform across the area, but otherwise, you can use this
fine.
268
So, let us go ahead so the same expression is rewritten here for two outlets and two inlets and
now we will generalize this for multiple outlets and multiple inlets.
d
dt (ρ v) + ρout1 v out1 Aout1 + ρout2 v out2 Aout2 − ρin1 v in1 Ain1 − ρin2 v in2 Ain2 = 0
We have taken two outlets two inlets just for illustration purpose, we can easily generalize
that two multiple inlets and multiple outlets.
N o. of outlets N o. of inlets
d
dt
(ρ v) + ∑ ρi v i Ai − ∑ ρi v i Ai = 0
i=1 i=1
So, instead of saying two inlets and two outlets restrict in ourselves, I say there is n number
of outlets. At each outlet there could be a density there could be a velocity and there could be
of course area as well; area represents the area of this cross sectional area. Similarly, there
could be a multiple numbers of inlets remember the minus sign because these vi represents
the magnitude of velocity. So, we have taken care of the negative sign and once again there
could be multiple inlets and some over all the inlets with respect to densities and velocities
areas etcetera. Now then we know that v i A is the volumetric flow rate multiply by density
use the mass flow rate.
d
dt
m + ∑ ṁi − ∑ ṁi = 0
i=1 i=1
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So, the same expression can be written in terms of mass ρ v is of course the mass of the
contents of the control volume or mass in the control volume. This equation has been put in
terms of mass units such as mass and mass flow rate. So, two ways of expressing the same
equation, what is the distinction between these two usually the variables with which we are
interested to express the conservation equations are density, velocity, pressure which will
come across a little later, and then temperature, concentration etcetera. So, this equation
represents the conservation equation in terms of density, velocity, area and that is what
usually you measure in a plan, those the measured variables. If we have a control volume
with continuous flow, usually measure the velocity, the area is known, the density of the
fluids stream is known or you measure it.
So, you represent terms of ρi v i Ai , but sometimes from a problem solving point of view, the
mass flow rate may be given to you directly and in a lab experiment, you may measure the
mass of a sample. So, in those cases mass becomes a more measurable value, and those cases
or some instruments can give directly the mass flow rate itself, In those cases this equations
become much more useful. But otherwise, it is a more useful and general form of the
conservation equation in terms of density, the volume, the control volume, velocity, area
etcetera.
d
dt ∫ ρ dV + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CV CS
So, just to summarize what we have done, we started off with the most general form the
integral total mass balance, and then we have expressed that either in terms of the two
simplified equations. The particular term rate of change of mass within the control volume is
represented as the first term analogously.
Now, the second term represents the net rate of mass living the control surface and that term
has been expressed in terms of two summations. So, when you take the difference between all
the outflows and inflows it represents the net rate at which mass flow leaves the control
surface.
So, earlier the meaning was inside the integral now based on these assumptions, which very
clearly shown that this integral indeed represents the net rate at which mass leaves the control
surface.
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Now, understand this particular integral in different forms comes repeatedly in this course.
So, let us understand this in a different way we are going to arrived at the same meaning but
in a slightly different way.
∫ ρ v.n dA
CS
So, let us start with this v .n , we have a phase and then the normal to the phase is along one
direction and the velocity is some other direction and v .n represents the component of
velocity along the normal. We know that dot product represents the projection, so v .n
represents the normal component of velocity along the normal. So, I call it as a normal
component of velocity now velocity can be represented as a flux, let us see how do we do
that.
V olumetric f lowrate V olume

V elocity = Area
= time x area
= V olumetric f lux
Now, any quantity express per unit area per time is called as flux, so the quantity you have is
volume so this term becomes volumetric flux. So, what is that we have shown here velocity
can be expressed as volumetric flux. So, better to keep this in mind, we will use this a few
times later as well. Either you can say velocity which is well known to us as volumetric flow
rate by area express volumetric flow rate as volume per time, then it becomes the volumetric
flux because it is the volume per time per area so velocity is volumetric flux. Now,
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● v .n = volumetric flux accounting for the normal component of velocity
● ρ v.n = the mass flux because we are multiplying by density, so this volumetric flux
becomes mass flux.
● Now when you multiply by a small area dA, it becomes mass flow rate because, for
example, if you see velocity is the volume per time per area when you multiply by
area. Let us say mass flux is mass per time per area and when you multiplying by area
what you are left out is mass per time so which is mass flow rate.
Now, this mass flow rate represents the flow rate over a small region dA, you integrate over
the entire control surface and it becomes net mass flow rate because some regions mass may
leave some regions mass may enter and just not net mass flow rate but it is net mass flow rate
out since n is the outward normal. So, we interpret this integral ρ v.n dA just quickly to
summarize v .n is a normal component of velocity, velocity is volumetric flux. So, v .n is
volumetric flux accounting for that normal component multiply by ρ you get mass flux
multiply by the area you get mass flow rate. So, remember that the integral quantity
represents mass flow rate, a very well known quantity to you from your process calculation
much more general than what you know and it is net mass flow rate leaving the control.
So, leaving the control volume through the control surface or living out of the control
volume, because n by convention is outward normal. So, that is the way of interpreting this
integral moment, you look at the integral it may be difficult to understand. But if you
interpreted, this way becomes very easy to understand.
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(Refer Slide Time: 18:02).
Now, let us continue to simplify the integral total mass balance equation,
d
dt
m + ∑ ṁi − ∑ ṁi = 0
i=1 i=1
This is where we left we said we write in terms of the sum of outlet flow rates minus sum of
inlet flow rates and rate of change of mass.
Now, if it is a steady state then,
d
dt m =0
∑ ṁi − ∑ ṁi = 0
i=1 i=1
There is no change of mass within the control volume. So, here left out only the second and
third terms the total mass flow leaving total mass flow entering becomes further simplified.
Now there are multiple inlets multiple outlets, let say there is only one inlet and one outlet, let
us assume there are no inlets outlets here one inlet one outlet. Then this equation can be
simplified let us assume we are still unsteady state transients can be there.
d
dt m + ṁout − ṁin = 0
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So, there is only one outlet we represent that as ṁout − ṁin or the equation becomes much
simpler. If it is one inlet one outlet and if in this control volume if it is going to operate under
steady state condition, then
ṁout − ṁin = 0; m
˙ out = ṁin
ρout v out Aout = ρin v in Ain
So, very well known observation or well known fact that if you have one inlet one outlet
mass flow entering should be equal to mass flow leaving under steady state condition. As
usual, if you want to write in terms of densities, velocities then express mass flow rate in
terms of the volumetric flow rate velocity into area multiply by density similarly for the
inflow. So, either you write in terms of mass flow rate or in terms of density, velocity, and
then area we already discussed which is more relevant under which condition.
Now, one more assumption, we will make usually the density does not vary much between
inlet and outlet, let us say it is a liquid then
ρout = ρin
So, if the density is constant this rho out and rho in both are the same, we get a simple
expression that
v out Aout = v in Ain
So, when v which is a well known equation; when we say that let us say there is a converging
channel like this, and then because area reduces velocity increases. It may be a simple
statement, but you should know that this statement comes from if you go back from the law
of physics integral mass balance equation simplify simplify simplify and then we say that
when area reduces velocity increases.
So, very commonly told statement, but now we are in a position to clearly understand. what
is the physical principle behind that statement, either in terms of the law of physics or in
terms of conservation equation.
274
Now, you would have used mass balance equation in process calculation course, we will see
how the equation which is derived in this course compares with that equation which you
would have used in a process calculation course. How the equation derived here is much
more generic than what you would have used in a process calculation course.
d
dt ∫ ρ dV + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CV CS
Let us write the first equation derived in this course that is the integral total mass balance
equation. And after a series of simplifications, we wrote the same equation in terms of mass
flow rate.
d
dt
m + ∑ ṁi − ∑ ṁi = 0
i=1 i=1
Now, let us write down the equation which you would have used in a process calculation
course let us see how do they compare.
Rate of accumulation of mass = Rate of mass in − Rate of mass out

d
dt
m = ∑ ṁi − ∑ ṁi
i=1 i=1
This equation; if we express in terms of variables we have used the rate of accumulation of
d
mass is dt m , rate of mass in is ṁi , but I allow for several inlets.
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Let us compare these last two equations both are exactly the same. The way in which we have
to write in this course is that we are always expressing this net rate of flow leaving the control
volume. So, that is why we have the sum of outlet flow rates minus some of inlet flow rates.
The way in which you would have written in a process calculation courses rate of
accumulation of mass is equal to you took the flow rates right hand side. So, they became rate
of mass in the minus rate of mass out, so on the right hand side, they are some of flow rates in
minus some of flow rates out. But both are eventually same only difference is that you have
written same expression but in different way. Otherwise there is no difference between the
two equations, the simplified equation that you have derived and the equation that you would
have used.
In a process calculation course usually you deal with processes under steady state conditions.
So, the left hand side is 0 and you have terms only on the right hand side which account for
the mass flow in and mass flow out. So, that is a comparison when the equation used in the
process calculation course, this is the equation which you would have used several times in
the process calculation course.
d
dt ∫ ρ dV + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CV CS
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Now, what we will see is how does the equation which you have used, what you have shown
is the equation which are used is equivalent to the simplified form. What we will now do is
how does the simplified form use in the process calculation course compares with the most
general form of conservation equation which you have derived.
0= ∑ ṁi − ∑ ṁi
i=1 i=1
This is the equation used in the process calculation course what we have derived is the more
general form in what way is it general.
● First transient or unsteady state term which is not a very major difference because
probably you would have even solved some problems with transient so I would not
say major distinction. But still, most of the problems have a steady state; but, so we
are accounting for the transient mass balance also number one now next,
● In the case of the process calculation course, you would have allowed for well define
inlets and outlets. Now because of the surface integral allow for any part of the
surface to behave as an inlet and outlet, so because of taking a surface integral over
any. So, the over the surface area accounts for inflow and outflow occur as any part of
the control surface that way more generic.
● Now, you would have worked out only in terms of mostly mass flow rate, you would
not have worked mostly in terms of even velocities etcetera. Now we are working in
terms of velocities, densities etcetera not alone that we allow for any angle between
the phase and the velocity. So, because we talk in terms of v .n the normal component
of velocity any angle between velocity and normal to the surface is taken into
account.
● Thirdly we also account for density and velocity variation across the surface; across
the surface density and velocity that is why they are in inside the integral sign density
and velocity can vary across the surface.
So, to conclude this comparison, the equation that I used is nothing but integral mass balance
equation number one, that equation has come after several simplifications from the original
equation with you derived number two, number three comparing the original equation what
you derived the most generic equation the equation which you have used.
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There are several generalities in the equation which have derived what you have seen as a
small subset of that under several certain limiting conditions. And how far we are more
generic the transient or unsteady state term inflow outflow across any surface any angle
between velocity and normal to the surface and density velocity variation across sthe surface
can be considered.
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Lecture - 24
Integral Total Mass Balance: Examples
Let us discuss few Applications of the Integral Mass Balance Equation. In each application,
we will highlight one aspect.
● The first application is a mass balance for a thickener it is a typical process

calculation example. The whole idea is to show that what you have done earlier is use
the equation which I derived now so, that you do not think they are two different
things.
● The second example is a mass flow at a pipe junction case where you have multiple
inlets, multiple outlets.
● The third example is flow through a flat channel, our well known example. Here the
aspect to which we pay attention is that the velocity is uniform at the inlet, but the
velocity is not uniform at the outlet. So, how do we take that into account and all
these three cases, are for steady state operating condition.
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● The fourth example will be considering the transient as well, we have a tank that went
out how do the density varies as a function of time.
So, first, take an example from process calculation, once again light emphasis that all the
examples in your process calculation course where you would have done total mass balance
fall under this category. You would have come across this term integral balance or integral
mass balance in a process calculation course, now you would really understand what was
really meant by the term integral balance in the process calculation course. Probably that time
you would have not paid attention, but now you know what is really the meaning of that,
what is a full pledged equation after many simplifications how does it get to the equations of
process calculation book etcetera. We took a very specific example here,
A thickener in a waste disposal unit of a plant removes water from wet sludge as shown in
figure (above slide image). So, in this figure you see 100 kg/hr of wet sludge entering, some
amount of water is removed per hour, the dehydrated sludge flow rate is given which is 70
kg/hr. So, how many kilograms per hour of water leaves a thickener per 100 kg/hr of wet
sludge that enters the thickener, the process is this steady state. As we discussed sometime
back, all the values are given in terms of mass flow rates directly, not in terms of velocity
densities etcetera.
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So, let us write the general integral total mass balance equation which you have derived, to
begin with,
d
dt ∫ ρ dV + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CV CS
The rate of change of mass in the control volume plus the net rate of mass leaving the control
volume through the control surface equal to 0. And then we simplified it, we made a lot of
assumptions relevant to the problem at hand.
● First is steady state and then
● We assumed that the velocity is perpendicular to area and then
● Density and velocity uniform across area.
Then we could write in terms of the mass flow rates,
∑ ṁi − ∑ ṁi = 0
i=1 i=1
So, let us apply this equation for this example, we have two outlets streams, one through
which water leaves others through which the dehydrated sludge leaves. So,
ṁwater + ṁDehydrated sludge − ṁwet sludge = 0
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Now, let us substitute the known values
ṁwater + 70 − 100 = 0
So,
ṁwater = 30 kg/hr
This problem is very simple, the idea of showing this example is once again I repeat to relate
the equation which you would have started off in the process calculation course. This would
have been your starting point in your process calculation course or straight away you would
have written this equation. We are just showing that this equation is a very simplified version
of the general integral total mass balance equation, of course, 30 kg per hour of water leaves
the thickener.
Let us move on to the next example which is mass flow at a pipe junction. We consider the
steady flow in a water pipe joint shown in the diagram (above slide image), you have a pipe
junction with one inlet and two outlets and the cross sectional areas are given, A1 = 0.2 m2, A2
= 0.2 m2 and A3 = 0.15 m2 and then you have a let us say a leak or a small hole through which
water is lost.
In addition, fluid is lost out of a hole at location 4 (shown in the image), estimated at a rate of
0.05 m3/s because it is a leak it is a small hole, it may not be regular also. So, usually, you
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know the volumetric flow rate through the hole that is why the volumetric flow rate is given,
you are not given velocity through that hole or area of that hole. If it is a well defined inlet or
outlet etcetera then you know the area different types of velocity. It is a small hole and the
small leak over it, then you do not specify in terms of area and velocity just in terms of
whatever is leaking out. In terms of let us say volumetric flow rate then you are given the
average speeds at sections 1 and 3. So, the section 1, the velocity is V1 = 5 m/s and section 3,
a high velocity of V3 = 12 m/s. It says average speed because we are not considering variation
across the cross sectional area. So, we just give an average value that is why it says the
average speed at sections 1 and 3 and we are asked to find out what is the velocity at section
2.
Solution:
To begin with, we say that water enters at section 1 and leaves at section 2 and section 3. We
will have to verify based on the result what we get let us see what happens. Now let us start
with the general form of the integral mass balance equation, we will make set of assumptions
steady state and velocity is perpendicular to the area.
d
dt ∫ ρ dV + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CV CS
So, the assumptions are
● Across all the phases let us say a velocity and an area perpendicular to each other,
similarly at the other inlets and outlets as well, and then
● The density and velocity are constant across the cross sectional area which we have
done several times.
So, if you make these assumptions, these integral balance equation get simplified as
∑ ρi v i Ai − ∑ ρi Ai = 0
i=1 i=1
Now, unlike the previous examples, where this equation was written in terms of mass flow
rates, the same equation now as may be written in terms of densities and velocities and areas.
As I told you that is more a practical way of representing the conservation equation because
those are the measurable values measured values and this is a good example where the
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specifications are as close to as possible to the reality meaning you measure velocity measure
area etcetera.
So, let us write down the simplified equation for this pipe junction in terms of outlets, we
have considered section 2 to be an outlet and section 3 to be an outlet and 4 is also an outlet
and there is only one inlet which is section 1. So, let us write down that because it is water I
kept the density to be constant.
ρ v 2 A2 + ρ v 3 A 3 + ρ v 4 A 4 − ρ v 1 A1 = 0
So, all terms represent the mass flow rate either leaving or entering respectively. Now, we
will substitute the values, we are given the values of A1 = 0.2 m2, A2 =0.2
m2, A3 =0.15
m2,
also, we are given the velocities v1 =5
m/s, v3 =12
m/s but v2 has to be found out and then we
are not given v4, A4 etcetera. We are given the product v4 A4 = 0.05 m3/s as we have
mentioned a few minutes back, we are given the volumetric flow rate, not mass flow rate.
v 2 A2 + v 3 A3 + v 4 A4 − v 1 A1 = 0
v 2 x 0.2 + 12 x 0.15 + 0.05 − 5 x 0.2 = 0
v 2 =− 4.25 m/s
As I told you to begin with we assumed that water is leaving through this phase and so, we
included that in the outlet as a flow rate leaving the control volume, but now we found out
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that v2 is negative which means that water is entering through the inlet 1, water is also
entering through this surface 2 and leaving through this outlet surface 3 and of course,
leaving through outlet hole 4, that is why the velocity v3 is much higher.
So, entering at through 1 inlet at 5 m/s through the other inlet at 4.25 m/s leaving at 12 m/s
and their cross section area is also less so, resulting in a higher velocity. So, this is a good
example where if you have we work in terms of velocities areas and then apply the integral
mass balance equation.
This example is to illustrate the use of velocity profile, we have so far assumed that the
velocity is uniform across the cross sectional area of the inlet or the outlet. Suppose, if the
velocity varies across the inlet or outlet how do we take that into account, remember the
equation that we have derived can take this into consideration let us read the example, water
enters a wide flat channel of height 2h with a uniform velocity of 2 m/s.
This geometry is very well known to us in which is shown here (above slide image) and the
inlet velocity is 2 m/s remember understand the word uniform velocity. What does uniform
velocity mean? The velocity does not vary over the height of the channel at the inlet. At the
channel outlet, the velocity distribution meaning velocity varies along the y-direction, along
with the height of the channel it varies. And, we are given the velocity profile it says vx
because velocity in the x-direction, and that is the function of y.
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vx y 2
v x,max
= 1 − (h)
Velocity in the x-direction varies in the y-direction and v x, is the maximum velocity which
is supposed to find out where y is measured from the centerline of the channel. So, y is
measured so, for example, if 2h is the height of the channel, y is + h and then − h that is why
we are given the position of the coordinate axis, y starts from the centerline axis. Now, we
asked to find out the, determine the exit centerline velocity which is maximum at the
centerline. So, we are asked to find out what is the exit centerline velocity v x, why is it
centerline, when you substitute y = 0 in this equation, you get v x = v x, that is why centerline
velocity.
d
dt ∫ ρ dV + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CV CS
Now, let us start with the most general form of the integral balance equation, we will make
some assumption, but not all of them
● Steady state
● Velocity is perpendicular to the area through the velocity either the inlet or the outlet.
In the inlet, the velocity is uniform across the area, but still perpendicular to the area,
in the outlet it varies across the channel height, but still, it is perpendicular. So, at the
inlet, it is uniform throughout it is perpendicular at the outlet it varies, but still, it is
perpendicular to the area.
● So, this assumption is valid and now in the earlier examples, we took the density and
velocity to be uniform across the area. In this example, we are taking only the density
to be uniform across the area, we are not taking as that the velocity is also uniform
which is not valid at the exit.
Now, when you simplify the equation becomes
∫ ρ v.n dA + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CS 1 CS 2
So, now, let us split this term for the control surfaces 1 and 2, the inlet is denoted as control
surface 1, outlet as control surface 2. So, what I have done here, I split this control surface as
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control surface 1 and control surface 2, and of course, right hand side is 0 wherever there is a
wall velocity is 0 and does not contribute.
dA = dyW
+h
− ρv in 2hW + ∫ ρv x (y) dyW = 0
−h
Now, let us express this for the inlet, density is a constant, now v .n remember for inlet it is
negative. So, we have a negative sign in the first term and minus the magnitude of velocity
which is v in and then the area (2hW). Now, let us take the second term, the second term we
have ρ which is written as such. Now, v .n is positive because the flow is leaving the control
volume and what is the velocity now, it is v x (y) earlier v in was just a constant, but now v x
to be more explicit, we also mention v x (y) . Now, what is the area we should take, this is the
outflow and the width is still W, but now because velocity varies along the y-direction along
with the height I cannot take the entire to which I take a small strip of height dy. So, the area
of this strip disc dy W. So, that area is denoted as dA which is dy W. So, the area dA = d y W
because the velocity varies along with the height of the channel along the y-direction. So, I
cannot take the entire area W 2h, I only take a strip which is of height dy so that then I
integrate to get cover the entire area.
Rewriting the same equation here so,
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+h
− ρv in 2hW + ∫ ρv x (y) dyW = 0
−h
Now, we are given the velocity as a function of y, W cancels out in the in this equation, and
let us substitute for vx as a function of y from the given velocity distribution. So,
vx y 2
v x,max
= 1 − (h)
+h
− v in 2h + ∫
−h
[
v x,max 1 − ( hy )
2
] dy = 0
This equation has been integrated and we get
+h
[
v x,max y − 1
3 ( )]y3
h2
−h
= 2hV in
Now, coming to the limits first we set the limits was in terms of control surface 2, now the
independent variable is y. So, the limits are written in terms of y and the y value varies from
− h to +h because y = 0 represents a centerline and we substitute those limits here.
Now, substitute the limits and then
[
v x,max h − (− h) − [ h3
3h2 (
− − h3
3h2 )]] = 2hv in
v x,max ( 43 h) = 2hv in
v x,max = 32 v in
The maximum velocity is 1.5 times to the inlet velocity. So, inlet velocity is given as v in = 2
m/s, you can find out what is the maximum velocity at the exit.
v x,max = 32 x2 = 3 m/s
So, a good example where at one inlet it was uniform velocity, and the outlet the velocity
varied across the cross sectional area. By using this integral sign we have been so far telling
that the integral sign accounts for the variation of velocity, density. So, a good example to
demonstrate that as well.
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The last example where our attention is to consider a case where there is transient where is a
unsteady state that is the focus of this example. Let us read the example, a tank of 0.06 m3
volume contains air at 800 kilo Pascal absolute and 15 0 C. So, given volume of the tank, you
have given the pressure and temperature and at time t equal to 0, air begins escaping the tank
through a valve, and with a flow area you have given small area 65 mm2.
The air passing through this valve at a speed you are given the speed so, varying at speed of
300 m/s because high pressure and it is a small area as well and the density of air leaving is 6
kg/m3. Determine the instantaneous rate of change of density in the tank. The rate of change
of density tells you that the rate keeps changing because as air escapes the pressure inside
falls and the velocity can change the density can change. So, whatever you are finding out is
the instantaneous rate of change of density at time t = 0, the moment you open the valve how
to do the density change with time that is why it says the instantaneous rate of change of
density in the tank moment say instantaneous you mention a time and that time is t = 0,
moment you open the valve what happens.
Solution:
d
dt ∫ ρ dV + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CV CS
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Now, let us start once again with the most general form of the integral mass balance equation,
for all the earlier examples we have assumed steady state but we cannot do that here because
it is a transient case so that assumption is not listed, all other assumptions are listed.
● Density is uniform inside CV
● Velocity is perpendicular to the area and,
● Velocity is uniform across cross section area
Now, because we are going to consider the accumulation term that a transient term, we need
to make another assumption that the density is uniform inside the control volume no longer
we so far we need not mention that because that term was anywhere 0, but now that term is
going to contribute. So, now we should say whether density is varying within the control
volume or it is a constant within the control volume that will enable us to take out whether
should we keep it inside or can I take it outside. As usual, to simplify the analysis, we will
say density is uniform inside the control volume.
So, these assumptions are made depending on what aspect we were trying to focus on a
particular problem. Now,
d
dt
(ρV )+ ∑ ρi v i Ai − ∑ ρi Ai = 0
i=1 i=1
dρ
V dt
+ ρ1 v 1 A 1 = 0
So, I can take the volume to be constant so that I can take this out of the derivative, and then
there is no inflow at all; obviously, there is only outflow. So, the last term will not contribute
there is no inflow, only outflow will contribute and there is only one outflow.
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So, let us simplify this equation, what is required is an instantaneous rate of change of
density.
dρ
V dt + ρ1 v 1 A 1 = 0
dρ ρ1 v 1 A1
dt
=− V
Let us substitute all the values ρ1 = 6 kg/m3, v 1 = 300 m/s and A1 = 65 mm2 represented in
terms of SI units and the volume = 0.06 m3.
6 x 300 x 65 x 10−6
dρ
dt
=− 0.06
=− 1.95 mkg3 /s
So, this gives you the rate at which density keeps changing of course, obliviously it should
kg
decrease because air escapes and how does it decrease roughly at the rate of 2 m3
/s . So, the
density is decreasing at this rate due to the escape of air. Once again a very simple example to
demonstrate the unsteady state term all others are something known to us from previous
examples.
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To summarize the conservation of mass part, the total mass balance part the integral mass
balance alone. So, the law of conservation of total mass for a system is started from that and
express that in terms of the integral total mass balance equation for a control volume using
Reynolds transport theorem with that objective is derived the Reynolds transport theorem.
We have seen the first application of Reynolds transport theorem, conservation of mass for a
system the law of physics has been expressed in terms of a governing equation as a
conservation equation, but in integral form for a control volume, we use Reynolds transport
theorem for that. We will see several applications of that for other properties as well as
momentum, energy, and then spacious mass.
Now, the integral total mass balance equation that you have derived is more generic than the
integral total mass balance equation used in the process calculation course. Transient,
unsteady state term, inflow, outflow across any part of the control surface, then any angle
between velocity and normal to the surface and of course, density, velocity can vary across
the surface. And, looked at the application of this integral total mass balance equation,
process calculation example, an example with multiple inlets and outlets, example
considering velocity profile and example where we include the unsteady state term.
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Lecture - 25
Differential Total Mass Balance Part 1
We will get started. We are discussing the conservation of mass and that we derived the
integral total mass balance equation starting the law of physics using the Reynolds transport
theorem. And then we looked at applications of that integral total mass balance equation
under steady state and unsteady state conditions etcetera. Now we are going to derive the
differential form of the total mass balance equation and also look at applications of
differential total mass balance equation.
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Now, what are the applications we will be looking at after sometime, we will be applying the
differential form total balance equation for these kinds of configurations.
● One is our usual flow between the two parallel plates,

● Another configuration is same parallel plates but with porous walls and then
● The flow between the narrow gap and
● Another interesting example linking measurements in an ocean and then
● Of course, the last example would be once again on the transient.
This differential form of total mass balance equation puts a restriction on the components of
velocity. So, all these examples will revolve around finding out one velocity component,
details of course you will know as we go along.
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So, control volumes and experimental setups I think we have come across this setup a few
times. So, I have shown only the control volume which we will be using for differential total
mass balance, I have not shown that for the integral balance though. So, the yellow and dash
lines (above slide images) represent the control volume which is now inside the equipment
that is what is to be paid attention to either inside the tank or in the inlet pipe or in the outlet
pipe. So, the control volume when we say for differential balance has to be imagined a very
small volume we will see as we go along.
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What is the starting point for this differential total mass balance equation, we start the integral
total mass balance equation. So, this was obtained from the law of physics. So, which means
that indirectly, we are obtaining the differential balance also from the law of physics only that
we keep in mind always. Let us write the integral total mass balance equation which we
derived
d
dt ∫ ρ dV + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CV CS
Now, I am going to apply this for a small control volume inside the equipment as shown here
(left side in the slide image), a rectangular domain is shown. Usually of course, pipes are
cylindrical but that will lead us to a cylindrical coordinate system and within the scope of this
course mostly we are going to restrict to the Cartesian coordinate system and hence pipe of
the rectangular cross section is shown here and a small control volume as we have seen in the
experimental set up is also shown here. So, it is a small fixed control volume.
So, let us write this integral total mass balance equation for a fixed control volume, we have
done this when we discussed the Reynolds transport theorem.
∫ ∂
∂t
ρ dV + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CV CS
We bring in the differential sign inside the integral and when we do that we express that in
terms of partial derivative because now the density can be a function of spatial coordinates
and time. In this case, because we are integrating after integration only time remains as the
d
only independent variable and hence it was dt . Now it is inside the integral so density can be
a function of space and time hence partial derivative of course, the second term remains as it
such.
Now, what is shown on right hand side is the enlarged view of this control volume. Let us see
how do we discuss that control volume. First attention is on the coordinate axis the horizontal
axis is x, the vertical axis is y, and z-axis points away from the board or slide or a paper.
Now, so accordingly we have taken this control volume and we have taken a cuboidal control
volume, as I discussed we are restricted into the Cartesian coordinate system hence we are
taking a cuboidal control volume. Now the length along the x-axis is ∆ x and along the y-axis
is ∆ y and along the z-axis is ∆ z.
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So, those are the dimensions of the cuboidal control volume which we are considering. So,
we are going to apply this form of the integral mass balance equation, if I say mass it means
total mass as we go along ok because species mass has no confusion now until the very end
of the course. So, let us use for simplicity mass. So, we are going to apply this form of the
integral mass balance equation for the control volume shown here.
Now, express the two terms in an integral mass balance equation for this control volume.
∫ ∂
∂t
ρ dV + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CV CS
Let us take the first term, now
∂ρ
∫ ∂
∂t
ρ dV = ∂t
∆x∆y∆z
CV
The density has some average value ρ and when I say average value it is averaged over the
∂ρ
entire volume and so I can take out ∂t
outside the integral. Then what have left out is the
integral of dV which is nothing but the volume of this small control volume which is
∆x∆y∆z . So, what is the average value? You will understand as we go along. Right now
within the small volume, I take there is a density which is an average value in the small
volume which means that average means it is constant over the entire region.
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So, this is the expression for the first term. Now let us consider the second term
∫ ρ v.n dA
CS
we have seen the significance of this, let us repeat it represents the net rate of flow of total
mass out through the control surface by convection. This is a meaning which you have
discussed when we derived the integral mass balance equation. Now if you look at the control
surface, we have six faces here. What are the faces? If you take in terms of along axis you
have the right side face and the left side face and then you have the top face and then the
bottom face and then the front face and the rear face in terms of a pairwise if you take.
Now, I will express this integral for this control volume. So, if we consider the six faces there
are three outlet faces and then three inlet faces.
3 out f low f aces 3 in f low f aces

∑ ρi v i Ai − ∑ ρi v i Ai
i=1 i=1
The outlet faces are the right side face, the top face, and the front face. So, these are the outlet
faces or the inflow faces the left and then the bottom and then the rear so all those are the
inflow faces. Obviously, here we should be expressed in terms of the densities and velocities
and areas rather than mass flow rate that is not significance but m dot has no importance and
relevance here. Our expression that differential equation is going to be expressed in terms of
the measurable properties namely density, velocity. So, we express the mass in terms of
density velocity that is why expression what you see is ρi v i Ai for the outflow faces. Similarly
for the inflow faces and then we have taken care of the negative sign ourselves instead of
leaving it to v .n .
Now, the second point is that we know that this expression is valid when the velocity is
perpendicular to the face. So, for all the six faces shown here the velocity is perpendicular to
the respective faces, so that is why we are writing this expression.
Thirdly remember we can write this expression when the density and velocity are uniforms
across the area, just like we said this density is some average value in the volume. Similarly
what we will say is this ρi v i has some average value over this face over any of the faces. So,
that is why we write in terms of ρi v i Ai .
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I will just repeat the last two points, the way we are writing this expression implies that the
velocity is perpendicular to the surface area and that is what we have expressed as. We have
shown all the velocities perpendicular to the respective faces and the second point is that this
expression assumes that the density and velocity uniform across a surface area and so we take
some average value over the entire surface area be it total etcetera. Now what we will do is
these are in terms of rho and velocities let express in terms of further express this ok. Now let
us consider the faces pairwise, we will first take the inlet and outlet faces along the x-axis
then consider the y-axis, z-axis.
Let us do that now so considering faces along the x-direction. Now before proceeding that let
us look at the coordinates, we are considering faces along the x-axis, so the left side face is an
inlet face and the right side face is an outlet face. Now this face the inlet face is at an x
location of x the outlet face because the length of the cuboid along the x as ∆ x the right hand
side face location is x + ∆ x. So, entering the face at x the leaving face is at x + ∆ x. Now,
The rate of flow of total mass entering at x = (ρv x ) |x ∆y∆z
There are two ways of interpreting this expression. Number one vx is a velocity in x-direction
multiply by the area what is area this cross sectional area through which it enters and which is
this ∆y∆z that is the area through which flows. So, the area of the faces ∆y∆z , so velocity in
the x-direction multiply by area that gives you volumetric flow rate multiply by density gives
299
you mass flow rate. So, we are writing expression for rate at which mass enters the control
surface. Now, what is the other way of interpreting? We have seen earlier that velocity
represents volumetric flux. When you derived the integral balance we said velocity represents
volumetric flux. So, when you multiply by density, you have mass flux of course, we know
mass flux is mass per area per time. So, when you multiply by area you are left with mass per
time which is the mass flow rate.
So, two ways of interpreting velocity into area volumetric flow rate multiply by density
which is a mass flow rate or the volumetric flux multiply by density mass flux multiply by
area gives mass flow rate.
Now coming to the nomenclature here what I have shown here is enclosed (ρv x )x and
subscript x. What does it mean? Now, this density and velocity are changing with the spatial
location. We are evaluating mass entering at the left face for which x coordinate is x. So, this
tells you that ρv x is evaluated at x or the value of rho and vx at the position x. So now,
The rate of flow of total mass leaving at x + ∆ x = (ρv x ) |x+∆x ∆y∆z
So, we have written expression for whatever mass entering the control volume through the
left face and leaving through the right face.
300
Now, write similar expressions for mass flow rate entering and leaving through the other
faces.
The rate of flow of total mass entering at y = (ρv y ) |y ∆x∆z
The rate of flow of total mass leaving at y + ∆y = (ρv y ) |y+∆y ∆x∆z
So, let me just show for the z-direction
The rate of flow of total mass entering at z = (ρv z ) |z ∆x∆y
The rate of flow of total mass leaving at z + ∆ z = (ρv z ) |z+∆z ∆x∆y
Just to like to mention, the description used here says the rate of flow of total mass, I could
have just told written as a mass flow rate this particular nomenclature is used. So, that later
on when you see similar statements for momentum balance, energy balance, species balance,
I would say rate of flow of momentum, energy, species mass.
So, the same words are used so that the analogy also becomes clear as we go along. Instead of
writing mass flow rate the words used the rate of flow of total mass, species mass,
momentum energy etcetera. Now let us put it all together in the integral balance equation
∫ ∂
∂t
ρ dV + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CV CS
Now, we have expressed this as
∂ρ
∂t
∆x∆y∆z + (ρv x ) |x+∆x ∆y∆z − (ρv x ) |x ∆y∆z + (ρv y ) |y+∆y ∆x∆z − (ρv y ) |y ∆x∆z + (ρv z ) |z+∆z ∆x∆y − (ρv z ) |z ∆x∆
So, I like to mention that for the shake of formality and to be in line with usual books
derivations are done taking all the three directions into account in terms of understanding. If
you understand for one direction most of the time you can just extend the using words like
analogously similarly and easily extend. But for the shake of completeness in all the lectures,
we will see terms accounting for all the three directions. So, when you look at it may look
little complex, but if you focus on one particular direction; you can easily extend to other
directions as well. So, let us proceed.
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So let us rewrite that equation here
∂ρ
∂t
∆x∆y∆z + (ρv x ) |x+∆x ∆y∆z − (ρv x ) |x ∆y∆z + (ρv y ) |y+∆y ∆x∆z − (ρv y ) |y ∆x∆z + (ρv z ) |z+∆z ∆x∆y − (ρv z ) |z ∆x∆
This the expression which you have seen in the last slide. Now what we will do is divide by
∆x∆y∆z and we get
∂ρ (ρv x )|x+∆x −(ρv x )|x (ρv y )|y+∆y −(ρv y )|y (ρv z )|z+∆z −(ρv z )|z
∂t
+ ∆x
+ ∆y
+ ∆z
=0
If you look at the second term alone that term represents the net rate of mass flow leaving the
control volume in x-direction that is the significance of that. I tell you this because you will
see how this term get simplified. So, that when you look at this term that is what should come
to your mind. It tells you that the net rate of mass flow leaving the control volume at the
direction and then that is per unit volume. It is not just the mass flow rate, it represents net
mass flow rate leaving the control volume in the x-direction.
Because we have divided by the ∆x∆y∆z at this stage after dividing it represents per unit
volume, please keep this in mind so that when you are interpreting the physical significance
of the terms the differential equation it will be helpful. So, once again to emphasize at this
stage of the equation they represent mass flow rate or net mass flow rate in x-direction
etcetera. At this stage after dividing, they represent net mass flow rate, of course leaving per
unit volume.
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Now, what is that we are going to do now remember the differential equation the form the
total mass balance equation which we are approaching to should be validate every point in
the equipment, at every instant of time we are writing this equation at any instant of time and
for to get an equation which is valued at every point inside the equipment we shrink this
control volume. When I say shrink that shrink should be proportionally done. For example,
we say that we maintained the aspect ratio, maintaining the aspect ratio, so the cuboid remain
as a cuboid and then you shrink to the small point.
So, the way you should imagine is you have a small point, but that small point as a cuboidal
shape with the same delta ∆x∆y∆z → 0. So, that is what we write formally as ∆x → 0
∆y→ 0, ∆z→ 0. So, the entire control volume is made to a point, but the point also the
shape of a cuboid that is the point to be remembered.
Now, sometime back we said I consider an average density in the control volume, now that
average has now become a point value because the small control volume has become now a
point. So, no longer average has to be told just becomes a point value. In fact, if you are more
formal more precise we should use a different symbol earlier and some other symbol now.
Now it was ρ some average value in the control volume now because we have shrunk to a
point it just becomes a point value and that is what we are interested in. Similarly these ρ v x
values we said that average values across the face and those faces become now a point a
small face so they also become a point values.
So, every variable in the equation has become a point value now, that is why I said you will
understand this average and point value little later. To begin with they were all average
values either over the volume or over the face. Now just because they became a point the
entire control volume has become an infinitesimal point.
So, every variable also becomes a point value. So now, let us see what happens
∂ρ ∂(ρ v x ) ∂(ρ v y ) ∂(ρ v z )

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
Now, what happens to the second term, of course very obvious limit ∆x→ 0 some function at
x + ∆ x minus at x use the derivative this case because we are considering the only variation
along x-direction keeping other variables constant. We result in a partial derivative similarly
303
in the y-direction, similarly in z-direction of course right hand side is 0. So, this is the
Differential form of the total mass balance equation.
We will put little more in a nice representation; if we use vectorial representation, we know
that
ρ v = ρ vx i + ρ vy j + ρ vz k
Then the gradient term vector can be expressed as
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k
So, the simplified form of the differential mass balance equation is
∂ρ
∂t
+ ∇.ρv = 0
So, this is a more short representation; a simple representation of the same differential total
mass balance equation. Of course, here the variables are explicitly seen, but if you want to
represent them in a short way, then their vectorial representation helps us. It has some other
utility representing in vectorial representation which we will see towards the very end of the
course.
304
Lecture - 26
Differential Total Mass Balance Part 2
Now, the way in which we have derived is usually followed in chemical engineering books,
transfer phenomena books. If you look at fluid mechanics books the same derivation is done,
of course, inter-cell cannot change in and slightly different way. So, for you to enable to
understand from fluid mechanics book, we will derive in that particular way also, some steps
are different end result is the same. Let us do that I listed only for the x-direction so, that you
can understand for other directions. Now, we said
( )𝑥
The rate of flow of total mass entering at x = ρ𝑣𝑥 | ∆𝑦∆𝑧 = ρ𝑣𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧
This diagram (above slide image) is our earlier representation, the control volume shown is
the new representation. Now, this is how we express the total mass entering and that is what
is shown here. The way in which it is done is this vertical bar and x or naught usually shown,
it is just written as ρ𝑣𝑥 the implication is that it is elevated at x. So, the vertical bar x is not
shown and that is the representation shown here, physical significance is the same,
representation is slightly different.
305
Now,
( ) 𝑥+∆𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧
The rate of flow of total mass leaving at x + ∆x = ρ𝑣𝑥 |
( ) 𝑥+∆𝑥 is represented in terms of the Taylor series,

In fluid mechanics books, this ρ𝑣𝑥 |
2 2
(ρ𝑣𝑥)|𝑥+∆𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧 = ⎡⎢⎣ρ𝑣𝑥 + ∂𝑥∂ (ρ𝑣𝑥)∆𝑥 + ∂

∂𝑥
2 (ρ𝑣𝑥) (∆𝑥2 ) + …⎤⎥∆𝑦∆𝑧
⎦
So, instead of writing this way expansion Taylor series, let us see further how do we proceed.
Now, in the derivation, we have seen we are dividing by ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 and then we string the
control volume meaning, that ∆𝑥 → 0, ∆𝑦→ 0, ∆𝑧→ 0. So, if you divide this expression by
2
∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧, ∆𝑦∆𝑧 will cancel out then you will have ∆𝑥. Now, terms that have ∆𝑥 and higher, if
2 2
you divide by ∆𝑥 for the ∆𝑥 term ∆𝑥 will remain, then ∆𝑥 will remain and then when you
take ∆𝑥 → 0 all those terms will not contribute. So, which means that only the first two terms
will contribute. So, the way in which is return is neglecting second and higher order terms.
You divide by ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧, in all other higher order terms second higher order terms ∆𝑥 will
remind and we are going to string and then say ∆𝑥 → 0; so, all those terms will not
contribute. So, we neglect second and higher order terms and write the rate of mass leaving at
x +∆𝑥 as only the first two terms, of course, multiplied by area.
The rate of flow of total mass leaving at x + ∆x = ⎡⎢ρ𝑣𝑥 +

⎣
∂
∂𝑥 (ρ𝑣𝑥)∆𝑥⎤⎥⎦∆𝑦∆𝑧
Now,
The net rate of flow of total mass in x-direction = ⎡⎢ρ𝑣𝑥 +

⎣
∂
∂𝑥 (ρ𝑣𝑥)∆𝑥⎤⎥⎦∆𝑦∆𝑧 − ρ𝑣𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧
So, ρ𝑣𝑥 cancels out and after simplification we get,
The net rate of flow of total mass in x-direction =

∂
∂𝑥 (ρ𝑣𝑥)∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧
Now, divide by ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 and then result in our same expression as we have got earlier.
The net rate of flow of total mass in x-direction =

∂
∂𝑥 (ρ𝑣𝑥)
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Of course, you can extend to other terms as well and obtain
The net rate of flow of total mass in y-direction =

∂
∂𝑦 (ρ𝑣𝑦)
The net rate of flow of total mass in z-direction =
∂
∂𝑧 (ρ𝑣𝑧)
This same differential form of the total mass balance equation. So,
∂ρ ∂(ρ 𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ 𝑣𝑦) ∂(ρ 𝑣𝑧)

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
= 0
This is what you will find in fluid mechanics books, other small variant is that we took x, y, z
∆𝑥
to one corner, they take in the center of the control volume. So, here you will have 2
, here
∆𝑥
you will have the same expression with − 2
etcetera. So, those are other variants, but I have
shown one variant here so, that you can follow other variants as well.
So, let us proceed further. So, what are the steps in deriving the conservation equation? I
would say this is a very important slide, in the sense that we have arrived at the recipe of
deriving conservation equations. And, because it is mass balance, is easier for us to follow,
we keep this in mind we can extend it to other conservation equations as well. So, what are
the steps?
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● The first step is we started with the law of physics and then
● We apply the Reynolds transport theorem and, then
● We took consider coincidence system and control volume and then
● We arrived at the integral balance equation.
I have not used here mass momentum anything, because this is applicable for all the
conservation equation. And, then
● We applied the integral balance for a small fixed control volume and then
● We shrink the volume to a point resulting in a differential balance equation.
So, these steps are universal across the derivation of all the conservation equation.
So, let us look at the physical significance of the terms in the differential total mass balance
equation, by this time it should be clear the way in which wrote down the different terms.
∂ρ ∂(ρ 𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ 𝑣𝑦) ∂(ρ 𝑣𝑧)

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
= 0
This is the expanded form of differential total mass balance equation and
∂ρ
∂𝑡
+ ∇. ρ𝑣 = 0
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This is in terms of a vectorial notation, slowly we can get use the vectorial form as well; very
nice representation. Now, we have two terms: one is the variation of the time term and the
other is the net mass flow rate leaving term. So, let us look at the significance, the first term
represents
∂ρ
∂𝑡
= time rate of change of mass per unit volume, and
∇. ρ𝑣 = the net rate of flow of mass out by convection per unit volume.
If you have observed the significance of the terms are the same as that of integral balance;
obviously, it cannot change we have started from there so, significance should be same. But
in what way it is different? It there it was just the time rate of change of mass, but it is here it
is per unit volume, remember we divided by ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧. So, of course, it is density mass per
volume. So, significant at the first term is the time rate of change of mass per unit volume. In
next second term, the net rate of flow mass out by conversion is the same as integral balance;
once again here it is per unit volume. So, the significance is same as that of integral balance,
but now they are on a per unit volume basis. So, how do you imagine? Remember, we have
the control volume and then we said we are shrinking to a point and then small cuboidal
volume.
So, per unit volume of that region what is the rate of change of mass, per unit volume of that
region what is the net mass flow leaving by convection that is the significance. So, per unit
volume to imagine should imagine a very small control volume cuboidal control volume, per
unit volume what is the time rate of change of mass and then of course, and then the net rate
of flow of mass out by convection. And, remember all the terms in the differential mass
balance equation are per unit volume basis, this also universal. Whenever we are going to
write differential balance equations they are per unit volume basis. Now, what are the other
names for this differential total mass balance equation?
Because we consider a control volume and then shrink to a point, it is also called as point
form of mass balance equation. This you may not come across very frequently, but it is very
obvious the way in which we have done it’s also called as point form of mass balance
equation of course, we have been repeating it saying the differential form of mass balance
equation.
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The most popular name is this continuity equation, the continuity equation is the most
popular name. So, all these mean the same convey the same meaning, they all tell about mass
balance in a small region under steady state and unsteady state condition. Three different
names
● Differential total mass balance,

● Point form of total mass balance and
● The continuity equation.
You will come across the word continuity equation mostly always I would say. Now, let us
simplify this consider two special cases: one is steady compressible flow, moment it is steady
there is no transient term. So,
∂ρ
∂𝑡
= 0
So,
∇. ρ𝑣 = 0
Or,
∂(ρ 𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ 𝑣𝑦) ∂(ρ 𝑣𝑧)

∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
= 0
What is an example of this? Can consider, for example, the flow of air in a duct for our case
rectangular duct at relatively high velocity, not very low velocity; applicable for low velocity
also. But, if the air is flowing at high velocity, you will have to consider this form of the mass
balance equation under steady state condition. Now, for incompressible flow what are the
examples we can take?
First, let us simplify this and then I will explain incompressible flow the density is not a
function of time or space. So,
∂ρ
∂𝑡
= 0
The first term vanishes, not because it is steady state, just because density is a constant value;
let us say water is flowing then the density is let us say 1000 kg/m3 because it is not a
function of time this term vanishes. Then because density is a constant I can take out the
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density of all the derivative terms. And so, there will also that term rho also will not appear in
the equation and the differential equation becomes much simpler,
∇. 𝑣 = 0
Or,
∂(𝑣𝑥) ∂(𝑣𝑦) ∂(𝑣𝑧)

∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
= 0
I will repeat the second part, we are considering incompressible flow; now I can give
examples. The first example as I told you is the flow of water constant density; rho is not a
function of time as a function of space also. So, the first time does not contribute ρ can be
taken out to the second term, another example where this equation is valid is the flow of air at
low velocities. Water is almost incompressible certainly you can use this air is of course,
compressible it is a gas it is compressible, but if the air is flowing at low velocities then this
equation is valid and that is why I use the word here incompressible flow.
So, when you say incompressible flow two categories are considered: one is the flow of
incompressible fluid itself which is water for example. Another is the flow of a compressible
fluid like air but at low velocities. So, if you want to summarize the application, suppose if it
is the flow of water you use the second simplified equation. The flow of air at low velocities
once again use used the simplified equation, but if the air is flowing at high velocities then
you have to use the first equation which is a more general form. Also like to mention this
simplified form of incompressible flow is applicable both for steady state and unsteady state
∂ρ
because, ∂𝑡
vanished because density is constant.
Later on, in the course we will see another meaning of incomparable flow; until then we will
stick on to this particular meaning. We will have a very nice physical representation of what
we mean by incompressible flow which will result in of course same equation, but let us stick
to this right now.s
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Lecture - 27
Differential total mass balance: Examples Part 1
So, let us look at applications of differential total mass balance equation or the continuity
equation.
● The first application is that suppose if you have arrived at some velocity field
meaning I found out the expressions for vx, vy, vz you can check whether the given
velocity components or found out components satisfy the continuity equation.
● The second, if you know one velocity component you can find the other velocity
component as we have seen that continuity equation puts a restriction on how one
velocity component depends on the other etcetera. So, if we specify one let us say 2D
you cannot independently specify another it is constrained by the mass balance.
● The third example is that under certain conditions you can use the integral and
differential mass balance equation to arrive at the velocity field that is a good example
there and
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● The fourth one is once again interesting we make some measurements on velocity
components along let us say two directions, the example of measurements of velocity
in an ocean surface we make measurements along x and y direction and find out what
is the vertical component of velocity using a mass balance or the continuity equation.
That is why it says estimation of velocity component and
● Final example including the transient term that we find out what is the rate of change
of density in a cylinder that cylinder could be in an engine or in a pump etcetera.
The scope of the whole course is that we will be using almost always only the incompressible
form of the continuity equation. Even throughout the engineering chemical engineering
course any engineering course, we will be almost be restricted only to the incompressible
form mechanical engineers do use the compressible form as well.
Example:(Refer Slide Time: 02:12)
Look at the first application is that, the geometry is well known to us its flow between the
two parallel plates. The velocity components of a constant density may implies that it's an
incompressible flow, constant density flow field are given by. We are given the x component
of velocity and that depends on the y-direction.
) [1 − ( hy ) ],
h2 p1 −p2 2
vx = 2µ ( L
v y = 0, vz = 0
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The configuration geometry is shown, the horizontal axis x, and the vertical axis is y. So, the
velocity in the x-direction varies along the y-direction we also called as a lateral direction.
So, flow is in one direction perpendicular to the variation is there. Flow takes place in the
x-direction and variation is in the y-direction and there is no variation along the direction of
flow, vx depends only on y of course, there is no velocity component in the vertical direction,
there is no flow in the y-direction, of course, there is no flow in the z-direction as well. Now,
the question is in such a flow physically possible?
Solution:
As I told you let us say we have found out this expression and we need to check whether it
satisfies the continuity equation. Let us write down the equation of continuity for
incompressible flow.
∂(v x ) ∂(v y ) ∂(v z )

∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
So, there is no density term rate of change of density with time is also not there, there is no
density in the net mass flow term also. You need to check whether this is indeed 0. So,
∂(v x )
v x = f (y) → ∂x
= 0, v y = 0, vz = 0
The first derivative is 0, not vx, in second and third terms the velocity itself is 0. So, which
means that the equation of continuity is satisfied. So, we can conclude that the constant
density of flow describes the velocity components is possible. A flow is possible only if it
satisfies the basic conservation of mass. At every point in the flow field remembers its a point
form of a conservation equation at every point in the flow field mass balance is satisfied that
is the meaning of this.
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Let us take the second example first let me explain the geometry of two parallel plates as we
have always seen, but now the difference is that the plates are porous. So, there is flow in the
y-direction as well this results in a two dimensional velocity field what does it mean that is
variation along with the x-direction variation along the y-direction. Now when there were two
nonporous plates then the x velocity varied in the y-direction only. Now because there is
outflow through this porous wall x velocity varies along the flow direction also. So, that is
why it becomes two dimensional and we can expect that because there is outflow the velocity
will decrease along the direction of flow just to repeat. If the walls were not porous, then the
x velocity varies along the y-direction only. But now because the walls are porous and water
leaves through that now along the flow direction the velocity decreases.
Let us now read the problem, for laminar flow between parallel plates the flow is two
dimensional if the walls are porous if the walls were not porous it was one dimensional. A
special case solution meaning under certain conditions you can derive the expression for x
component of velocity.
v x = (A − B x)(h2 − y 2 )
Look at the expression it has 2 terms, (h2 − y 2 ) this term tells you the variation in the
y-direction. Now we have seen that physically the velocity should decrease along the
x-direction that is denoted by (A − B x) it has a minus Bx term which means that the velocity
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decreases along the x-direction where A and B are constants now what is that we are asked to
find out?
a) Find the general formula for velocity vy, I told you one use of major use of continuity
equation is that, we are given one velocity component we will have to find out the
other velocity component in this case vy. We are also given one condition which says
that if v y = 0 at y = 0 what is that line y = 0? The axis of the central line is y = 0
So, along the axis, there is no velocity that is why vy is 0 something like a dividing
line flow goes towards the +h and then goes towards − h. So, flow division takes
place and so, along this line, there is no vertical component of velocity, that is why
this says v y = 0 at y = 0 .
b) Now, the second part is what is the value of the constant B, if v y = v w at y =+ h .

y =+ h denotes the top plate and at that plate, you are given the velocity. Let us say
the flow through the porous wall is at a certain value given by v w if that is the case
how do you find out B.
Solution:
So, let us proceed with this start the equation of continuity as usual for incompressible flow,
∂(v x ) ∂(v y )
∂x
+ ∂y
=0
Now, because it is two dimensional case so, I am not considering the third term. Now, we
want to find out the v y the y component velocity. So, let us say rearrange for y component of
velocity,
∂(v y ) ∂(v x )
∂y
=− ∂x
=− [− B (h2 − y 2 )] = B (h2 − y 2 )
So, if we differentiate this what you get. So, if simplify you get B (h2 − y 2 ) . Now we have a
partial differential for v y we have to get v y which means that we will have to integrate it.
dv y ∂(v y )
Now it's not usual integration where we are given dy
, but now we have ∂y
it's a partial
differentiation hence the integration is also partial let us see what is the implication of that.
Now, the partial integration w.r.t y
∫ ∂(v∂y ) dy = ∫ B (h2 − y2 ) dy
y
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(
v y = B h2 y −
y3
3 ) + c(x)
Now, because it is partial differentiation and we are doing a partial integration, the constant
can be a function of x also. To be more generic we are writing it as C as a function of x that
that is what differentiates on a usual integration from this partial integration where the
constant can be a function of x. Now just like usually evaluate the constant based on a
boundary condition in this case also we are given a condition. So, let us use that. So, using
the boundary condition, boundary condition meaning that, at a particular location you are
given the value for the dependent variable
v y (x) = 0 at y = 0
(
0 = B h2 0 − 03
3 ) + c (x) →C (x) = 0
So, that is how we evaluate the constant similar to usual integration use the boundary
condition and evaluate C = 0. So, now, your expression for the y velocity component
becomes
(
v y = B h2 y − y3
3 )
This tells you the variation of v y as a function of y, v x the x velocity component varied
along y direction and x direction also. The vertical component of velocity v y varies along
only y direction look at the dependency and we have a constant B which can be evaluated let
us proceed to evaluate that.
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So, that is the expression for v y ,
(
v y = B h2 y − y3
3 )
Now, we are given another boundary condition. Using the boundary condition
v y = v w at y =+ h
So, let us substitute that
( )
3
(+h)
v w = B h2 (+ h) − 3
3 vw
B= 2 h3
Let us substitute the B in expression for completing the expression for v y .
vy = 3 vw
2 h3 (h y − )
2 y3
3
If you look at the question it says a general expression for v y because B is a constant value,
but once you use the second boundary condition you get a specific value for B and hence
becomes velocity expression for the specific problem. Of course, you can simplify and put in
this nice form
vy =
vw
2 [3 y
h
− ( hy )
3
]
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Now, this velocity profile is satisfied by both the boundary conditions. Of course, when you
substitute y = 0 this becomes 0 ( v y = 0 ) and when you substitute y = h it results in v w So, it
satisfy; obviously, those two conditions. Now the problem is solved, but we can check
whether the expressions are correct by substituting in the continuity equation just as an add
on we can do that. So, let us do that
v x = (A − B x)(h2 − y 2 )
So, we will substitute the expression for B which I have found out now
3 vw
v x = (A − 2 h3
x)(h2 − y 2 )
and then, of course, we can also take the expression for v y which we derived here.
vy = vw
2 [3 y
h
y 3
− (h) ]
Let us substitute in the continuity equation
∂(v x ) ∂(v y )
∂x
+ ∂y
=0
Now, differentiate v x and v y partial with respect to x and y respectively then
∂(v x )
∂x
+
∂(v y )
∂y
=− 3 vw
2 h3 (h2 − y2 ) + v2
w
[ 3
h
−
3y 2
h3 ] =− 3 vw
2 h3 (h2 − y2 ) − 32 vh (h2 − y2 ) = 0
w
3
So, that is how you check using the continuity equation, here it is very obvious, we use the
continuity equation to get the velocity profile, but just to for illustration it also checking back
whether the continuity equation is satisfied. If it were just two parallel plates, it would be
interesting just because we made it porous we got a two dimensional field and so, it became a
little more interesting. That is the selection of the problem in a book. The books when they
write they choose give problems either they are simple, at the same time put for the point for
example, in this case, simple modification resulted in a two dimensional flow field.
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A good example which combines the integral mass balance and the differential mass balance.
Let me first explain the geometry which is shown here (above slide image) we have two
plates and a thin gap is exist between them and the bottom plate is porous just like the earlier
case, but the top plate is not porous that is a solid surface. Now, this case air enters through
the porous plate from the bottom and leaves around the pheri − pheri. So, that is the front
view the top view shown here. So, the flow takes place radially flow. So, we have a plate, air
enters and then flows radially out and that is what is shown as a top view here and the front
view is, of course, shown the air entering here, and then flow flowing if you look at the front
view it flows along the radial direction, now analysis of this will require the cylindrical
coordinate system. Once again we want to restrict to the Cartesian coordinate system what do
I do? I take just two plates not a circular geometry anything just to plates of width w and then
the bottom plate is porous and analyze the same situation in terms of Cartesian coordinates
and that is what is shown on the right hand side.
So, in this case, these are plates and the top plate is not porous, the bottom plate is porous and
the gap is very thin and then we are seeing how flow takes place in x-direction what is the
velocity profile etcetera.
Let us now read the problem, air flows into the narrow gap of height h between closely
spaced parallel plates to the porous surface as shown. The problem for this figure is shown on
the right hand side I have also taken shown on the left hand side if we have to understand the
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configuration the flow of geometry etcetera. Use a control volume with an outer surface
located at position x, to show that the uniform velocity in the x-direction is
v x = v 0 hx
Such a profile is shown here when I say uniform velocity we have seen this earlier also for
the application of integral mass balance. Suppose if you have a flow between two parallel
plates when I say a uniform velocity the velocity does not vary in the lateral direction putting
in the other way the velocity does not vary in the direction perpendicular to the flow.
So, such a profile is shown and we are asked to find out this uniform velocity in the
x-direction and in this case, it happens to be a function of x, we will have to prove that we
will have to arrive at this expression. Once we get one velocity component as we have seen in
the previous example, we can get the other velocity component also. So, find expression for
the velocity compound of the y-direction.
Solution:
First, we will use the integral balance to get v x then second we use the differential balance.
So, that way this example nicely combines both from the balance equation. Now, the use of
integral and differential total mass balance is the object of this example. So, let us write the
integral total mass balance equation at a steady state and the velocity is perpendicular to area
and the density is uniform across the cross sectional area.
321
∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CS
So, this is an integral form of the mass balance equation, there is no transient term and I am
writing only the net mass flow term alone. Now, the control volume is shown here, the
question says that the control volume should extent from x = 0 to a distance x = x that is why
this control volume is shown here. Now, this control volume has four surfaces let us split this
control surface for those four surfaces.
∫ ρ v.n dA + ∫ ρ v.n dA + ∫ ρ v.n dA + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0

CS in CS porous CS x CS wall
The left side is the in surface and then the bottom porous surface and then the right side
surface at x and then the top wall. Now as we have seen in the previous case a flow takes
place and divides, similarly here also flow is along this direction and divides this side and this
side. So, along that line, there is no velocity the velocity is 0.
0 − ρv 0 xW + ρ v x (x) hW + 0 = 0
So, the first term does not contribute once again it’s x = 0 where flow division takes place,
and hence there is no velocity at that particular surface. Now coming to the bottom surface it
is an inflow surface because flow enters through the porous wall which is shown by a
negative sign we have seen v .n is negative for inflow and then the magnitude of velocity is,
v 0 now, what is the area? Now we have considered a plate whose width is W and this
distance the length of the control volume along that direction is x. So, the area = xW .
Now coming to the surface where there is a flow out of surface at the x its outflow that is why
it is positive, density is written as such what is the magnitude of the velocity v x ? But now
that v x depends on x that that is shown explicitly here what is area now? This is the h is the
height between the two plates and we have width W hence the area = hW . Of course, at the
wall there is no penetration through the wall hence the last term also does not contribute once
again that is 0.
So, now, let us simplify this our objective is to define what is v x . So,
− ρv 0 xW + ρ v x (x) hW = 0
v 0 xW = v x (x) hW
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v x = v 0 hx
So, the velocity increases along this direction why does it increase? There is flow from this
surface. So, whatever flows from the wall contributes to velocity along the x-direction hence
velocity increases along the x-direction given by this expression.
So, this is the case where the velocity varies along the flow direction just like in the last case
and it does not vary in the perpendicular direction. v x is not a function of y, but does not
vary in the y-direction, but varies only in the x-direction, increasing linearly with x. So, we
use the integral total mass balance equation under certain conditions like this and find out
what is the x component of velocity and for which is the same as given in the question. So,
we have kind of verified.
Now, this part is the same as what we have done earlier we know one velocity component use
the continuity equation and then find out the other velocity components. So, this is not
something new to this example, but the combination of integral differential balance is
something new to this example.
So, we will start with the differential total mass balance the continuity equation for steady
state incompressible flow and then write for the two dimensional case only the first two terms
are considered.
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∂(v x ) ∂(v y )
∂x
+ ∂y
=0
This is exactly what we have done in the previous example no difference at all, but for a
different velocity field, and then we have seen the velocity profile
∂(v x ) v0
v x = v 0 hx → ∂x
= h
Now, with partial integration with respect to y, as we have done earlier.
∂(v y ) ∂(v x )
∂y
=− ∂x
∂(v y ) v0
∂y
=− h
y
v y =− v 0 h + C (x)
Now, using the boundary condition we evaluate the constant C so, the boundary condition at
this location at this surface is
v y (x) = v 0 at y = 0, → C (x) = v 0
So, C the constant which can be a function of x, here it’s just a constant v 0 . So, let us
substitute back we get
v y =− v 0 hy + v 0
y
v y = v 0 (1 − h )
It is a simple expression for the vertical component of velocity. When y = 0, v y (x) = v 0 and
when y = h, v 0 = 0 because there is no flow through the top surface. So, it satisfies the
conditions. So, what is that we have done? Here is I used the integral mass balance equation
and got one velocity component use the differential mass balance got the other velocity
component.
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Lecture - 28
Differential Total Mass Balance: Examples - Part 2
Once again a nice interesting example I would say, where we link measurements and
equation of continuity; though not a core chemical engineering example, an example from
ocean engineering I would say, but anyway, fluids are common to everybody. So, we will still
discuss this, first what is the measurement we take. So, you have to imagine can go to a
seashore and imagine yourself standing on a seashore or ocean shore, and on the surface, you
are measuring the x and y velocity components. So, these velocity components are measured,
suppose that it is easier to measure these velocity components compare with the downward
velocity. So, what we do we measure x and y velocity and use the continuity equation to
estimate the downward velocity that is why the title says estimation of vertical velocities in
the ocean, and those velocities are shown here.
So, let us read the problem the figure shown gives the x velocity and y velocity measured at
the surface of the ocean in m/s. Taking the z velocity as 0 at the ocean surface what is z
velocity at a depth of 50 meters. Now, let us look at this figure shown here (above slide
image); first, what is shown are four measurement points.
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Something like taking a region of ocean and divide into four zones but of course, we are in
the ocean; so, look at the distances their order of kilometers, 500 kilometers not even order of
kilometers order of hundreds of kilometers. So, the x distance between the measuring point is
500 kilometers, the y distance is 540 kilometers. Now, let us take one point where the x
velocity is in a negative direction so, −0.25 and y velocity component = 0. So, just the arrows
are shown proportional to the velocity values.
Let us take the second region, in this region once again velocity is in the negative direction
same value −0.25, you see a small component of velocity in the y-direction it is −0.01.
Similarly, let us take the third zone; now the x velocity is in the positive direction 0.3 because
the ocean can have any x velocity, y velocity can vary from region to region; y velocity is
also positive a small value 0.03. Similarly, in the last fourth zone the x velocity, y velocity are
0.25 and 0.05 that is how we understand the measurements shown.
Now, before we proceed with solving, we need to discuss about the choice of co-ordinate
axis. Different books use different co-ordinate axis and that is relevant to this particular
example; you will understand why I discuss now. Now, this choice of co-ordinate axis
remembers all of them are right hand coordinate system. Now, the first coordinate system
(above slide image) is an axis that has been chosen so far and that is what we will also
continue to choose almost over the entire course.
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Now, in this coordinate system, the horizontal axis is x, the vertical is y and of course, the
axis towards us is a z-axis. Now, what I have shown in the second figure is that have changed
the axis. I moved x, y, and z anti-clockwise. So now, the horizontal axis becomes z, the
vertical is x and the axis towards us is y. Now, I do one more rotation in the same way so, I
move x, y, and z anti-clockwise result in this axis. So, the horizontal axis is y, the vertical is z,
the axis towards us is x.
Now, our attention is the first figure and third figure, not the usual coordinate axis which are
used in books are the first and the third; so, we will discuss not the second one. If you look at
the first choice coordinate axis what is the advantage, if you look at the front view you can
easily reduce it to two-dimensional case; you just have x-axis and y-axis. What is a slight
disadvantage? Gravity acts along the y-axis, of course, negative y-axis which is not so
conventional, the moment you say some position you always say z; let us say someday term
is there z = 0.5. So, traditionally and always the direction along which gravity acts is z so,
that is why it is slightly unconventional.
So, let us come to the third diagram, where gravity acts along z-direction so, along the
conventional z-direction. But what is the disadvantage? Suppose, if you want to reduce to 2D
you will have to look down, of course, maybe little turn then you will have x-axis and y-axis,
that way slightly inconvenient. But, this is the axis which is used in this problem; I say on the
surface of the ocean I have x, y, and then z-axis of course, into the ocean will be negative. So,
the third choice is what is applicable for this particular problem with z-axis along the vertical
direction.
So, these are the different choice of co-ordinate system, we will usually come across the first
or the third, second is rarely used. Let us proceed with this co-ordinate axis keeping this
co-ordinate axis, the third one keeping in mind that is what is of course used here.
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Now, we are going to use the continuity equation, once again we will assume it is a steady
state and assume incompressible flow in the ocean and, remember it is a three dimensional
case because we have all three components. We are going to apply this continuity equation at
the point E.
∂(𝑣𝑥) ∂(𝑣𝑦) ∂(𝑣𝑧)

∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
= 0
I need values for this derivative at E then I will find out what is 𝑣𝑧 that is the whole idea; I
∂(𝑣𝑥)
want to evaluate the first two derivatives at E. To evaluate the ∂𝑥
, I will evaluate at A.
How do I evaluate? to evaluate the derivative I need the x velocity at two points which are
separated along the x-axis, similarly, I will use the two 𝑣𝑥 values at point B and find out what
is the derivative at B, take an average and I will get the value at E, similarly, we will do for
the other directions.
So, at point A
∂(𝑣𝑥) ∆𝑣𝑥 [(−0.25)−(−0.25)]

∂𝑥
≅ ∆𝑥
= 5 = 0
5 𝑥 10
Now let us consider point B
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∂(𝑣𝑥) ∆𝑣𝑥 [(+0.25)−(+0.30)] −8 1
∂𝑥
≅ ∆𝑥
= 5 =− 10 𝑥 10 𝑠
5 𝑥 10
∂(𝑣𝑥)
Now, to find out ∂𝑥
at E I take the average of values found out A and B.
∂(𝑣𝑥) −8 1
∂𝑥
𝑎𝑡 𝐸 = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = − 5 𝑥 10 𝑠
We do all this because it can be highly fluctuating, we need to arrive at some average value
that is why we make measurements divide into four regions, make measurements, find make
four measurements, find from the two find two derivatives, find average all these are done at
average out. Let us exactly do the same thing for the y-direction.
At point C,
∂(𝑣𝑦) ∆𝑣𝑦 [(0)−(+0.03)] −8 1

∂𝑦
≅ ∆𝑦
= 5 =− 5. 56 𝑥 10 𝑠
5.4 𝑥 10
Now, at point D
∂(𝑣𝑦) ∆𝑣𝑦 [(−0.01)−(+0.05)] −8 1

∂𝑦
≅ ∆𝑦
= 5 =− 11. 1 𝑥 10 𝑠
5.4 𝑥 10
∂(𝑣𝑦)
Let us take an average of these two values which will give us ∂𝑦
at E.
∂(𝑣𝑦) −8 1
∂𝑦
𝑎𝑡 𝐸 = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 = − 8. 3 𝑥 10 𝑠
∂(𝑣𝑥)
So, at the same point, you have got the first value for ∂𝑥
which is the change of 𝑣𝑥 with
∂(𝑣𝑦)
respect to x; you have also obtain ∂𝑦
change of 𝑣𝑦 by y-direction that is also negative. So,
y velocity also decreases along the y-direction, that was our objective at the same point,
evaluate these derivatives.
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∂(𝑣𝑧)
Now, let us substitute in the continuity equation to find out the ∂𝑧
.
∂(𝑣𝑥) ∂(𝑣𝑦) ∂(𝑣𝑧)

∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
= 0
∂(𝑣𝑧) ∂(𝑣 ) ∂(𝑣 )

∂𝑧
=− ⎡⎢ ∂𝑥𝑥 + ∂𝑦𝑦 ⎤⎥
⎣ ⎦
∂(𝑣𝑧) −8 −8
∂𝑧 [
=− − 5𝑥10 − 8. 3𝑥10 ] = 13. 3𝑥10−8 1𝑠
So, the z velocity increases along the positive z-axis which mean down the ocean it
decreases, z velocity increases the positive z-direction in the ocean of course, in the negative
z-direction or to go down in the ocean the z velocity decreases.
So, if we start with the ocean it decreases. So now, we are asked to find out what is a velocity
at a particular depth, which means that we will have to integrate this. We will assume all
these do not vary with spatial location, that is why it is a constant and then integrate, you
integrate from the surface of the ocean down the ocean. So, the limits of velocities are we are
said that the z component of velocity is 0 at the surface and we are asked to find out what is
the z velocity at a distance of 50 meters. So, the limits for z are 𝑧 = 0 at the surface of the
ocean because we are going down the ocean and 𝑧 = 50 of the depth of 50 meters.
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50 50
−8
∫ 𝑑𝑣𝑧 = ∫ 13. 3𝑥10 𝑑𝑧
0 0
−6 𝑚 𝑚
𝑣𝑧=50 =− 6. 67𝑥10 𝑠
= 0. 58 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
Through this integration and you get the velocity which is negative. So, to get a quick idea of
what this velocity is 0.58 meters or you will be traveling 0.58 meters per day. So, in a day
you will travel only point roughly is 0.6 meters which is very low velocity. Remember our x
and y velocities are extremely large, they were order of some meters per second etcetera, but
now our z velocity extremely low; maybe that is reasons it is difficult to measure the z
velocity but measure the x and y velocity.
So, a very good example I would say linking measurements along x and y-axis, finding that
using that to estimate the z velocity component using the continuity equation.
The last example as usual including the transient term, let us discuss the geometry first. I
have a cylinder with the piston a well known geometry, let us say you would have come
across in thermodynamics and mechanical engineering class etcetera. This could be a
cylinder in an engine or reciprocating pump etcetera, of course, we are considering a gas here
and we have a piston that moves at a constant velocity 𝑣𝑝.
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So, let us read the problem. A piston compresses gas in a cylinder by moving at a constant
speed as shown in the figure. Now, let the gas density and length at the time some time t = 0
be ρ0 and 𝐿0. What does it mean? the density is a function of time at some time t = 0 it is ρ0
and the length keeps changing with time at some time t = 0 it is 𝐿0. Let the gas velocity vary
linearly from 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑝 at the piston phase to 𝑣𝑥 = 0 at 𝑥 = 𝐿. What is the meaning of that?
Remember we have been telling always that at a surface the fluid clings to the surface which
means that it gets its same velocity at that of the surface. So now, this velocity this surface
moves at a velocity of 𝑣𝑝. So, the velocity at the fluid and that which is attached or which is
clinging to that surfers also 𝑣𝑝.
Now, this surface of the cylinder stationary so, the velocity of the fluid in this region or at the
surface is also 0, that is why it says let the gas velocity vary, of course, I mean the assumption
that the variation is linear. What I explained is the condition that 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑝 at the piston phase
to 𝑣𝑥 = 0 at 𝑥 = 𝐿; they are nothing, but the velocity of the piston at the phase of the piston
and, the velocity of the surface of the cylinder which is 0 at the other side that is why the
conditions are 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑝 and 𝑣𝑥 = 0 and we are assuming it will vary linearly.
Remember, L is as a function of time we cannot say fix time that is why it is L. If the gas
density varies only with time, what does it mean? In the cylinder, we are assuming density to
be constant throughout the volume. So, that is why gas density varies only with time. Find an
expression for ρ (𝑡), how does the density vary as a function of time; we are not accounting
for spatial variation.
Solution:
Now, let us start the differential total mass balance, now remember density varies spatially.
So, I cannot use a simplified form and we just have only one-dimensional case. So, I simplify
it and write as
∂(ρ) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑦) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑧)

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
= 0
For one dimensional case,
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∂(ρ) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑥)
∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
= 0
Remember that, I have not taken density out of this spatial derivative. Now, if you assume
density is uniform inside the cylinder, after this assumption I am not saying density is not a
function of time, density is assumed to be uniform inside the cylinder. Now, I take density out
of the second derivative.
∂(ρ) ∂(𝑣𝑥)
∂𝑡
+ ρ ∂𝑥
= 0
So, density plays a role in this form of the equation, in all other earlier equations we never
saw the density at all. So, in this particular case after we assume the density is uniform inside
the cylinder, then I take out the derivative and, both of them become total derivatives because
density is a function of time only so,
𝑑ρ 𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝑑𝑡
+ ρ 𝑑𝑥
= 0
Now, we need to find an expression for the velocity, we are told that the x velocity varies
linearly, and let us find out what is the expression, a simple expression. The given condition
are
𝑥 = 0, 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑝 ; 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑣𝑥 = 0; 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
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So, if you take 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 we have two conditions to find the two constants, that is what
we are going to do. Let us assume 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 and find out the constant,
𝑥 = 0, 𝑣𝑝 = 0 + 𝑏 ; 𝑏 = 𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑝
𝑥 = 𝐿, 0 = 𝑎𝐿 + 𝑏 = 𝑎𝐿 + 𝑣𝑝; 𝑎 =− 𝐿
So, let us substitute in the constants in the equation and then find out that the velocity
variation with respect to distance follows this relationship
𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑥 =− 𝐿
𝑥 + 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑣𝑝 1 − ( 𝑥
𝐿 )
When 𝑥 = 0 we have𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑝, and 𝑥 = 𝐿 we have 𝑣𝑥 = 0 of course, it should obey those
conditions. What is that we have found out? We have found out 𝑣𝑥 as a function of x. Why do
we do that because we want to evaluate the derivative of course,
𝐿 = 𝐿0 − 𝑣𝑝𝑡
So, the remaining length is 𝐿0 − 𝑣𝑝𝑡, time t = 0 it is 𝐿0 overs time period t the piston moves a
distance 𝑣𝑝𝑡. So, the remaining length is 𝐿0 − 𝑣𝑝𝑡 that is what I have always been
emphasizing, that L is a function of time and it decreases with time.
Now, the one dimension differential total mass balance as we have written is
𝑑(ρ) 𝑑(𝑣𝑥)
𝑑𝑡
+ ρ 𝑑𝑥
= 0
So, let us substitute here, we have got an expression for 𝑣𝑥 let us differentiate that and get
𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑝
𝑑𝑥
=− 𝐿
So,
𝑑(ρ) 𝑣𝑝
𝑑𝑡
− ρ 𝐿
= 0
We are proceeding towards evaluating rho as a function of time.
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So, let us do that
𝑑(ρ) 𝑣𝑝
𝑑𝑡
− ρ 𝐿
= 0
𝐿 = 𝐿0 − 𝑣𝑝𝑡
So, let us use separation of variables,
𝑑(ρ) 𝑣𝑝 𝑣𝑝
ρ
= 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿0−𝑣𝑝𝑡
𝑑𝑡
We have substituted for L it is a function of time when I integrate here right hand side L is
not a constant. So, before integrating we should substitute in terms of time. Now, let us
integrate at time t = 0 density is ρ0, at any time t the density is ρ. Those are the limits of the
left hand side, right hand side, of course, limits are 0 and then time any time t.
ρ 𝑡 𝑣𝑝
𝑑(ρ)
∫ ρ
=∫ 𝐿0−𝑣𝑝𝑡
𝑑𝑡
ρ0 0
ln 𝑙𝑛 ( )
ρ
ρ0 (
=− ln 𝑙𝑛 𝐿0 − 𝑣𝑝𝑡 ) 𝑡0 =− ln 𝑙𝑛 (
𝐿0−𝑣𝑝𝑡
𝐿0 ) = ln 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝐿0
𝐿0−𝑣𝑝𝑡 )
ρ = ρ0 ( 𝐿0
𝐿0−𝑣𝑝𝑡 )
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So, density depends on time for given initial densities, initial length, and velocity of the
piston those are the variables. So, if you give me the velocity of the piston and initial density,
initial length; this expression gives us how does density varying as a function of time.
So, with that, we have concluded all the applications. So, let us summarize this part on the
differential total mass balance equation.
● We started with the integral total mass balance equation for a small control volume
and obtained the differential total mass balance equation by shrinking it to a point,
also called the continuity equation and,
● It has two terms: one of the time rate of change of mass, another term of net flow out
of mass by convection, but the emphasis on per unit volume that is why it is density.
And, we simplified for of course, compressible or incompressible within the scope of
this course, and most of the courses in your engineering curriculum you will be
restricted to incompressible flow. So, that form is more important which we will come
across repeatedly later.
● We looked at applications of differential total mass balance equations. We checked
given velocity components, we found out one velocity component given the other, we
have also used the integral and differential balance to find velocity field and we
estimated one velocity component based on experimental measurements on two other
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components and finally an example on the rate of change of density with respect to
time.
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Lecture – 29
Integral linear momentum balance Part 1
.
So, we have discussed the Reynolds transport theorem as part of the fundamental concepts
and used that in deriving the integral form of total mass balance and then, used that integral
balance to derive the differential form of the total mass balance.
Now, we are proceeding towards deriving another conservation equation, we say a major
conservation equation of importance namely the linear momentum balance and first, we will
just like the case of mass balance, we will derive the integral linear momentum balance and
look at applications of the integral balance.
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Now, this is the outline. Start with the law of physics and derive the integral linear
momentum balance using the Reynolds transport theorem and look at applications. I think the
sequence is obvious based on our mass balance lectures.
So, the applications which we will be able to solve at the end of this integral linear
momentum balance equation.
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● The first example would be if you have a plate and then, water impinges on that and
then you are holding this plate what is the force you should supply so that you hold
the plate.
● The second example is a nice example. Let us say you have a tank and then, it has
water in it. Suppose if you have balance and it gives you the weight, then you know
the weight will reflect the mass of the tank and the mass of water in it. But now
suppose if you have flow also and the weight should indicate the effect of flow as well
or the momentum as well that is what we will see; how do you for me do that.
● The third example is where you have an elbow which is the usual pipe joint and then,
water flows in and flows out or air flows in and flows out and then, if you leave it
without any support the elbow will just start moving; what is the force you should
supply so that you hold the elbow.
● The last example will be the flow of air or water through a pipe and there is loss in
pressure because of friction between the fluid flow and the wall. So, how do you
evaluate that frictional loss or frictional force based on measurement of the pressure
drop other variables.
So, those are applications which we will be seeing at the end of this integral balance equation.
Of course, these are the experimental setups that are familiar and the control volumes are the
same, but what is it we are going to account for is now different. We are going to account for
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the momentum in, momentum out, forces acting etcetera. So, we keep seeing the same
control volume, but the balance for which we do that property differs, earlier it was total
mass. Now, it is going to be linear momentum associated forces be it the flow through a pipe
or this flow through the tank.
Now, so, let us start deriving the integral form of the linear momentum balance equation. So,
within the scope of this course when I say momentum, it means linear momentum. You can
derive conservation equations for angular momentum. We are not going to discuss that. We
may use it in a very simplified form later on. So when I say momentum, it means linear
momentum. So, we will stick to that convention and use the word momentum.
So, start with the law of physics. In the earlier case of the case of total mass, it was
conservation of mass; mass conservation principle. Mass of system was constant that is the
law of physics. In this case, the law of physics is Newton’s II law of motion. So, that is the
starting point for deriving the integral form. Now, what does it state?
The time rate of change of momentum of a system is equal to the sum of all the forces acting
on the system. So, of course, we should make note that the law is written for a system. Now,
this Newton’s II law of motion is not new to you, it is very well known to you; the only
difference is that you would have written this Newton’s II law for a solid object, well define
mass etcetera.
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Now, we are going to write an expression for Newton’s II law for a system made of fluid that
is how we should view it. So, let us do that. Now when we derived the Reynolds transport
theorem, we express the rate of change of an extensive property of the system in terms of the
rate of change of integral.
d
B
dt sys
= d
dt ∫ ρb dV
sys
We express this extensive property in terms of integral; where,
B = M pmentum = mv
And,
b = M omentum per unit mass = v
That is a distinction in the earlier case for the case of total mass balance B = m ; and b = 1 . In
the case of momentum, balance B represents momentum. So, the intensive properties per unit
mass or momentum per unit mass which is the velocity vector. You should note that both the
quantities are vectorial quantities; both the momentum and the velocities are vectorial
quantities.
Now, I like to mention this velocity can be viewed in different ways. Of course, one is of
course, as such velocity, and in the derivation of mass balance, we saw that the velocity can
be interpreted as a volumetric flux. Now, we are interpreting the velocity vector as a
momentum per unit mass. So, when velocity can be given different physical significances;
one is velocity as such the volumetric flux and now momentum per unit mass.
Now, how do we write the momentum of the system? Now, this diagram is well known to us
(above slide image), keep showing this diagram because a very good representation of system
and control volume moment you look at this diagram the gas inside and then a part of the gas
going out; quickly gives a good understanding of system and control volume. So, now how
do we express the momentum of the system?
So, as usual, we will divide the system into smaller and smaller volumes, each of volume
∆V i and each has its own density, which gives the mass of each element.
(mv)sys = ∑ v i ρi ∆V i = ∫ ρv dV
i sys
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Now, earlier we stopped at that because we are interested in the mass balance. Now, we are
interested in the momentum balance. So, multiply by velocities each region can have a
velocity, please note that is a velocity is a vector here. So, each region can have a velocity.
So, we split it into volumes ∆V i multiplied by ρi and then, multiplied by the velocity you
get the total momentum of the system.
Now, as usual, you want to express that in terms of an integral. So, we consider many such
small volumes and as the number goes up, each volume tends to 0; then, you can approximate
the summation in terms of an integral. So, the ρv dV integrated over the system gives you
the momentum of the system. The total momentum of the system is expressed in terms of an
integral ρv dV . And, this is written in line with the same expression on the left hand side
mass into velocity written in terms of a density, velocity etcetera. In the case of solid
particles, you can proceed in terms of writing mass itself but now for a case of fluid the
relevant property is density and that is how you are expressed in terms of density. Now, apart
from that, we allow also for the density variation within the system, velocity variation within
the system and hence you have integral that is how we should interpret integral ρv dV .
So, now let us state the Law of physics the Newton’s II law of motion for a system made of
fluid.
d
dt
(mv)sys = d
dt ∫ ρv dV = ∑ F sys
sys
So, left hand side, we have the rate of change of momentum of the system as we explained
just now express this momentum of the system in terms of this integral expression. So, the
left hand side now represents the rate of change of momentum of the system and according to
Newton’s II law of motion, it is equal to the sum of all the forces acting on the system. So,
this expression is Newton’s II law of motion for a system made of fluid.
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And of course, the first observation on this equation is that it is a vectorial equation.
d
dt ∫ ρv dV = ∑ F sys
sys
On the left hand side, we have v vector, the right hand side of the force vector that is the first
observation. This vectorial nature of the equation distinguishes this equation from all other
equations. When I say all other equations, we have seen a similar law of physics for the total
mass balance that was a scalar equation. We are going to come across similar law of physics
for energy balance and species balance; all those are scalar equations. This equation law of
physics for momentum is a vectorial equation and that has to be kept in mind because it is a
vectorial equation we work in terms of components of that equation.
So, let us write down the x component of the above vector equation.
d
dt ∫ ρv x dV = ∑ F x, sys
sys
The velocity has three components v x , v y , v z . So, I used the x component alone. Similarly on
the right hand side, for the F vector, I take only the forces acting on the system in the
x-direction. In this equation, now let us say i, j and then k component or x, y, z component,
we are writing only the x component. So, we will derive the linear momentum balance along
the x-direction, analogously we can do for y and z-direction.
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So, this equation tells you, the rate of change of momentum of system or x momentum or
momentum along x-direction and right side sum of all the forces acting on the system along
the x-direction. So, we associate a direction with the momentum. Now, as we have done in
the total mass balance, we will use the Reynolds transport theorem to express the left hand
side in terms of control volume control surface.
So, let us write down the general form of the Reynolds transport theorem, which relates the
rate of change of property for the system to the rate of change of property for the control
volume and net rate at which the property leaves through the control surface.
d
dt ∫ ρb dV = d
dt ∫ ρb dV + ∫ ρb v.n dA
sys CV CS
Now, this form is for any general property. We could take on any values for the case of mass
balance b = 1. Now, we have seen that b = v and because working in terms of x component b
= v x . So, we are going to apply this Reynolds transport theorem, taking b = v x .
d
dt ∫ ρv x dV = d
dt ∫ ρv x dV + ∫ ρv x v.n dA
sys CV CS
Now, how do you read out this equation, the rate of change of x momentum for the system,
the rate of change of x momentum for the control volume, and then, we have been always
been telling the last term term represents the net rate at which the property leaves through the
control surface. So, the integral term represents the net rate at which the x momentum leaves
the control volume through the control surface. So, those are the physical interpretations for
the three terms appearing in this equation.
Now, we use the Reynolds transport theorem in the left hand side of the law of physics,
which is Newton’s II law of motion.
d
dt ∫
CV
ρv x dV + ∫
CS
ρv x v.n dA = ( )
∑Fx
sys
Of course, we express the left hand side in terms of control volume and control surface. Right
hand side is the sum sigma represents the sum of all the forces acting on the system that is
why I use the sigma they are representing the sum of all the forces, what are those forces we
will see later. So, I have taken the law of physics use the Reynolds transport theorem, and
express the left hand side in terms of control volume and control surface.
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So, once again, I want to emphasize that the right hand side, the force term comes from the
law of physics; what Reynolds transport theorem does, it replaces the left hand side which is
in terms of system in terms of control volume and control surface. The force term does not
come from the Reynolds transport theorem; it comes from the law of physics. The left hand
side term expressed in terms of control volume control surface that part only comes from the
Reynolds transport theorem. So, now the left hand side is fine for us because it is in terms of
control volume control surface, right hand side is in terms of the system.
So, as we did for mass balance, we will express that in terms of the control volume. So, we
use the concept of a coincident system and control volume. So, we have seen this a few times
and the derivation to begin with we took the control volume and the system to be coincident
at each other at every instant of time; that is shown a different way in these three diagrams
(above slide images). The system is exactly coinciding with the control volume and then the
system has partly left the control volume.
So, we take the condition at time t, where the system and control volume are exactly
coinciding with each other and that is what is shown separately. So, because of that, the
boundary in terms of volume and surface becomes the same for both the control volume and
the system. So, whatever forces acting on the system and forces acting on the control volume
or the contents of control volume both are same and of course, we have our own animation
which shows that we take the instant, where the system and control volume coincide at time t.
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d
dt ∫
CV
ρv x dV + ∫
CS
ρv x v.n dA = ( )
∑Fx
sys
So, now let us express this in terms of equations. So, let us carry over the integral equation
which I have written in the last slide. The left hand side in terms of control volume and
control surface and right hand side representing sum of all the forces along the x-direction is
for a system. We consider coincident system and control volume at time t. These are
instantaneous equations. So, at every instant of time, we consider system and control volume
to be coincident.
( ) ( )
∑Fx
sys
= ∑Fx
contents of CV
So, now, which means that the above equation I replace the right hand side which was in
terms of system in terms of the control volume.
d
dt ∫
CV
ρv x dV + ∫
CS
ρv x v.n dA = ( )
∑Fx
CV
So, now this is the integral form of the linear momentum balance, it is all in terms of control
volume control surface. The right hand side is also in terms of the control volume. We have
derived for the x component, similarly, we can derive for the y component and the z
component. So, for the y component
d
dt ∫
CV
ρv y dV + ∫
CS
ρv y v.n dA = ( )
∑Fy
CV
And, for z component,
d
dt ∫
CV
ρv z dV + ∫
CS
ρv z v.n dA = ( )
∑Fz
CV
So, we should always keep in mind that it is a vectorial equation. It has three components and
we are in the examples to follow we will be using the x component, y component, and so on.
So, these, in fact, three put together form the set of equations which constitutes the integral
form of linear momentum balance equation.
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Now, let us look at the significance of the terms in the linear momentum balance equation.
d
dt ∫
CV
ρv x dV + ∫
CS
ρv x v.n dA = ( )
∑Fx
CV
For the sake of significance, we will rewrite this equation slightly differently we will write it
as
d
dt ∫
CV
v x ρ dV + ∫
CS
v x ρ v.n dA = ( )
∑Fx
CV
● The first term is a transient term. It is the time rate of change of momentum within the
d
control volume we have dt here so, the time rate of change and the integral term
represents the momentum within the control volume. The first term represents the
time rate of change of momentum within the control volume.
● The second integral term represents the net rate of flow of momentum out through the
control surface by convection. We have been always been saying that this represents
the net rate of flow of the property. In this case, it’s the momentum out through the
control surface by convection, we have already seen what convection is I will explain
shortly again.
● On right hand side, we have the sum of external forces acting on the control volume.
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Here, I use the word momentum, but to be more specific this momentum represents the x
momentum, analogously the force on the right hand side represents the force in the
x-direction. So, momentum is also in the x-direction, on the left hand side whether it is the
accumulation term or in the flow term and the convection term. The right hand side also
forces also x-direction, similarly y and z directions. And as I have been telling forces acting
on the control volume to be more precise forces acting on the contents of the control volume.
Now, we have looked at this experimental setup with a control volume, and so on. Now, our
control volume was something over the pipe geometry. Earlier we looked at the control
volume and accounted for mass in mass leaving. Now, we use the control volume to do a
momentum balance. So, we account for the momentum entering, and the momentum leaving.
So, if you look at the pipe and say the pipe carries water;
● One way of saying that the pipe carries water let us say coloured water.
● The next step would be saying that mass enters the control volume and mass leaves
the control volume.
● The next step would be saying that momentum enters the control volume, momentum
leaves the control volume.
So, what you see is, of course, an experimental setup with a pipe, but the way in which you
look at it differs. At the superficial level, you can say water entering water leaving, but that
water which is flowing carries with it mass that is what we used in the earlier case. Same
water carries the momentum and you are now doing a momentum balance for that.
So, we say that that stream of water carries mass with it and that stream carries momentum
with it. Later on, we will extend these two energies and then, species. So, when I say
convection this physical picture has to be kept in your mind whatever is carried by the stream
because of its bulk flow. So, with this term either is called convection or by bulk flow both
mean the same.
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So, now let us compare this integral total mass balance and linear momentum balance, the
way in which they are derived, the significance are all analogous, even the terminology words
user are all analogous; let us compare both of them. So, this is the integral mass balance.
d
dt ∫ ρv x dV + ∫ ρv x v.n dA = 0
CV CS
The first term represents the time rate of change of mass within the control volume. Second
term net rate of flow of mass out through the control surface by convection. Right hand side
is 0; for the case of mass balance, it was 0.
Now, let us write down the integral linear momentum balance in the x-direction.
d
dt ∫
CV
ρv x dV + ∫
CS
ρv x v.n dA = ( )
∑Fx
CV
Look at the significance, you can almost write analogously time rate of change of instead of
mass its momentum x momentum within the control volume and then, the net rate of flow of
momentum out through the control surface by convection. Similarly, here mass leaving
through the control surface, momentum leaving through the control surface and right hand
side, unlike the case of mass balance, we have external forces acting on the contents of the
control volume. That is, of course, the difference rather big difference unlike it was 0, here it
is the sum of external forces acting on the control volume.
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Lecture - 30
Integral linear momentum balance Part 2
Now, let us look at the forces which are to be considered. For that first, we will discuss how
do we classify forces, and we classify forces as
● Body forces and

● Surface forces.
We will discuss what are the characteristics of the forces with an example.
✔ The best example of body force is the gravitational force. We will keep that as an
example and then see what are the characteristics of body forces. First, if you take an
object the origin of the force away from the object. Let us say gravitational force acts
on this control volume, it acts on its, but the origin is away from the object, and now it
the body forces acting on the control volume without contacting the object. The
gravitational force is nowhere in contact with the object, so the origin is away which
of course, leads to the fact that force is not in touch or contact with the object. Now, it
acts throughout the entire body of the object, the entire control volume is objected to
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the force, and of course, that is the way it is called a body force. So, acts throughout
the entire body of the object and because it acts through the entire body object, it is
proportional to the volume of the object. Then, if you say body force or gravitational
force, for example, that is proportional to the volume of the object, hence we express
body forces as per unit volume or per unit mass. For example, force is equal to the
mass into the gravitational acceleration, and what is g; it is body force per unit mass.
So, if you write 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔; of course, we can see g is the acceleration due to gravity.
What is the other way of saying; the body force F per unit mass will give you the
expression for gravitation vector. So, body force is expressed in terms of per unit mass
that is why you multiply by mass. Of course, for example, gravitational force, other
body forces could be an electrical force, magnetic force. Within the scope of this
course, the only body force which will consider is a gravitational force. So, to quickly
summarize body forces, the origin is away from the object, they are not in contact,
they act throughout the body and hence proportional to the volume and expresses per
unit mass.
✔ Now, coming to surface forces. Surface forces act through contact, body forces there
is no contact at all, but surface forces act through contact with the surface. So, let us
take an example, pressure. Pressure force example for surface force. So, when you say
pressure acts it is in contact with the surface. It is not like it is without contacting have
a pressure force. The moment we say any surface force, for example, the pressure it
acts through contact with the surface either perpendicular or tangential etcetera, in this
case of pressure it is perpendicular. Obviously, it acts on the surface of the object. In
the earlier case body force, it affects was felt throughout the body, but for the case of
surface force, it acts on the surface of the object. Now, because it acts on the surface
of the object becomes very obvious that it is proportional to the surface area on which
it acts. Earlier it was proportional to the volume of the object because it was felt
throughout for the case of body force. So, this also leads of fact that surface forces are
expressed per unit area. Body forces were in terms of per unit mass; surface forces
because they act in contact on the surface and it is proportional to the surface area, so
expressed per unit area. Of course, they are very familiar with pressure is force per
unit area that is how you get the unit of surface force as force per unit area. There are
other surface forces namely frictional force, reaction force. We will come across
reaction force. What is the reaction force; suppose if an object and you want to
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support it and whatever force acted by the support on the control volume is a reaction
force. Of course, the frictional force is because of friction between the fluid flowing
and the surrounding walls. So, we will come across all these kinds of forces in the
applications when we discuss them.
So, now, what do we do; we write the integral form of momentum balance, and on the right
hand side now we have a little more information, earlier we kept telling that sum of all the
forces acting on the control volume. Now, we express that in terms of the body forces and
surface forces, a little more detail than we have done earlier.
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
( )
∫ 𝑣𝑥 ρ 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝑣𝑥 ρ 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ∑ 𝐹𝑥
𝐶𝑉
In this form of the integral linear momentum balance, the forces are returned more
generically. Now, since we have classified them, expressed this in terms of body forces and in
terms of surface forces.
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑣𝑥 ρ 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝑣𝑥 ρ 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ∑ 𝐹𝐵 + ∑ 𝐹𝑆
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆 𝑥 𝑥
Now, in this slide, we will discuss about body force. As I told you the body force which we
are going to discuss is a gravitational force and what is shown here is the control volume for
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convenience's sphere is shown and acted upon by gravity. This is for the surface force which
we will discuss in the next slide.
Now, how do you represent the body force in terms of an expression? Ok; now, F
gravitational force. So, I take the control volume divide it into smaller and smaller volumes,
and then for each volume, you can have different densities, so which use a mass of each
element, but now every we said body force acts throughout the object and in this case the
because it is the gravitational force that is uniform for every smaller volume.
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 = ∑ 𝑔ρ𝑖∆𝑉𝑖 = ∫ ρ𝑔 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑖 𝐶𝑉
If you are considering electric force and magnetic force it can vary based on this spatial
location. So, because we are considering only gravitational force as the body force, I have not
used i, for g, this i represents the volume of the ith element which can have which won't
density rho, but I have not your subscript for i for g because the same gravitational force as
throughout the control volume which means every smaller volume is objected to the same
gravitational force.
So, as usual, we will not express this in terms of an integral, so we consider many such
volumes so small that the summation can be represented in terms of an integral over the
control volume. Look at the limits, the limits is over the control volume because the
volumetric force or a force per unit mass, it is a volume integral. So, the gravitational forces
mass into the g vector.
Now, what is this mass? This mass includes the mass of the control volume, which means the
shell and mass of the contents of the control volume, both are included because suppose I
have to support this, I have supported the weight of this container and also the liquid in it,
that is why it says the mass of the entire control volume. Of course, instantaneous because the
volume of liquid let us say that can vary as a function of time also. So, the mass of the
container may not vary but mass of liquid in the container can vary. So, it says instantaneous
mass of entire control volume.
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Now, let us discuss surface force, the surface force which are discussing is the pressure force.
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑣𝑥 ρ 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝑣𝑥 ρ 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ∑ 𝐹𝐵 + ∑ 𝐹𝑆
Now, we write the conservation equation, the linear momentum balance integral form of that
and we have discussed the body force and now we are going to discuss the surface force.
Now, we express the force because of pressure as
𝑑𝐹𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =− 𝑝 𝑑𝐴 𝑛
Let us look at this diagram. As I told you it is shown as a sphere for convenience, but could
be any object and we are taking a small area there. So, let us take a small area of dA, and then
this n vector represents the outward normal, always outward normal. So, taking a small area
and the surface, and the outward normal can vary depending on where you take the area.
Now, I have shown pressure, pressure is the compressive force. What does it mean? It always
acts in to the control volume or on to the control volume. Let us say we have an inlet and
outlet, but still pressure acts in both the direction and always onto the control volume. It is a
compressive force and that is what is shown here also (bottom figure in above slide image).
What is shown here is a pipe and you have pressure acting into the control volume onto the
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control volume. Similarly, here also pressure acts on the control volume being a compressive
force.
Remember our n vector is an outward normal, it is always pointing away from the control
volume. If you have an inlet then n vector point away from the surface, for outlet also away
from the control volume, exactly there directions are opposite. Pressure always acts on the
control volume, n vector is always away from the control volume. So, n and p vectors are
opposite to each other.
So, now, we are proceeding towards expressing the force due to pressure over a small area.
So, the is dF represents the force for a small area and the magnitude is pressure into the small
area dA and the direction is negative of outward normal, that is − 𝑝 𝑑𝐴 𝑛 .
Now, this is the force over a small area. We will integrate over the entire surface area. So, let
us do that. The force due to pressure is
𝐹𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = ∫ − 𝑝 𝑑𝐴 𝑛 =− 𝑝𝑛𝐴
𝐶𝑆
Remember the integral is a surface integral because the pressure is a surface force. It acts
over the surface and so you are integrating over the surface area. To contrast the body force,
body force acts over the entire volume and the integral was volume integral. So, pressure
being a surface force, the integral is a surface integral. So, the body force as volume integral,
the surface force as surface integral.
So, most of the time are all the cases that we are going to discuss the pressure is uniform
across the area either inlet or outlet. So, this simple expression will suffice for us − 𝑝𝑛𝐴.
Now, pressure being a compressive force, acts always on to the control surface even with
outflow, whether it is outflow or inflow, but always pressure acts on to the control surface.
Let us see how does it apply for the case shown here.
Let us take the inflow boundary, the inlet, at inflow the force due to pressure is given by
𝐹𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =− 𝑝1(− 𝑖)𝐴1 = 𝑝1𝐴1𝑖
I am assuming pressure to be uniform and at location 1, the pressure is 𝑝1. The normal is
outward normal. It is along the negative x-axis, so 𝑛 =− 𝑖. The area denotes as A1. The force
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is 𝑝1 𝐴1 that is the magnitude. The direction is towards the positive x-axis. That is obvious by
intuition, the pressure acts into the control volume, so the direction is towards the positive
x-axis.
Let us look at the outflow
𝐹𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =− 𝑝2(+ 𝑖)𝐴2 = − 𝑝2𝐴2𝑖
The location is 2, so the pressure is 𝑝2 and then, the outward normal is along the positive x
axis. The force due to pressure acts along the negative x-axis, which is also correct by
intuition at the outlet, pressure acts on to the control volume, so it should act along the
negative x axis direction.
So, the force is 𝑝1𝐴1𝑖 on the at the inlet, at the outlet the force is − 𝑝2𝐴2𝑖. So, that is the
significance of the negative sign. That negative sign ensures that force due to pressure always
acts into the control volume, and that is what we also took into account while writing the
negative sign. So, this representation is important to remember.
Now, as we have simplified the total mass balance we will simplify the integral linear
momentum balance, but not so much. I will tell you the reason shortly.
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𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ𝑣𝑥 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ∑ 𝐹𝐵 + ∑ 𝐹𝑆
Now, we will start with the general form of the integral momentum balance. Of course,
always we are working with the x component, and the right hand side we have now, we have
body forces and surface forces, and the previous slides we have seen how to express body
force as a volume integral, how to express surface force as a surface integral.
Now, if it is the steady state of course,
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝐶𝑉
So,
∫ ρ𝑣𝑥 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ∑ 𝐹𝐵 + ∑ 𝐹𝑆
𝐶𝑆 𝑥 𝑥
So, in all our examples we will consider only steady state integral momentum balance, even
if we look at books most of the examples are on steady state momentum balance. The
transient because of momentum change usually negligible.
Now, as we have done for mass balance if we assume in the inlet, outlet etcetera, density,
velocity is uniform then I can take out ρ𝑣𝑥 𝑣. 𝑛 after the integral and then you have integral
dA and that becomes A, so we can simplify that integral in terms of summation.
∑ ρ𝑣𝑥 𝑣. 𝑛 𝐴 = ∑ 𝐹𝐵 + ∑ 𝐹𝑆
𝐶𝑆 𝑥 𝑥
This summation means overall the inlet, outlets whatever I have over the control volume.
Whatever parts of the control volume or part of the control surface, wherever inflow outflow
is there I sum over all those in surfaces through which there is inflow or outflow.
So, the assumption is the density and velocity or constant across the area, so that you can take
out and write this way. So, as I told you we are not going to simplify further. In the case of
total mass balance, we are a series of simplifications. Here we may not understand also if we
simplify, but how do we simplify and apply will understand directly when you look at the
applications.
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So, that is the way I am not proceeding and showing you a lot of further simplifications. How
do we apply? We will straightaway understand and understand better in fact, when we go to
the applications. So, we will stop with simplification at this stage.
Now, we have this net rate of flow of momentum by convection term.
∑ ρ𝑣𝑦 𝑣. 𝑛 𝐴
𝐶𝑆
If you take one for one particular surface, inlet, or outlet, this represents the rate of flow of
momentum by convection. What we will do nowhere is, what is the sign of that particular
term and first observation is that two terms contribute to the sign first is 𝑣. 𝑛. We have seen
that 𝑣. 𝑛 is positive for outflow, negative for inflow, and then 𝑣𝑦 can also be positive or
negative depending on whether the y component of velocity is along y axis or against y axis.
So, we have four combinations of the sign of 𝑣𝑦 and the sign of 𝑣. 𝑛, together determine the
sign of this rate of momentum term, that is why we have to discuss very specifically. In the
case of mass balance, it is very simple which is 𝑣. 𝑛 either positive or negative, but here four
combinations are possible and that is shown using the control volume here a very nice
representation from this book by Munson et al on Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics.
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So, there are four surfaces where there is an inflow or outflow, let us take one by one. The
first observation is that n is always drawn as an outward normal. It is always pointing outside
the control volume, so n is away from the control volume for all the inlets and outlets.
Now, let us take the top right surface through which there is an outflow, because there is an
outflow we know that 𝑣. 𝑛 is positive Now, the direction of velocity is along the positive y
axis. So, the direction of 𝑣𝑦 is along the positive y axis. So, both are positive, through rate of
momentum has a positive sign for this phase.
Now, let us look at the top left phase where you have inflow, because it is inflow 𝑣. 𝑛 is
negative, and what is the direction of velocity? It is towards the negative y axis. So, 𝑣𝑦 will
be negative. The rate of momentum is positive because both are negative, so either both are
positive or both are negative resulting in a positive sign for the rate of momentum through the
whatever phase that the left hand side or the right hand side.
These are an individual rate of momentum for the respective phases. When you sum you tell
us the net rate of momentum leaving. So, for both the cases, this rate of momentum term is
greater than 0, so positive.
Now, let us analyze these phases at the bottom. The bottom right phase is the inlet phase and
because it is inlet phase 𝑣. 𝑛 is negative. But what is the direction of velocity? It is along the
positive y axis. So, 𝑣𝑦 is positive. So, you get a negative sign for the rate of momentum. Now,
on the left hand side for this case it is an outflow. So, 𝑣. 𝑛 is positive, but what is the direction
of velocity that is towards the negative y axis, so 𝑣𝑦 is negative. So, because one is positive
other is negative this term the rate of momentum is negative. So, we should be careful in
arriving at the correct sign for this rate of momentum term.
So, we will look at this of course, in the application but just to want to mention that in the
case of mass balance it was very relatively easy, the sign depended on 𝑣. 𝑛 alone, but here it
depends on 𝑣. 𝑛 and the direction of velocity as well, analogously for other directions
etcetera.
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Lecture – 31
Integral linear momentum balance: Examples - Part 1
We have derived the integral form of momentum balance and looked at the significance of
the terms there. We also looked at how do you get the sign for the rate of momentum term,
linear momentum term leaving. Let us look at applications of the integral momentum
balance.
Now, one common term or common variable which I going to find out in all these examples
is force. So, we keep talking about force in all the examples that is something that is common
to all the examples. So,
● The first example is, we have a water jet and it impinges on a plate and you are
holding this plate and you have to give some force so that you can hold this plate. So,
we are going to find out what is that force. So, forced to hold a plate stuck by a water
jet. Even without doing an example, we can say that this force required is to just
balance a momentum. So, all these examples will deal with the balance of force and
momentum. So, that should be kept in mind.
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● Now, the second example is once again a simple and nice example. We have a tank
and then there is water, but it just not water; water is entering and then leaving maybe
we will take it this way. So, water is entering and then leaving and this is on a
weighing balance and I like to know what is the reading shown by the balance and the
reading shown will include the weight of the water in it the tank also and of course,
the momentum of the fluid and that is what we are going to see now.
● The third example is the force required to hold an elbow. You have an elbow here
which is the pipe joint, we use an elbow to connect two pipes either the same diameter
or different diameter. In this case, it is a reducing elbow why because the diameter is
changing and there is turn off direction as well. So, because of momentum, pressure
etcetera, this elbow will start moving if you do not support it. So, you need to support
it. So, what is the force required to hold an elbow and
● The last example is an example to illustrate the frictional force. We have a pipe flow
through a pipe and then we measure the pressure drop, temperature, pressure etcetera
and find out what is the frictional force, from the pressure drop; we find out what is
the frictional force.
Of course, other force which we came across was the pressure which are going to come
across the boundaries and of course, some example which will also it will body force. So,
these examples will include the momentum flow term and the forces namely body force and
surface forces.
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Let us take the first example and let us read the example, water from a stationary nozzle
strikes a flat plate. The water leaves a nozzle at 15 m/s, it is a high velocity. The nozzle area
is given assuming the water is directed normal to the plate. The reason is that if it is an angle
in reality, it may be at an angle, but then you will have to take the component of them, but
now if you say it is exactly normal, then only that component along with the normal acts.
Suppose, if it is inclined; a part of it will act on the plate makes some more problems more
complicated that is why we say water is directed normal to the plate, and once again after it
hits, it may get splashed. It may go at some other angle. We do not take all that we say water
nicely rises parallel to the plate. All these are simplifications done so that the analysis
becomes simple.
And then, determine the horizontal force you need to resist to hold it in place. If you do not
do this suppose if you let us say water splash strikes this and go somewhere here and here,
then if you take some component of that along the x-direction, but if I say water just goes
parallel to the plate falls down, parallel rise up parallel; then, and there is no component of
this along the x-direction. This makes a problem much more simpler.
So, we are asked to find out the horizontal force which means we are interested in the
momentum in the x-direction, force in the x-direction etcetera ok. So, this one whatever it
described is shown schematically here, the plate here and then our hand to support that the
nozzle, the water coming out of the nozzle and the direction in which water flows after hitting
the plate.
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Now, the first step is to select the control volume and represent the forces. Now, the control
volume that we have selected is shown here (left side image in above slide). When you look
at the control volume, there is a momentum flow that crosses the control volume and then
there is a force of our hand on the control volume which acts as the part of the control
surface.
So, when you choose a control volume you should make sure that whatever we are interested
in acts or crosses the control volume or control surface. In this case, the flow crosses the
control surface and the force acts on the control surface. Now, the control volume is so
chosen that the areas are same. I am focusing only on the x-direction. So, let us look at it.
Now, all the forces are shown here, let us look at what are the forces.
● The first force is atmospheric pressure or force exerted at atmospheric pressure and
● We have discussed that pressure is always compressive and acts into the control
volume; that is why the direction of pressure is shown to the right towards the positive
x-axis and opposite phase it is shown towards the left towards the negative x-axis.
And we have shown uniform pressure across the entire area and just the effect of pressure
will just cancel out each other. The force due to the pressure is P atmosphere A on both the side
that is why we said area of the left surface is equal to the area of the right surface. That is the
implication of that statement. If we do not do that, the force due to pressure will not cancel
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each other. The force magnitudes are the same, the directions are opposite. They just cancel
each other because of atmospheric pressure.
● Now, the other forces shown is, of course, the weight is shown which is not of
significance to us because we are going to do a balance in the x-direction. The force
due to weight acts in the along the y-direction but anyway shown here for
completeness.
● Now, when we have this plate and apply force, force is exerted by the hand on the
control volume. I think that is very important because that changes the sign and this
force is called a reaction force. Components of the reaction force of hand on control
volume. So, the force exerted by our hand on the control volume. Now, it could be at
any angle that is why we split it into two components Rx and Ry. The x component is
Rx, the y component Ry. Now, to begin with, we will not know what is the correct
direction.
So, by convention, we take Rx and Ry to be positive along the x and y-axis. Eventually, we
may find out there it is negative which then we will say that we have to exert force in the
opposite direction. But to begin with and analyzing any example, we take the direction to be
positive along the x-axis and y-axis.
So, Rx and Ry are components of reaction force of hand on control volume and then, Rx and
Ry are assumed positive along the positive axes, the end result may not be same, it may be
negative, in which we will have to interpret differently.
● So, the force of control volume on hand is, we use Newton’s third law and it so − Rx
and − Ry ; that is why I said reaction force of our hand on the control volume that
terminology is very important because if it is the force of control volume on hand
whatever control volume exerts on our hand is negative of what we are exerting. So, it
is − Rx and − Ry and which we have discussed atmospheric pressure acts on all
surface of the control volume. I mentioned about the effect of atmospheric pressure on
the left and right surface and of course, pressure acts on these two top and bottom
surfaces, but we are not interested in that because that is in the y-direction.
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So, what we have seen here is the selection of control volume how do you select and what we
have seen in the right side diagram what are the forces acting. This picture is very clear. It
will become easy for us to write the integral balance equation.
Now, if you look at the diagram on the right I have shown uniform pressure throughout.
Now, of course, the pressure here everywhere is atmospheric that is very obvious. Now, what
is pressure across the cross section, across the surface area where there is flow. For that, we
should use the physical fact that pressure in a free jet is atmospheric. What is the free jet?
You have a nozzle and water just flows out of the nozzle is a free jet.
So, the pressure inside the fluid region is atmospheric, if it is a free jet. If you are not stating
this, then I cannot show atmospheric pressure for this part of the surface because it will be
some other pressure. Only if you assume that the pressure in this area is also atmospheric,
only then I can show uniform pressure throughout. If it were not atmospheric, here on let us
say slightly higher pressure, the pressure will be different. That is only based on that
assumption I can draw a uniform atmospheric pressure throughout.
Let us write the integral linear momentum balance equation in the x-direction.
d
dt ∫ ρv x dV + ∫ ρv x v.n dA = F B x + F S x
CV CS
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In this example, we are doing a balance along the x-direction. Now, of course, steady state
problem. So, the first term goes off leaving with the second term and the forces on the right
side.
∫ ρv x v.n dA = F B x + F S x
CS
Now, let us first take the rate of momentum term. Now, in this control surface only at section
1, there is inflow. No other part of the control surface, there is flow in the x-direction. So, you
do have the rate of momentum leaving in etcetera, but that is in y-direction because we are
doing we are writing a balance along the x-direction. The only part of the control surface,
where you have flow in x-direction is only part 1 of the control surface.
∫ ρv x v.n dA = ∫ ρv x v.n dA
CS CS 1
So, that is why I replace the control surface with control surface 1, that part of the control
surface, where the free jet enters. Now, let us simplify this integral expression. Now, we
assume the uniform flow what does it mean as usual there is no change in velocity in a
direction perpendicular to the flow. We have a uniform velocity which means that I can take
out the entire term outside. Of course, I also assume density is uniform.
v 1 = M agnitude of x − v elocity; i.e v = v x i = v 1 i
∫ ρv x v.n dA = ρv 1 (v 1 i x − i) A1 =− ρv 21 A1
CS 1
So, we have to be a little careful in arriving at the correct expression especially the sign of
this particular term. If you recall back our earlier discussion on the combination of two terms
resulting in a sign, we can quickly check this sign. v x is positive, v .n is negative because it
is inflow resulting in a negative sign ok. We said these two signs together constitute give the
sign for the entire term. So, in this case, one is positive, other is negative resulting in a
negative sign.
So, this and that is why we did not discuss much on simplification of integral balance earlier.
No way we can discuss all this in a general way. So, we discussed for a specific problem.
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CS 1
So, we have written the integral form of the momentum balance, the net flow momentum rate
of momentum flow term, and the forces. So, far we have discussed only the rate of
momentum term.
∫ ρv x v.n dA =− ρv 21 A1
CS 1
Now we will discuss the forces on the right hand side.
F B x = 0, N o body f orces in x − direction
Since we are doing balance along the x-direction, momentum balance along the x-direction,
there is no body force. The only body force we are considering is the gravity that does not act
along the x-direction; it acts along the y-direction only.
F sx = P atm A − P atm A + Rx = Rx
Now, the surface forces due to atmospheric pressure of course it cancel out, and due to our
hand, the reaction force because of our hand. Now, focus on this diagram, where we have
shown all the forces. So, the force due to atmospheric pressure is P atm A and remember it is
the into the control volume that is why it is + P atm A and on the right hand side, it is once
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again P atm A but it is against the positive x-axis, it is along the negative x-axis because it is
into the control volume and that is why we have − P atm A . When I say force, it is positive
when it is acting along the positive x-axis and this force acting along the negative x-axis and
that is why we have − P atm A .
Now, the direction of our reaction force is assumed to be positive along the positive x-axis
that is why this also + Rx . So, as far the forces are concerned, there is no body force. The
only surface that was remaining is that due to the x component of the reaction force exerted
by our hand on the control volume.
Now, let us substitute all the terms in the integral balance equation.
∫ ρv x v.n dA =− ρv 21 A1 ; F B x = 0; F sx = Rx
CS 1
So, let us substitute in the integral form of the momentum balance equation,
CS 1
− ρv 21 A1 = 0 + Rx
− ρv 21 A1 = Rx
The way in which I substitute it is that the rate of convection term, let us use our convection
term. The convection term is on the left inside and the force term is on the right hand side.
So, by convention; the convection term is always on the left hand side, the unsteady state
term is also on the left hand side, but we do not have an unsteady state term. So, by
convention, we have written the convection term on the left hand side, the force on the right
hand side but now as I told you the key physical variable of interest in all the integral balance
equation is the force.
So, I take left hand side Rx and bring the convection term to the right side.
Rx =− ρv 21 A1 =− 1000 x 152 x0.01 =− 2.25 kN
To begin with, we said the x component of force acts along the positive x-axis, but now we
have a plate even by intuition we can fill, we have water jet hitting on it and we are applying
a reaction force. So, our force should be directed towards the negative x-axis; that is a result
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we have obtained. We apply a force, our force on the control volume should be towards the
negative x-axis but we what did we say Rx is towards the positive x-axis that is why we have
got a negative sign for Rx that is what the negative sign implies.
So, horizontal force or to be more precise, the horizontal component of the force of our hand
on the control volume every word here is important, of our hand on the control volume is
equal to − 2.25 which means that it acts towards the left. Every time it is also good to check
with a physical intuition also. Sometimes we may get confused, the negative or positive sign.
A horizontal force of hand on control volume = − 2.25 kN (acts to left)
A horizontal force of control volume on hand = + 2.25 kN (acts to right)
So, control volume exerts a force on the hand to the right and we have to exert a force to
balance that towards the left. So, the force generated is entirely due to the momentum; we
have to balance the momentum with our force in the x component and of course, horizontal
momentum.
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Lecture – 32
Integral linear momentum balance: Examples – Part 2
In the second example, we have a container and then, for example, you would measure any
sample in your lab, you first put the container and then it will show the mass, and then add
some liquid it will show the total mass. Let us say, the balance now shows the weight then it
first shows the weight of the container, and then the weight of the container and liquid. Now,
we have an opening on the top and then the liquid flows down into the container and leaves
through the sides. Now, the reading shown by the balance will be different it will account for
the momentum of the liquid entering. So, that is what you are going to see, now in this
example more formally.
Let us say read the example, a metal container 0.6 meters high with an inside cross-sectional
area of 0.1 m2 , weighs 2 kg when empty. So, this something like putting your beaker and
then weighing and the container is placed on a scale and water flows in through an opening in
the top and, out through the two equal-area openings in the sides as shown in the diagram
(upper referred slide image). Under steady flow conditions, the height of the water in the tank
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is 0.5 meters. So, that indirectly gives us the volume of water in the tank, you are given the
area of the inlet, and the two outlets us all of them as the same area.
We are also given the velocity, the velocity vector is given, it is flowing downwards. So, it
has only one component vy and because it is towards the negative y-axis it is − 3, and then j.
So, the magnitude of velocity is 3 and along the negative y-direction, it is − 3 j. Will the scale
indicate the weight of water in the tank plus tank weight? If not, what is the reading on the
scale?
Now, the control volume is shown (above slide image) are surround by the control surface
and, mass enters and leaves through the control surface. In terms of momentum, section 1
flow contributes towards the y-direction and section 2 and 3 flows contribute towards the
x-direction.
Since we are interested in the reading shown by the balance we are interested only in the y
momentum balance, this means only section 1 flow will be contributing. Now, we denote
● Ry as a force of the scale on the control volume. As in the previous example, we
should be careful of the direction of force, the force exerted by the scale on the
control volume, and, of course, through the supports and is assumed positive along the
y axis,
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● We are taken Ry to be directed along the positive y-axis, assumed positive along the
positive y-axis.
● Now, W tank denotes the weight of the tank and it is towards the negative y-axis,
which you already know. Similarly,
● W water represents the weight of water in the tank that is also along the negative
y-axis, and
● Atmospheric pressure acts uniformly on the entire control surface and hence exerts no
net force on the control volume. If you have any object and then it is subject to
atmospheric pressure, there is no net force acting on the object or the control volume.
Be it any shape, this given particular shape, or even if it is the regular shape like a
cuboid. Then, if it is just subject to atmospheric pressure there is no net force acting
on it. That also we can intuitively understand.
So, with all this information will proceed further will start at the integral momentum balance
in the y-direction, because we are interested in the force of the balance on the control volume.
d
dt ∫ ρv y dV + ∫ ρv y v.n dA = F B y + F S y
CV CS
So, that is the integral balance equation in the y-direction that is why we have used the y
component of velocity in the expression. So, the first term tells you the rate of change of y
momentum in the control volume. The second term tells you the net rate at which y
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momentum leaves a control volume and right-hand side we have body forces and surface
forces, acting along the y-direction.
Now, we will consider the steady-state condition,
∫ ρv y v.n dA = F B y + F S y
CS
The level in the tank does not change with time and hence we say it is under steady-state
condition. Remember, if you recall the experiment which you have done we had 2 inlets in
the experimental setup and then one outlet, and, here again, when we took that data, we make
sure that the level in the tank remained constant. If it is changing then it is under transient
condition, but we make sure that, the inlet flow is equal to the sum of the two outlet flows
and the level does not change with time.
Now, let us call v 1 is a magnitude of y velocity and so, the v vector has only one component
v = v y j =− v 1 j
Now, let us compute this convective momentum term, and as I told you the momentum flow,
which contributes along the y-direction is only the section 1 flow. The other 2 flows are in the
horizontal direction. So, they do not contribute to momentum in the y-direction.
∫ ρv y v.n dA = ∫ ρv y v.n dA = ρ (− v 1 ) (− v 1 j.j) A1 = ρv 21 A1

CS CS 1
So, that is why the control surface is replaced with CS1. If it is for mass balance then you
have to consider CS2, CS3 control surfaces 2 and 3, but because it is momentum balance we
consider only the control surface 1, flow-through that alone contributes the y momentum.
Now, coming to the gravity vector; the gravity vector has only one component here once
again, the component of gravity along y-direction is
g = g y j =− g j =− 9.81j
If, you write in terms of magnitude g is 9.81 just a value and because it is along the negative
y-axis it is − 9.81 j.
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Now, let us write the body force along the y-direction, the body force along the y-direction is
mass into the component of gravity along the y-direction.
F B y = mg y
F B y = mtank (− g ) + mwater (− g ) =− (mtank + mwater )g
So, if you write; there are two components to it; one is the mass of the tank multiply by the −
g, and second you have the mass of water in the tank multiply by − g.
So, if we simplify you get sum of both the masses into the g; remember g here is just 9.81, we
have taken care of the negative sign here, because it acts towards the negative y-axis and, the
surface force is
F S y = Ry
Ry is along the positive y-axis and you already discuss that there is no net force to
atmospheric pressure.
Now, let us substitute all the expressions in the integral momentum balance along the
y-direction.
CS
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We found out
∫ ρv y v.n dA = ρv 21 A1
CS
F B y =− (mtank + mwater )g
And,
F S y = Ry
So, let us substitute as usual with the convective momentum on the left-hand side, the forces
on the right-hand side.
ρv 21 A1 =− (mtank + mwater ) g + Ry
And, then rearrange for Ry;
Ry = ρv 21 A1 + (mtank + mwater ) g
Ry is the force of the balance on the control volume or the reading in terms of the force of the
balance.
Now, the mass of the water in the tank is not given directly to us.
mwater = Atank hρwater
It is given in terms of the level of water, in the tank multiply by the cross-sectional area of the
tank which gives a volume multiply by the density of water gives you the mass of water in
the tank. So, that is how you get the mass of the water in the tank, the mass of the tank is
given to you directly. So,
Ry = ρv 21 A1 + (mtank + Atank hρwater ) g
So,
S cale reading = T ank weight + W ater weight + Downward momentum of
entering f luid
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Let us substitute the values given on the problem. So,
Ry = ρv 21 A1 + (mtank + Atank hρwater ) g
mtank = 2 kg; Atank = 0.1 m2 ; h = 0.5 m; ρwater = 1000 mkg3 ; g = 9.81 ms ;

2
v 1 = 3 ms ; A1 = 0.01 m2
So,
Ry = (2 + 0.1 x 0.5 x 100) x 9.81 + 1000 x 32 x 0.01
Ry = 510 + 90 = 600 N
So, it has two components to it that is why specifically the steps are shown in terms of
components; one component is because of the weight of the tank and water, other
components because of the momentum.
So, if you are neglecting momentum then we would conclude I would say wrongly as 510
Newton, but the balance would show 600 Newton’s taking into account the momentum of
entering fluid. The force of scale on the control volume is the reading of the scale.
So, to answer the question scale will not indicate the weight of water in the tank plus tank
weight. So, it will not indicate 510 Newton only.
90
M omentum of f low contributes = 600 x100 = 15 % to the scale reading
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That is why in this particular example the velocity is chosen to be very high value, for 3 m/s
for water is a very high value. To emphasize the point that momentum can contribute high
number is chosen. If, you choose the low velocity then, of course, this contribution becomes
lower and lower. Just to emphasize that it contributes you have to 15 % a really large velocity
has been chosen.
So, the only takeaway from this example is that the momentum of water entering also
contributes to the scale reading. And, it is also a good problem solving practice that till the
last step we work in terms of variables. And, then substitute in the last step, this awards
numerical mistakes apart from that we have a very general expression which is valid for this
any value of the variables. If, we start substituting the beginning that becomes very specific
of that example.
So, any configuration of this expression is valid. For example, we are discussing that if the
velocity becomes smaller and smaller, you can see that this contribution becomes lower and
lower. So, for example, we can try with 1 m/s second or 0.5 meters per second this becomes
smaller and smaller, that also it is squared.
The next example is the flow through an elbow which is the usual pipe joint for connecting 2
pipes and it is a reducing elbow because we have a larger cross-section at the inlet and a
smaller cross-section at the outlet. And, usually, we attach this elbow to a flange. So, the
elbow is attached here another way of looking at this something like a tap; almost looks like a
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tap. So, another way of looking at it is a tap through which water flows. Now, if you are not
attached to this elbow for leaving this elbow alone and allowing water to flow it will just
keep moving. So, we have to fix it; so some force has to be exerted on this control volume to
hold in place and we are going to determine that.
So, let us read that water flows steadily through the 90 degrees reducing elbow (90 degrees
tells the angle; reducing tells the reduction cross-sectional area) shown in the diagram, or the
inlet to the elbow the absolute pressure is 230 kilopascal. So, which are different pressure not
atmospheric pressure. The cross-sectional area is 0.01 m2 at the inlet and the cross-sectional
area is much smaller is 0.0025 m2 at the outlet and the velocity is 16 m/s, so high velocity
there. The elbow discharges to the atmosphere so, the pressure at the outlet is atmospheric we
are asked to determine the force required to hold the elbow in place.
Now, what is shown here is the control volume along with the control surface and we have
x-direction flow and the y-direction flow here. Now, in this particular example in addition to
atmospheric pressure, we have one different pressure at the inlet and that is what is shown in
the second diagram here (middle diagram in the above slide). The pressure force acting on the
control surface. Everywhere we have atmospheric pressure. At the inlet, we have in addition
to atmospheric pressure some extra pressure. Now, we have seen the last example or we can
intuitively understand that atmospheric pressure does not contribute to any net force. So, we
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can just subtract out the atmospheric and we can work out in terms of gauge pressure. So, in
this diagram total pressure is shown, in the last diagram the gauge pressure is shown.
The advantage of this will be; everywhere the value will be 0 at all these surfaces, only a
reason of inlet or outlet you will have to have a non-zero value, in terms of problem solving
Let us summarize this so,
p1 g = gauge pressure
The pressure p1 and area A1 and pressure p atmospheric everywhere else and it is given that
here also the pressure atmospheric. Suppose, if it is leaving a different pressure then here also
the arrow marks will be different of magnitude. And, remember all the pressures are shown
as compressive. All are to acting on the control surface, with no net force due to atmospheric
pressure. So, we subtract p atmospheric from the entire surface work in gage pressures.
And, then we are interested in this problem on the force of the flange on the control volume,
it can have 2 components. In fact, going to solve for both the components in this example, in
the earlier example where only one of the components, in the case of the plate it was only Rx
in the case of balance it was only Ry. So, a slightly proceeding little involved example.
So, we have both the components in this example so, Rx, Ry are the components of force of
the flange on the control volume. And, like in the previous cases, we are taken positive along
the x-axis and the y axis. So, the Rx and Ry are taken positive along the axis, then based on
the sign we can interpret the physical significance.
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Now, let us find out the x-direction force Rx, which means that we should write the
momentum balance in the x-direction, we consider the straightaway the steady-state
momentum balance with a convective term on the left-hand side and the forces on the
right-hand side.
CS
Now, for the x momentum in flow-through section 1 alone contributes, some replacing CS
control surface with control surface 1,
∫ ρv x v.n dA = ∫ ρv x v.n dA =− ρv 21 A1
CS CS 1
Now, let us look at the other forces there is no body force along the x-axis.
F Bx = 0
Surface force;
F S x = p1 gA1 + Rx
We have written in terms of the gauge pressure based on the discussion in the last slide into
the area of this opening.
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Now, we have this convective momentum in terms of v 1 , but what we are given in the
problem is a velocity v 2 = 16 m/s . So, we do a mass balance, integral mass balance to find
v 1 . So, this example, in fact, involves both integral mass balance and momentum balance.
∫ ρ v.n dA = 0
CS
So, the control surface split into control surface 1 and control surface 2.
∫ ρ v.n dA = ∫ ρ v.n dA + ∫ ρ v.n dA = 0

CS CS 1 CS 2
− ρv 1 A1 + ρv 2 A2 = 0
So, if we simplify we get
ρv 1 A1 = ρv 2 A2
So, now, we can find out the velocity v 1 we were given the area of the outlet and inlet and
this gives us
A
v 1 = v 2 A2 = 16 0.0025
0.01
= 4 ms
1
Obviously, the areas reducing at the living at 16 m/s at the inlet and it is 4 m/s, we would
have straightaway written this expression, but just to emphasize that that comes from an
integral mass balance, we proceed a systematically and arrive at this expression.
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So, now we already with all the expressions, let us substitute in the x-direction momentum
balance. So,
CS
We found out that
∫ ρv x v.n dA =− ρv 21 A1
CS
F Bx = 0
And,
F S x = p1 gA1 + Rx
So,
− ρv 21 A1 = p1 gA1 + Rx
So, let us rewrite for the reaction force, the x component of reaction force,
Rx = p1 gA1 + ρv 21 A1
So, we substitute and get
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Rx =− (230 − 101) x 103 x 0.01 − 1000 x 42 x 0.01 =− 1290 − 160 =− 1450 N
So, the first observation is that the reaction force has two components, one due to the pressure
and one due to the momentum of the incoming fluid, and you have the elbow, and fluid is
entering, and then pressure. So, your force has to be in the opposite direction, not our force
meaning the force exerted by the flange. So, the flange has to exert a force along the negative
x-direction that is why we get a negative sign here minus 1450.
So, the force due to pressure and momentum are all towards the positive axis. So, the reaction
force to hold the elbow should be along the negative x-axis. So, the force exerted by the
flange because your flange is here on the control volume is along the negative x-axis,
otherwise, it will just keep moving towards the right.
So, now coming to the y-direction force, we write the integral balance of linear momentum
along the y-direction.
CS
And, we neglect the weight, if you are given the mass of the elbow, the mass of water in the
elbow, then we can include in this particular example it is not given ah sometimes may be
negligible will also; so we neglect that.
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∫ ρv y v.n dA = F S y
CS
So, we have only convective momentum and the surface force on the right-hand side. Now,
the convective momentum flows through the outlet alone which is along the y-direction, that
alone contributes. So, I am replacing CS with CS2 and v y =− v 2 ,
∫ ρv y v.n dA = ∫ ρv y v.n dA =− ρv 22 A2
CS CS 2
Now, the surface force is only because of the y component of reaction force, there is no
component due to pressure.
F S y = Ry
Now, let us substitute in the integral balance and write it for the y component of the reaction
force,
Ry =− ρv 22 A2
Now, let substitute the values
Ry =− 1000 x 162 x 0.0025 = − 640 N
Now, the first observation the y component of reaction is only because of momentum. Now,
how do you interpret this negative force? You have water flowing down and because of that,
there is upward thrust, because water is flowing down it exerts the upward thrust on the
control volume or the elbow, which means that you should apply a force from the top so, that
you hold the elbow now so, supply a force opposite the thrust.
So, that something like the launching of a rocket, because of the gases, of course, high
velocity and so on there is the thrust on the rocket in the upward direction. And, similarly
here because of water flowing outside the tap was this elbow there is an upward force on the
tap. So, the y component of the force exerted by the flange should be pointing downwards.
Otherwise, we have some movement in the upward direction, that is the interpretation for this
negative sign. So, in this example, we have seen that the force finally apply will have some
direction based on this Rx value and Ry value, that both the components. Accordingly, you
will have a direction for the net resultant force.
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Lecture – 33
Integral linear momentum balance: Examples – Part 3
In this example, we are going to look at another form of surface force, namely frictional force
that is the main object of this example. In addition to that, we are going to consider the
example, where they have compressible flow.
Let us read the example. Air flows steadily between two cross-sections in a long straight
portion of 10 centimeters inside diameter pipe as indicated. Simple pipe, no uniform
cross-section no change in direction nothing. We want to focus air only on the frictional
force. So, geometry has been kept very simple, just a straight pipe, and then the diameter is
given to us. The uniformly distributed pressure and temperature; At the inlet, the pressure
distribution is uniform. Temperatures also uniform along the cross-section. So, uniformly
distributed pressure and temperature at section 1, similarly at the outlet also. And section 1
and 2 are given 𝑝1= 700 kilopascals, roughly about 7 times or above atmospheric pressure
and temperature roughly about ambient 300 Kelvin. At the exit, you have roughly about
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atmospheric pressure, 𝑝2 = 125 kilopascals and a lower temperature less than 0 degree
centigrade (250 Kelvin).
Now, the average velocity at section 2 is 300 m/s and we are asked to find out the frictional
force exerted by the pipe wall on the airflow between these 2 sections, as I told you that
subject of this example. And then, we are also asked to assume uniform velocity distributions
at section 1 and 2; in fact, that we have been assuming our all the examples.
Let us say proceed with the control volume. So, the control volume is shown along with the
control surface.
Given data are:
𝑝1= 700 𝑘𝑃𝑎; 𝑇1 = 300 𝐾; 𝑝2 = 125 kPa; 𝑇2 = 250 K; 𝑣2 = 300 m/s; 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 29
Now, let us write the integral total mass balance, to begin with, because we are given the exit
velocity. We need to find out the inlet velocity, something similar to what I have done in the
previous example.
𝑚˙𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚˙𝑜𝑢𝑡
There is only 1 inlet 1 outlet and we have seen that this expression of no use. It has to be
expressed in terms of density velocity and area.
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ρ𝑣1𝐴1 = ρ𝑣2𝐴2
I think previously I have discussed the utility of these 2 expressions. One in terms of mass
flow rate straightaway; the other in terms of density velocity and area. This is a nice example,
where the real utility of the second expressions becomes very obedient. Though both tell us
the conservation of mass, the second expression is more useful because the beauty of this
example is that these are all measurable variables. We have a pressure sensor to measure
pressure, let say thermocouple to measure temperature or thermometer. So, these are all
measured values. Similarly, measure velocity, and the variables are given straight away in
terms of what you would practically measure.
So, now let us evaluate the density, we assume air to behave as an ideal gas
𝑝1𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑘𝑔
ρ1 = 𝑅𝑇1
= 8. 14 3
𝑚
We substituted the pressure and the temperature at the inlet, the molecular weight of air and
got a density.
𝑝2𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑘𝑔
ρ2 = 𝑅𝑇2
= 1. 74 3
𝑚
Similarly, we evaluate the density of air at the exit, use the pressure at the exit remember we
should use absolute pressure, those pressures are given not the gauge pressure. The
temperature and the density slightly above that of atmospheric air.
Now, we use the integral mass balance and evaluate the inlet velocity
ρ2𝑣2 𝑚
𝑣1 = ρ1
= 64. 1 𝑠
So, there is a huge acceleration happening over the section accelerating from 64 m/s to 300
m/s. You will see why I mentioned that shortly know.
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So, now we can proceed further, whatever values be calculated or brought in here, now
whatever is required for the calculation of the frictional force.
𝑝1= 700 𝑃𝑎 ; 𝑝2 = 125 kPa; 𝑣2 = 300 m/s; 𝑣1 = 64. 1 m/s; ρ1 = 8. 14 kg/m3 ; ρ2 = 1. 74
kg/m3 ; 𝐷 = 0. 1m
So, let us write the integral momentum balance along the x-direction with the convicted term
on the left-hand side body in surface force on the right-hand side.
∫ ρ𝑣𝑥 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝑆
𝐶𝑆 𝑥 𝑥
Now, along the x-direction, there is a contribution to the convective momentum both at the
inlet and at the outlet. So, CS has been split into CS1 and CS2; control surface 1 and control
surface 2
∫ ρ𝑣𝑥 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ ρ𝑣𝑥 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 + ∫ ρ𝑣𝑥 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴

𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑆1 𝐶𝑆2
2 2
∫ ρ𝑣𝑥 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = − ρ𝑣1𝐴1 + ρ𝑣 2𝐴2
𝐶𝑆
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Now, there is no body force along the x-direction. Coming to surface force, so far we have
been taking the reaction force as positive along the x-axis or y-axis. In this case, we are asked
to find out what is the force exerted by the pipe wall on the fluid. Intuitively, we can feel that
fluid is flowing along the positive x-axis. So, the frictional force exerted by the pipe wall on
the fluid flow will be towards the negative x-axis.
So, to begin with, we have taken along the negative x-axis, nothing wrong in taking along the
positive x-axis and concluding it as an opposite direction as we have done. But just to get
practice to do another way also I have done this; another reason is the book from which I am
taken Munson et al follow this. So, that will be easy for you to follow the book ok, that is
why I have taken Rx along negative x-axes.
Now, also you should know that the pipe wall shown has contact between the fluid and the
surrounding pipe so that this reaction force in this case frictional force represents the friction
between the fluid surface and the control volume. So, Rx is the frictional force exerted by the
pipe wall on the airflow and intuitively assumed along the negative x-axis.
𝐹𝑆 = 𝑝1𝐴1 − 𝑝2𝐴2 − 𝑅𝑥
𝑥
Now, the surface force we have a contribution from pressure also because the pressure at inlet
and outlet are different.
So, now let us substitute in the integral balance, the convective momentum terms on the
left-hand side and the surface forces on the right-hand side.
∫ ρ𝑣𝑥 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝑆
𝐶𝑆 𝑥 𝑥
2 2
− ρ𝑣1𝐴1 + ρ𝑣 2𝐴2 = 𝑝1𝐴1 − 𝑝2𝐴2 − 𝑅𝑥
Rearrange for the frictional force Rx
(
𝑅𝑥 = ρ𝑣1 + ρ𝑣
2 2
2)𝐴 + (𝑝 1
− 𝑝2)𝐴
Now, this frictional force has two components; one because of the convective momentum and
one because of the pressure change. So, we can work in terms of either the total pressure or
the gauge pressure, the atmospheric pressure cancels out.
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So, if we substitute all the values, we get the frictional force as
𝑅𝑥 =− 967 + 4516 = 3549 𝑁
Now, let us interpret this and also compare compressible flow versus incompressible flow.
So, let us rewrite what arrived in the previous slide.
( 2
𝑅𝑥 = ρ𝑣1 + ρ𝑣
2
2 )𝐴 + (𝑝1
− 𝑝2)𝐴
𝑅𝑥 =− 967 + 4516 = 3549 𝑁
Rx has two components; one because of convective momentum and one because of the
change in pressure. Now, how do you interpret this?
Now, here we had compressible flow. Now, let us interpret it differently. The pressure
difference is roughly about 4500 which has to be supplied by a compressor or any driving
equipment. This pressure difference is balance by two components, one is the frictional force
which is the major component here which is about 3500, and then, another component is the
increase in fluid momentum that is why we are emphasizing that there is huge acceleration in
this example; accelerating from about 60 to 300 m/s. So, the pressure drop, which we have to
supply the pressure difference we have to supply has to overcome this frictional force and
also the increase in fluid momentum. That is about 3500; that is about 1000.
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Now, suppose if this flow were an incompressible flow, for example, just water is flowing
then the density would hardly change, velocity would hardly change in which case what will
happen the pressure drops we have to supply will have to overcome only the frictional force
alone. And no change in fluid momentum or no acceleration because the density all almost
remains the same.
So, this is a good example. We have not worked out numerically this case, but qualitatively
also. We are discussing how the pressure drop that we supply gets split into its components
based on whether the flow is compressible or incompressible.
So, what we are concluding here is the apportionment of the pressure difference depends on
whether the flow is compressible or incompressible. If it is compressible, two components
contribute to the frictional force and the acceleration of the fluid. If it is incompressible, only
the frictional force has to be overcome.
One more conclusion is that remember that we are measuring the pressure so by measuring
the pressure drop, we are able to calculate the frictional force using the integral linear
momentum balance. Our measurement is on the pressure on pressure drop, we use a balanced
equation and we estimated the frictional force.
So, let us summarize this part on integral linear momentum balance,
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● we first derive the integral linear momentum balance equation, the starting point was
the Law of physics. This is Newton’s second law of motion and then, we apply
Reynolds’s transport theorem to arrive at the integral linear momentum balance and
then, on the right-hand side, we have on the forces acting on the contents of the
control volume. We classified and discussed the two types of forces namely body and
surface forces. Looked at their characteristics also examples. For example,
gravitational force or the body force, pressure, surface force.
● And we looked at the application of the integral linear momentum balance equation.
The applications were on the plate, the weighing balance elbow and pipe different
geometries, different conditions. Now, in all the examples we were interested in
calculating the force that is the prime country of interest, but different kinds of forces
namely reaction force in all three cases and frictional force is the last case.
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Lecture – 34
Differential linear momentum balance:
Introduction
We are discussing the linear momentum balance part in fluid mechanics. In that, we have
derived the integral form of the momentum balance starting from the Reynolds transport
theorem and you also looked at applications of the integral linear momentum balance. Now,
we are moving towards the derivation of the differential form of linear momentum balance,
and that you are going to in a series of lectures our different. Now, this is a major part of the
course I would say and in this part only we study solid and fluid mechanics parallelly.
Also, we are going to go back and forth between fluid and solid mechanics and, hence
understand the commonalities between them and that is why we have the term Continuum
Mechanics in the title of the course. So, this exactly the part of the course with justifies why
we have continuum mechanics in the title of the course and after several lectures, we would
have derived the differential form of the momentum balance which is called the
Navier-Stokes equation based on the researches would derive it.
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So, this is the outline for the differential linear momentum balance equation, as I told you it is
over several parts. So, outline for a very small part of it, the first part of it
● First, we will look at the examples for mostly if I am from the chemical engineering
field where these linear momentum balance equations are used, the differential form
is used and usually, we solve the differential linear momentum balance equation along
with the differential form of total mass balance equation. Obviously, the mass balance
has to be valid. So, we first look at chemical engineering applications of differential
total mass balance and differential linear momentum balance equation that gives us a
kind of motivation why we are deriving and why this equation is so important and,
● Then we will derive only a part of the equation here being involved we will derive
only the left-hand side of the differential momentum balance equation which we
would see which almost be same as our mass balance equation. So, this is the outline
for a very small part of this portion on the differential linear momentum balance
equation.
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So, let us starts with some chemical engineering applications. Now, I split this into four
categories or four types of applications that can be many more, this I will give a just
overview.
● The first and foremost application of the differential momentum balance is the
prediction of pressure drop. If you have a flow-through any pipe or packed bed that is
the first example which we are going to take, then this pressure drop determines the
rating of my pump. You would remember in a household pump water from a sump to
over a tank you desired on the rating of the pump you would use a half HP or 1 HP
pump. So, pressure drop determines the selection of pump rating. We look at two
examples in that; one flows through a pipe or packed bed, the second example flows
through a microchannel heat sink. In microelectronic devices, heat is generated and it
will remove that. So, microchannels are used to remove that generated heat and that is
why it is called microchannel heat sink. And, we see the application from a pressure
drop prediction of point of view in these two cases.
● The second type of application is for particle separation. What is the advantage? You
can design efficiently the separation equipment. Here again, we look at two examples
separation of particles in a sedimentation tank which is a unit operation usually fine
found in wastewater treatment, water treatment etcetera and, the second application
that we see is the separation of cells in a microfluidic device. We see how to separate
pathogenic bacteria from cells from red blood cells.
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● The third type of application is for predicting mixing efficiency. Why do we do that?
So that we can find out ways of how to enhance the mixing all, we also always like to
have maximum efficiency in mixing. We look at two examples in that mixing in a
tank where we like to mix let us say two miscible liquids, immiscible liquids etcetera,
and, then mixing in a microfluidic junction we have the small microfluidic device and
then a junction there is mixing how do you predict that.
● The fourth type of examples are the prediction of flow pattern in reactors because
these flow patterns influence the rate of reaction. So, we look at two examples that
flow through a bubble column reactor; a bubble column reactor is just a column full
of liquid where you spurge the gas or air, second is a small reactor namely a
microreactor flow-through microreactor.
Selecting these examples if we look at the examples the first example in all category are all
large scale equipment. The second example in each category are all small scale equipment.
So, the reason for selecting this combination is that research in chemical engineering has
moved in terms of scale. Earlier we are working in terms of equipment which are the size of
meters and centimeters, and now we are moved to equipment or devices which are
millimeter, micrometer, and nanometer sizes to reflect this changing trend or I would say
change the trend these examples are chosen.
One set of examples to reflect the established and conventional equipment of large scale,
another set of examples which are a small scale which reflects the relatively modern trend.
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So, let us take the first example first category of example namely prediction of pressure drop
and that is the foremost application of solving the momentum balance and mass balance
equation is differential form. So, first would be to consider a case of flow through a pipe;
throughout the chemical engineering plant you have a lot of pipes connecting the equipment,
fluid flows through that and we need some power to make the fluid flow through that. You
need to decide the capacity of the compressor or pump and for that to predict the pressure
drop through the pipe we solve the differential linear momentum balance equation, along the
mass balance equation get the velocity profile, and then predict the pressure drop.
Now, instead of the pipe, we could have a packed bed. What is the packed bed? You have a
pipe pack with some packing’s could be spheres or some other shapes, it could be
well-structured packing as well and use this packed beds for carrying out absorption,
distillation and you have catalytic packed bed reactors. In fact, packed beds I have considered
as a workhouse of chemical industries because you do not have any moving parts. So, that
way it is simple. So, to predict the pressure drop of fluid flow through the packed bed once
again you use the differential linear momentum balance equation. So, that is more a
traditional application.
So, now let us look at a relatively novel application where we have flowed through a
micro-channel heat sink. An inside of a microelectronic device is shown (right bottom image
in the above slide), our focus on the microprocessor where heat is generated and then we
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wish to dissipate this heat or remove this heat as quickly as possible. What we do is bring this
microprocessor in contact with the micro-channel. Of course, in particular geometry, and one
such geometry is shown in the middle another geometry is shown in the left.
So, we have to send the fluid through these channels it could be air, it could be liquid even
nano-fluids are used because of the air; very good heat transfer characteristics, and bypassing
this fluid through the channels we room the heat generator. Now, the question arises that you
will have to remove the heat. So, if you use this kind of simple geometries, the pressure drop
is less that is our focus here pressure drop is less, but at the same time, the heat removal is
also less.
So, they tried such kind of geometries corrugated wall or different other geometries, now this
enhances the rate of heat transfer, but at the same time enhances pressure drop. So, we like to
design a micro-channel heat sink where the pressure drop is less and we have very good heat
transfer characteristics. So, which means if we want to predict the pressure drop
characteristics, we solve the differential linear momentum balance equation, mass balance
equation along with these geometries, and then find out what is the pressure drop so that we
can design a very efficient micro-channel heat sink that is the idea.
The second category of examples deal with the separation of the particle at two different size
rangers; so, left-hand side shows the traditional sedimentation tank which are used in
wastewater treatment or portable water treatment almost the first stage there. In a
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sedimentation tank, you have inflow with water with solid particles. It enters the
sedimentation tank, the solid particles settle down, and then relatively clear liquid leaves out
of the sedimentation tank.
Now, we want to have a very good separation of the particles from the water and that depends
on the design of the sedimentation tank, that depends on the flow pattern inside the
sedimentation tank, and for predicting the flow pattern we solve the differential linear
momentum balance equation, mass balance equation and what a shown here are streamlines
in such a sedimentation tank. Remember, we discuss streamlines when we discuss flow
visualization we also mention that results of a simulation are expressed in terms of
streamlines.
It is a good example where the equations are solved on the velocity profile or velocity field
and then expressed in terms of streamlines that help us know where there is circulation, no
circulation, and more circulation etcetera. In this particular study, they have studied what is
the influence of adding this baffle and they found out that by adding this baffle better
separation equation this possible. So, in short designing, an efficient sedimentation tank
requires a solution of the governing equations namely the differential balance of momentum
and mass.
Now, let us look at a relatively modern application and novel application as well. In the
right-hand side equipment also need to separate particles, but our particles are not solid
particles like this. Here our particles are bacteria and blood cells etcetera. So, the application
is on separating pathogenic bacteria from blood cells. This of course application in medical
diagnostics is very obvious here.
What we do is what we have shown here is first of all these three diagrams show the top view
of the device ok. No longer we say equipped and they are very small. So, we call as device
we send in a sample of blood, it is diluted blood which as pathogenic bacteria and red blood
cells. And now first the property which is being used is that the bacteria are much smaller;
they are about 1 to 3 microns. The red blood cells are relatively larger their 5 to 12 microns.
Now, the force acting on these particles so called particles depends on their size. When I say
force in the direction perpendicular to the flow. So, that force depends on the particle size. So,
because of the difference in size, there is a separation of the particles. The larger particles
move towards the wall and the smaller particles are in the center, which means that the red
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blood cells move towards the wall, the pathogenic bacteria are relatively in the center of the
channel. So, we achieved separation.
What they have studied in this study is that they have provided an expanding channel after
that so that the separation is further enhanced that is what is shown. This is at the beginning
of the expansion section and the end of the expansion section. So, you enhanced the
separation between the red blood cells and the bacteria, so that if you provide an outlet
section of this geometry it is a trifurcating section where you have 2 – 3 outlets and because
the red blood cells were focusing near the walls they go out through this outlets and then, of
course, a pathogenic bacteria go out through the central outlet. So, in that way we have
achieved separation of the pathogenic bacteria from blood cells.
Now, the fundamental principle is a difference in the force acting on the red blood cells and
the pathogenic bacteria. This force depends on the velocity field in this device and for
predicting this velocity field we solve the differential form of momentum balance and mass
balance. So, that is where we bring in the differential balance equation. So, by this, we can
design very efficient separation devices, be it pathogenic bacteria and blood cells or particle
solid particles from water.
The third category of example is for predicting the efficiency of mixing. Once again a
traditional example and novel example are shown. The traditional example would involve
mixing of two miscible liquids could be immiscible liquids, so that you maintained dispersion
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or it could be mixing of solid particles you maintain a suspension of solid particles and these
are could be a react carrying out reactions; so, those some of the applications.
Now, efficient mixing depends on the geometry of the vessel and the geometry of the
impeller ok. Now, to design efficiently the tank and the impeller design the impeller the
mixing obviously, depends on the flow pattern inside the vessel. So, we solve the differential
balance of momentum and mass, get the velocity field and that is what we have shown here in
terms of a vector plot. So, that you take this velocity field generated by the impeller in
arriving at a good design for the mixing tank. What is good design? You get a uniform
mixture, there are no dead zones etcetera where there is no mixing, and mixing takes place
very quickly as well.
Now, let us look at a relatively modern application. We have a microfluidic device. Now, why
do we use microfluidic devices? They have several advantages. The first and foremost
advantages that their surface area per unit volume is very large, you have a very long length
the area is very small and so, the surface area to volume ratio is very high.
And, you can if you are having a two-phase system, the interfacial areas very large and then
the volume what you use here a very less so, we can try out some hazardous exam reactions
as well without causing many safety issues. And, then this being very small you can carry
take to a place where you want to produce the chemicals, but these microfluidic devices.
Because the channel cross-section is very small suffer from a serious limitation of very less
fluid mixing of fluids.
And, suppose if we are one to enhance the mixing you try out different configurations that is
what is being tried here. What is shown here is an experimental image of the experimental
flow of water and then colored water and this is from the simulation. This figure is from
simulation; the figure is shown is from simulation and the figure at the top is from
experiment. How do you simulate? This mixing of the fluids depends on the flow pattern and
that flow pattern is obtained by solving the differential linear momentum balance and mass
balance equation.
Now, we need to arrive at the most efficient geometry where this mixing takes place very
well. So, one option is to try out different geometry, do experiments and then arrive at the
optimal configuration which is time-consuming; alternatively, we try different geometries and
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simulate solve the momentum balance equation and then of course, along with mass balance
equations to arrive at the mixing patterns .
A few geometries are also shown there. A simple Y junction is shown here and if you look at
the diagram shown here you have hardly any mixing here. The colorless the pure water is
here, the dyed water is here, almost you do not see any mixing at all which means not an
efficient design for mixing of liquids.
Now, the alternate configuration is shown which is called a W junction based on the
geometry. So, you allow the one liquid here, another liquid here. Now, if you look at this
contour map of concentration we can obviously, see a better mixing in this configuration, in
this geometry compare to this 45 degrees Y junction. You have more mixing of this pure
liquid along with the liquid dyed water.
Now, to improve the mixing further another geometry has been tried where you combine both
the W and Y junction, and once again all these cases you simulate the velocity profile, its
influence on mixing now if you look at the contour plot here. Of course, almost uniform
mixing is achieved meaning if you get 0.5 it indicates uniform mixing. So, in this way you
can arrive at the best geometry of the device which will result in very good mixing.
You also should keep in mind that different geometries will result in different pressure drops.
So, for example, this geometry may result in higher pressure drops which also has to be taken
into account. So, eventually, all this requires the solution of the linear momentum balance is
the differential form of it.
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The last category of examples is on predicting the flow patterns in reactors. First, we look at
bubble column reactors, a very traditional reactor. Bubble column reactor corns of a column
of a liquid wherein new bubble, the reactant gas or simply can imagine air to be a bubble. A
fish tank is a quick way to imagine a bubble column. Now, where are they used? This bubble
column is used for several unit processes like chlorination, oxidation and it is used for
hydrogenation of oil with a nickel catalyst, finely dispersed and also use it in fermentation,
used in wastewater treatment extract. So, a lot of applications are there.
Now, the performance of this bubble column reactor in terms for a reaction, in terms of heat
transfer, mass transfer characteristics depends on the flow pattern inside the reactor. Of
course, for predicting the flow pattern we solve the differential linear momentum balance
equation and such a flow pattern is shown in this figure. In case of an interesting flow pattern,
the liquid rises in near the axes of the column and then flows down near the walls of the
column ok; some circulation pattern can be seen near. So, this process and this kind of flow
pattern influence reaction, heat, and mass transfer characteristics. So, if you want to predict
the performance you will have to solve the differential form of linear momentum balance
mass balance equations to take this flow pattern to enhance it influence on reaction heat and
mass transfer ok.
Now, let us look at a microreactor. The example which is considered here is the partial
oxidation of methane. We do not one complete oxidation because all result in CO 2, we want
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carbon monoxide and it is a heterogeneous reaction. What we do is catal code the catalyst on
the walls of the reactor and being a microreactor it has all the advantages mentioned
previously.
Similarly, it also has a disadvantage of lack of mixing and so, need to improve mixing and
also we need to improve the rate of heat transfer and also we need to improve the rate of
transport of the species to the surface of the wall the catalyst is a surface. So, the reaction
happens at the catalyst surface and the species are going in the bulk of the channel. So,
species were asked to get transport to the surface. So, an efficient micro reactor should have
higher mixing, efficient mixing, and also better heat and mass transfer characteristics.
In this study what they considered is a split and a recombination design. The fluid comes
here, it gets split and then recombines here and then this element can be repeated several
times. One element is shown here; another element is shown here 3-dimensional views shown
here. Now, the performance of such a kind of split and recombination reactor depends on the
flow field, once again for which we need to solve the differential linear momentum mass
balance equation.
What is being studied in this work is what is the effect of geometry; what is the effect of this
height h, what is the effect of this w width, the width of the element. And, then what is the
effect of velocity? This is a flow pattern with low velocities, this is the flow pattern at high
velocities, and what is the effect of the length of the connecting channel. So, all these effects
can be simulated can be predictor by solving the differential mass balance total mass balance
equations and the momentum balance equation, of course, the species balance are also solved
here.
Now, based on and then you can arrive at the optimal design in terms of height, width,
velocity etcetera. And, then the authors of shown that if you use the split and recombination
reactor you get higher methane conversion compared to a straight channel microreactor. So,
in this way, the solution of these equations helps us to design optimal microreactors which are
very good mixing characteristics and heat and mass transfer characteristics as well ok.
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So, those are all very sophisticated examples. To solve that you will have to take a very
advanced course either at your post-graduate level or the very final year of your B.Tech
course what is that we are going to do. This being an introductory course, our applications
will be very simple extremely simple. So, let us look at the examples which we are going to
solve after deriving the differential linear momentum balance equation. They are very simple
examples.
● The first example would be how to use this equation to calculate the pressure drop for
flow through a pipe. We take reading from manometer, from that how do you find out
the pressure drop in the pipe.
● You have a tank filled with water and the tank is being accelerated, it moves. What is
the profile of the liquid surface? Will it spill or will it not spill?
● Next example, through a converging nozzle, what is the pressure field in this
converging nozzle under certain assumptions. And,
● Then the geometry in the middle of the slide something known to us we have come
across this. Fluid motion induced by the moment of a plate. So, fluid motion takes
place between the moving plate and the fixed plate. And, in an earlier lecture, we have
seen that the velocity varies linearly from 0 to the velocity of the plate. We assumed it
or I said let us take that the velocity varies linearly. So we will solve really the
differential linear momentum balance equation and show that the velocity profile is
indeed linear without assuming it.
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● Of course, the last geometry is very familiar to us flow between two parallel plates we
come across several times and we also looked at this parabolic profile several times,
but we have taken assets we have assumed it. Now, at the end of this derivation of
differential linear momentum balance equation we will really solve that for this
particular example and then arrive at a parabolic velocity profile and show that the
profile is in the parabolic.
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Lecture – 35
Differential linear momentum balance: Transient, convection and body force terms
We are in the first part of Differential linear momentum balance equation, we have discussed
few chemical engineering applications of differential total mass and linear momentum
balance equations. Now, we will derive the left hand side of the differential linear momentum
balance equation, we will understand why we do only the left hand side as we go along.
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So, as we have derived the differential mass balance for the differential momentum balance,
we started with the integral balance equation. So, we start with the integral linear momentum
balance equation and because of vectorial equation we write only the component of that x
component of the integral linear momentum balance equation. So, we will also drive
throughout only the x component of differential momentum balance equation.
Now, we will consider a small control volume as shown (in above slide) and this small
control volume is inside a pipe of rectangular cross section, as explained earlier we take
rectangular cross section so, that we can work in Cartesian coordinate system.
d
dt ∫
CV
ρv x dV + ∫
CS
ρv x v.n dA = ( )
∑Fx
CV
Now, we consider a fixed control volume. So, we can bring in the time derivative inside the
integral sign
∫
CV
∂
∂t
ρv x dV + ∫
CS
ρv x v.n dA = ( )
∑Fx
CV
And, when we bring inside ρv x can be function of both space and time. So, becomes a partial
derivative when you integrate all the special variations which are taken into account. So, only
time variation remind. In this case because it is inside the integral ρ and v x can be functions
of time hence a partial derivative of course, these terms are remaining same. So, this tells
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about the rate of change of x momentum with in the control volume, net rate at which x
momentum leaves through the control surface and some of forces acting on the control
volume.
Now, the control volume is shown here and the coordinate axes are same x, y and z and its
cuboidal control volume of length ∆x , and then ∆y and then ∆z .
Now, let us simplify the different terms in the integral balance equation; when I say simplify,
we are going to apply this integral balance equation for this small control volume. And, the
way you should imagine is that this control volume is in inside our equipment; a small region
inside our equipment and then as certain for mass balance will shrink to a point. Now, let us
take the rate of change of x momentum term, we will take an average density and x velocity
in this region, in this small control volume and because it is average it is just a constant.
∂(ρv x )
∫ ∂
∂t
ρv x dV = ∂t
∆x∆y∆z
CV
Right know these represent average values when we take limit and make it as a point, they
become point values that you already seen under mass balance. So, it is very important to
understand the derivation for the differential mass balance. So, that they can easily extend to
differential momentum balance later on any in fact, any balance as well. Now, this term
represents the rate of accumulation momentum in the control volume.
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∫ ρv x v.n dA
CS
Now, let us move on to the net rate at which x momentum leaves the control surface which is
the convective momentum. So, this represents net rate of flow of x momentum out, (out is
important because n is outward normal) through the control surface by convection.
Now, there are six faces to the for this control volume cuboidal control volume. If you
express this convective momentum for the six faces this is how we represent as we are saying
here (in the above slide).
Now, what are the six faces? The left hand side face and the right hand side face and then we
have the bottom face and the top face and then we have the rear face and the front face. Now
you have in flow through the left face, you have inflow through the bottom face, you have in
flow through the rear face and then other three faces there is outflow which is the right face,
the top face and the front face. Now,
3 outf low f aces 3 inf low f aces

∫ ρv x v.n dA = ∑ ρi v i Ai v x − ∑ ρi v i Ai v x
CS i=1 i=1
In writing, we are made two assumptions, it is not an assumption, it is a valid for this case.
The first assumption is that the velocity is perpendicular to the face that is why this v .n has
been just written as vi and then we have also taken the ρv x v.n to be constant so, I have left
with integral dA that is why I have Ai here.
So, we have two velocities one is vi and then vx. This vi depends on the face for which we are
writing and that vi could be vx; if you are considering the faces along x direction, it could be
vy if you are considering faces along y direction and vz face along z direction. So, ρi v i Ai
account for the mass flow in a particular direction entering and leaving in this case of course,
leaving and this vx accounts for the direction of momentum.
Hence, this vx is the velocity in the x direction until ρi v i Ai we have mass flow in a particular
direction, but moment you multiply with vx you get x momentum flow or x momentum in a
particular direction. So, we have similarly we write for inflow faces and we take care of the
negative sign. So, now let us consider the faces pair wise.
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Now, considering the faces along the x direction I am going to consider the left hand side
face and the right hand side face.
Rate of flow of x momentum entering at x is = (ρv x v x ) |x ∆y∆z
Let us understand this, many terms are familiar here based on mass balance. What are the
terms that are familiar? (ρv x ) |x ∆y∆z is very familiar to us. What is the meaning of that? As
we have seen earlier two ways of interpreting; this is the velocity multiply by area gives
volumetric flow rate, multiply by density gives the mass flow rate.
Other way of interpreting vx is the volumetric flux multiply by density gives mass flux,
multiply area gives you mass flow rate. So, that is the significance of that term. We are
interested in the x momentum so, multiply with vx.
Now, the density and velocity can change special location, that is why and we are evaluating
the rate of flow of x momentum entering at this face and this face is at x and that is why we
evaluated x. If we understand this clearly all other terms become very simple. Now, let us
write it for the x momentum living at x + ∆ x same expression, but evaluated at x + ∆ x.
Rate of flow of x momentum leaving at x + ∆ x is = (ρv x v x ) |x+∆x ∆y∆z
So, the inflow rate of x momentum entering shown and the rate of x momentum leaving is
shown here.
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But in this case I like to repeat for y and z directions to understand that better.
Rate of flow of x momentum entering at y is = (ρv y v x ) |y ∆x∆z
Remember once again it is rate of flow of x momentum, but now because of mass flow
entering and leaving along y direction, So, please pay attention that always the second
velocity represents the velocity component along the direction in which we are writing the
momentum balance.
Now, let us write the rate of flow of x momentum living at y + ∆ y
Rate of flow of x momentum leaving at y + ∆y is = (ρv y v x ) |y+∆y ∆x∆z
Now, let us do that for the z direction as well.
Rate of flow of x momentum entering at z is = (ρv z v x ) |z ∆x∆y
Similarly, rate of flow of x momentum leaving at z + ∆z = (ρv z v x ) |z+∆z ∆x∆y
So, now if you look at this, let us focus on the flows shown in this diagram. If you look at the
second velocity component is always vx. So, if we look at the diagram itself we should be
able to tell that, we are writing the linear momentum balance along the x direction. Look at
the first component vx we have ρv x of course, if it along take with ∆y∆z that tells about
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mass flow and the x direction entering and leaving similarly mass flow on the y direction
entering and leaving, mass flow on the z direction entering and leaving. So, the way in which
you write should go along the physical interpretation.
Now, if you look at this it has a close analogy with what you have written for differential
mass balance. Now if you look almost same only difference is the presence of vx in all the
terms ok. This is a left hand side is the control volume shown with all the inflow and outflow
mass flows, right hand side is a diagram with all the inflow and outflow x momentum what is
the difference? For example, one have ρv x , and another have ρv x v x .
So, that shows that if you multiply with the vx you get the x component of velocity. Suppose
if your writing y component etcetera you will multiply by vy all the terms. So, for this
momentum term is not something new to you, mass into velocity something very well known
to you, but only difference is you would have so, for written in a physics class etcetera for a
solid object. So, mass was known mass of the solid object into v vector. So, there was no
discussion about the mass at all, mass is given and v could be any direction could be along x
direction, y direction, and z direction.
But now this mass represents mass of a fluid and hence that mass flow can happen in x
direction y direction z direction that is why we are giving importance to mass also the
direction and the component of velocity. This was just written as of course, multiply by area
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etcetera area all these put together as it must just m and here we had v vector that v vector we
have taken in one component as vx.
So, you would written as m v x now further discussion would have been required for just for
just a solid object. Because it is a fluid flow which can take place in three directions we also
discuss the direction of the mass flow as well.
Now, let us put them all together in the integral linear minimum balance equation both for the
rate time rate of change term and the net convection term.
CV
∫ ∂
∂t
ρv x dV + ∫
CS
ρv x v.n dA = ( ) ∑Fx
CV
∂(ρv x )
∂t
∆x∆y∆z + (ρv x v x ) |x+∆x ∆y∆z − (ρv x v x ) |x ∆y∆z + (ρv y v x ) |y+∆y ∆x∆z − (ρv y v x ) |y ∆x∆z + (ρv z v x ) |z+∆z ∆x∆y
The mass flow associate with different directions carries with them the x momentum. So, first
two represent mass flow leaving and entering along x direction, next two for y direction and
next two terms for z direction and right hand side we have some of forces acting on the
control volume ok. Now, as we have done for the differential mass balance will divide by
∆x∆y∆z the left hand side alone.
∂(ρv x ) (ρv x v x )|x+∆x −(ρv x v x )|x (ρv y v x )|y+∆y −(ρv y v x )|y (ρv z v x )|z+∆z −(ρv z v x )|z
∂t
+ ∆x
+ ∆y
+ ∆z
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So, now significance in the earlier x terms where they were representing for example, if you
take these two terms, they represent net rate of flow of momentum leaving along x direction.
Now this term represents same significance per unit volume per unit volume ok. So, if you
significance of that is that these two terms put together is that net rate of flow of x momentum
leaving through the control surface per unit volume.
Now, we will shrink the control volume, we have discuss this when we derived the
differential form of mass balance, we will shrink the control volume to a point objective is
that we need a equation which as evaluated every point on the flow domain so, that when you
solve see remember we are going to solve this and finally, get the velocity profile, I need
velocity profile on the entire section and every region. So, I need equations valid at every
point in the domain and hence shrink the control volume to a point, also we said that the
geometry should be maintained same should remain as a cuboid.
So, length along every direction also goes to 0 and what happens? Now all these where
average values within the region they become point values; and the average values and the
face they also become point values and hence you get a differential equation there now all the
variables present point values. And of course, the derivative as limit ∆x→0 , ∆y→0 ,
∆z→0 becomes a partial derivatives
∂(ρv x ) ∂(ρv x v x ) ∂(ρv y v x ) ∂(ρv z v x )

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
As I have told you earlier you can understand the term in one direction and analogously
extend into other directions, but with a caution to take care of the correct velocity component
when we extend other direction make sure for example, if we understand the first two terms it
has ρv x v x . When extend other direction if we understand which velocity is to be replaced
with vy. It is this velocity the left hand side velocity which is to be replaced with vy. May be
wondering y so, particular about this direction it has a implication letter on as well after we
discuss surface forces will understand that right know will stick on to that also becomes easy
look at the differential equation left hand side, all the second velocity components are vx tells
you that it is a momentum balance along the x direction.
Now, let us compared with the continuity equation or the differential mass balance and see
what are the difference as we expect based on the derivation etcetera. Based on the derivation
all these terms are multiply by vx of course, not outside that can also vary. So, you multiply
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here with a vx. So in fact, if you vary from clear with about the differential mass balance, you
can write the x component of linear momentum balance very easily. Just multiplying
everywhere with vx and
we have force including the accumulation term as well.
Now, we also look at predominantly we looked at the left hand side we also look at the right
hand side forces; we had two forces body force and surface force, we are going to look at the
body force we are going to look at the body force only now we will see the reason shortly.
( ) ( ) ( )
∑Fx
CV
= ∑Fx
body
+ ∑Fx
surf ace
The control volume has two components spilt in the body and surface forces. Now the body
force is gravitational force as I told you that is the only body force which we are going to
consider.
Now, so, for in the earlier examples, we had a well defined control volume and so, gravity
was always acting along one access it could be z axis, y axis etcetera. But I can have a
geometry aligned any particular angle for example, one example shown here (in referred
slide) what is a control volume aligned along general coordinate axes shown here need not be
aligned along our usually x, y, z axis.
Now, what is application? For example, we have inclined plate which is shown here and then
let us say water flows along that. In this case will be convenient for me to take a coordinate
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axis which is aligned along the flow direction I will take x, y, z which mean that this is not
your gravity always acts along the vertically downwards. But now we are coordinate axis is
not aligned along a usual you are usually x and y z axis which means that you can have
components of gravity along your chosen x, y, z axis.
You know gravity acts vertically downwards if we are coordinate axis also as one axis along
that vertical direction, that will be only one component of gravity let us say gy and gz. But
suppose we are coordinate axis is not is own general, which is not aligned for the vertical axis
not aligned along the gravity then you can have components of gravity along your chosen x,
y, z axis which are not your regular x, y, z axis. That is why in general we represent g as
g = gx i + gy j + gz k
So, remember the body force is a volumetric force or expresses per unit mass or unit volume,
g is the gravitational force per unit mass.
● ρg∆ x ∆ y ∆ z
So, we multiply by the mass of this control volume what is that mass? It is density into the
volume of control volume that there is a mass was there, at this point it is an average value ρ
is average of course, g just a constant. As we are done for the left hand side we also divide by
the volume ∆ x, ∆ y, ∆ z. Shrink the control volume to a point and now what you get is
● ρ g
What is the difference between this term and this term? Earlier this is the average of rho in
this control volume when you divide and shrink to a point. So now, this represents this
represents the body force because of the gravitational field gravitational force per unit
volume ones again remember this is gravitational force per unit volume. First expression is
gravitational force or body force here when you have divided represents the body force or
gravitational force per unit volume. Of course, once we pool all the terms we look at the
significance of the each term there, but as we go along also should be familiar that all the
terms are per unit volume bases.
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Surface forces are all the more involved and hence we pay special emphasize that, to
understand the surface forces acting on the faces of control volume we take a diversion to
solid mechanics. Why we should take a diversion? First of all you are in highway travelling
at least a 100 kilometer per hour and you look at diversion board, you get highly irritated that
you take a diversion, but if on the diversion let us we are going to meet fluid mechanics and if
on the diversion meet solid mechanics and the solid mechanics tells that I know fluid
mechanics very well, good friend of mine, we share lot of commonalities, then we are happy
exactly same situation now.
Meaning of you may be wondering why take a diversion solid mechanics may be prospect
also. But based on feedback from students, that question has been there but, as we go back
and forth solid and fluid mechanics, there very much satisfied about the progress of take a
diversion. And other reason for going to solid mechanics is that easier to understand about
surface forces when you discuss through solid mechanics.
And of course, other advantages that we can see the parallel between solid mechanics and
fluid mechanics, we say that is one of the object of the course as well that we discuss the
commonalities between solid and fluid mechanics of course, justifying the term continuum
mechanics. So, one is look at the generalities between them, second is easier to understand
the surface forces when we discuss through solid mechanics.
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Very colourful slide after several lectures as I told you we will derive the differential form of
the linear momentum balance, name as the Navier-Stokes equation, the author who, derived
that Navier and Stokes. And, this slide shows that various steps involved in the derivation
which I fondly call as the journey to the Navier-Stokes equation.
We are somewhere in the beginning, I will not discuss the entire slide now; you may not
understand that, let me go to a point where we are now. Some of the steps should be familiar
to you. We started the Newton’s second law of motion for the system, we applied the
Reynolds transport theorem and then derived the integral form of linear momentum balance;
LMB it as well Linear Momentum Balance.
Now, we use the integral minimum balance for a small control value that is what we have
discussed in the last few slides and then derived the differential form of linear momentum
balance, not the complete form. What we are derived is the left hand side which was almost
similar to our mass balance that is way we could derive that, and then we consider only the
body force on the right hand side which is the gravity on the right hand side that is where we
stand. Just to understand the surface forces we take a diversion, this 1 represents the first time
we visit a solid and come back to fluid mechanics.
So, first time we take a diversion to solid mechanics, you will understand what are the boxes
here, what do they represent later. So, just to show that we take a diversion to solid
mechanics to understand about surface forces and then rest I will explain later. This 2 and 3
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represents second time third time when we go and come back to solid and fluid mechanics in
schedule between solid and fluid mechanics ok.
That is a summary of what we have done so far under differential linear momentum balance.
We started with the integral momentum balance, applied for a small control volume, derived
the differential form of linear momentum balance equation. We have derived the left hand
side which has the rate of change of transfer to time term and then the convective momentum
term. And, we have on the right hand side we have only at the body force, we have to look at
the surface force on the right hand side to understand that we have take a diversion to solid
mechanics, that is where we stand.
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Lecture - 36
Stress vector - Part 1
We will get started. We are into linear momentum balance, we are into the differential form
of linear momentum balance. We derived the left hand side, the right hand side looked at the
gravity the body force and for understanding the surface forces in the right hand side we are
taken a divers into solid mechanics. That is main reason is to understand better and we will
realise as we go along and also to look at the analogy between solid fluid mechanics. So now,
we are the first time using this arrow mark, we are taking a diversion going to solid
mechanics. In that we are going to discuss about Stress that is way that is highlighted.
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So, in terms of our journey to the Navier Stokes, we started with the Newton’s Second Law
of Motion, after the Reynolds Transport Theorem and derived the integral form, applied that
integral linear momentum balance to a small control volume. Derive the differential form of
linear momentum balance not entirety, but the left hand side and also the gravity on the right
hand side.
Now we are surface forces to be included and that is why we are entering this domain, this
dashed box named as 1, in that we are going look at the particular section. Just want to tell
you that orange represent solid that is the legend used here and blue represents fluid.
So now, if you look at each section 1, 2 and 3 each has both solid and fluid. That is why we
say we are going to study both parallelly. So now, we are going to look at the orange colour
box which tells about a stress vector and in terms of stress tensor; what is that we will
understand as we go along.
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So, solid mechanics the first visit, and the first highlighted one shows the title of the first visit
internal forces and stress and whatever is not highlighted are the topics for the subsequent
visits. So, we are going to discuss about internal forces and stress.
And now this is an outline for internal forces and stress. So, I think should have very clear
idea where we are in, we are somewhere deep inside we are deriving linear momentum
balance, in that differential form, in that the right hand side the surfaces force and to
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understand that we are come to solid mechanics. In that there are three sections and this
outline for first section; internal forces and stress that is the title.
We are going to discuss about stress as a vector, stress as a tensor, and what is the
relationship between the stress vector and stress tensor, and properties of stress tensor. As we
go along we will understand the these terminologies.
Now, we start distinguishing between rigid versus deformable bodies. Mechanics of rigid
bodies if you have taken a first year course engineering mechanics; you would have studied
mechanics of rigid bodies under static condition and dynamic condition. Usually the title of
the book or the course is engineering mechanics.
Now, as a name suggests rigid body the assumption in this course throughout the course in
fact throughout the course is that, the body which are considering is rigid. What does it mean;
we will take an example like this an object and then how much ever force you apply; of
course, you can divide by area expressed as normalised force. How much ever force you
apply there is no change in shape there is no change in volume, no change in size as well. So,
this means an assumption.
How do you more formally say: if you mark two points in the object there is no change in the
distance between the two particles. Now I should emphasize that when I say particles these
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are solid particles; we have come across several times fluid particles now moved to solid
mechanics. So, these are solid particles.
So, the entire course is based an assumption that the body is rigid which means that if you
apply whatever amount of force absolutely there is no change in shape or size or volume
whatever happen.
Now, of course in reality that is not going to happen ah, so that is why it is an assumption ok.
Now, what is that we should discuss? We should discuss mechanics of deformable bodies ok
and what are the titles of the books which deal with the mechanics of deformable bodies
either they are called as mechanics of materials or strength of materials. Accordingly the
course were also been named as mechanics of material and strength of materials.
Now, why should we discuss deformable bodies? Now remember we have come to solid
mechanics not really understand solid mechanics as a whole subject, the whole ideas to
understand fluid mechanics and take some part of solid mechanics to understand fluid
mechanics. So, if you are restricting our self to rigid body mechanics that is not going to help
us, because fluids are deformable. And that is why we discuss solid mechanics deformable
solid mechanics and of course that is the reality. what does it What does it mean?
If you apply a very large force there is some small change in dimension, some change in let
say shape or volume and, but of course that is not visible to your naked eye. You will see
later on that those changes are order of 10−6 even if you have apply mega Pascal of let us say
force per area, the change in dimension would hardly be something like 106 meter. So, you
not you may not be able to visually see but they do undergo a change in shape, change in size
or volume etcetera.
So, that is a reality and that is why we discuss mechanics of deformable bodies ah. So now, in
terms of a more formal definition if you take mark two points, the distance between them
changes. Of course, we will discuss more about this in detail; what do you mean by distance
between these two particle changes etcetera, but right now as a very good introduction.
If you mark two points subject to this to very large force per unit area then there is change in
the distance between them. If there is no change in distance between them its behaving as a
rigid body ok; but there will be a very small change, it is for us to consider that or not; you
are not consider that when you discuss mechanics of rigid bodies.
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Solids: when I say solids deformable solids and fluids are deformable; that is why we are
discussing ok. Now when I say fluids of course gases and liquids are both included and now
we are going to discuss about internal stresses and deformation.
When you discuss rigid body you need not discuss about internal stresses and deformation
but when we are discussing deformable bodies internal stresses are set up the body undergo
deformation and once again later on we will discuss formally what is deformation right now
let understand in usual way. So, we discuss about internal stress and deformation and this of
course the first part of solid mechanics we discuss internal stresses. That is the scope of what
we are discussing.
Now, if you had introduction to deformable solid mechanics, this kind of diagram should be
kind of familiar and introductive part. What is shown here is a square rod subjected to axial
loads; axial loads are something perpendicular to the cross section.
Now, if you make a cross section as it is shown here and then of course internal force will be
internal forces are setup in response to the external load what you apply and if you take a
cross section internal forces will be perpendicular to the cross section and hence we can
evaluate a normal stress.
P
σ avg = A
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So, let us say you take the resultant of the force is distributed across the cross section you
take a resultant take the magnitude, let say that is P divide the area or its acts you get the
normal stress and these are just average values over the entire section.
What we are interest is more than this we are interested in the variation of stress point by
point and of course respect to angel as well but these are very introductory definition of
introductory way of looking at the normal stress by dividing the magnitude of the resultant
force divide by the area and because the forces are perpendicular to the cross section they are
called normal stress. You have a plane and the force are perpendicular to the cross section
and hence called as normal stress.
P
τ avg = A
Now, let us look at another configuration shown on the right hand side. So, here again you
have a let us say square rod, but now the you are applying transfers forces as shown and once
again if you make a section between the two points over it is the forces are applied the loads
are applied then you will have a section over which there is a once again a distribution of
forces and then you take a resultant and then if you take the average of that force and now
that force acts tangentially on the surface. So, let us take this one and then that force acts
tangential to the surface and hence it is named as shear stress.
So, how do you once again evaluate that? You take the magnitude of the resultant force, if
you denote it as P and then area now area become the tangential area and if you divide you
get the average shear stress. Once again this definition of average shear stress we are
interested in more detailed description of stress in terms of at every location, in terms of with
respect to different angles of the plane etcetera.
These are well defined plans one is let say horizontal, one is vertical, but now we are more
interested in stress on any plane etcetera. So, this is just to give an introduction to what you
would have come across as normal stress and then shear stress; normal stress acts
perpendicular to the plane, shear stress acts tangential to the plane.
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Now, so let us move onto more detailed description of stress. Now we are going to discuss
about an internal forces.
What is shown on the left hand side is a body subjected to external forces. Let us say a body
and subject to let us say some we has look at reaction forces etcetera, let us say it is subject to
external forces and then since we are interested in internal forces we make a section at an
particular angle, at a particular point inside the object we make a plane and now because
there are different angles same point, but different angles of the planes are possible which
mean that you will have to identify that plane. So, as usual we will use the unit normal drawn
outside our region of interest to help identify the plane; or the angle of the plane.
That is what we have done earlier also for control volume we have taken an outward normal
to identify the direction; for example this is the surface then we take this is outward normal.
So, this helps identify the direction of the surface. But now what we have is, we have taken
an object and made a section and that we have a point at that point I pass a plane and that
plane the orientation of the plane is identified using the outward drawn normal vector.
Now, I section the solid and we are now going to discuss the bottom portion of the solid.
Now this is one reason why we are come to solid mechanics. If I say that imagine a fluid or
you can make a section imagine a plane there little more difficult there, but now it becomes
very easier I can even show you that I have a solid I make a section that is one reason we are
come to solid mechanics to understand about internal stresses. In terms of principles
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analogously most of the concept can be carried out of fluid mechanics that we will discuss
later.
Now, we will say the entire object is under equilibrium; the left hand side entire object. If you
want represent in terms of vectorial notation this ∑ F ; F represents all the external forces
acting on the object is equal to vectorial 0,
∑F = 0
So, if we sum all the forces it should be 0 because we are taking the body to under
equilibrium. Now, in the whole body is under equilibrium every point in the object is also
under equilibrium.
So in the right hand side, when you take a make a section and analyse let say the lower part
that is also an equilibrium. But only difference is that, in addition to the external forces you
have a distribution of internal forces why is that this top portion whatever it exerted on the
bottom portion those forces are distributed over the entire area. So, you have to take that
forces which are the internal forces, you also into account in right in the equilibrium
relationship.
Now, we are not going to consider the distribution we are going to just now consider the
represent that as a resultant force which is denoted as F * . Of course, the normal to the plane
is shown here and F * can be at any angle to the normal to the plane. So now, if you want to
express the condition for equilibrium sum of all the external forces plus this resultant force
should be equal to 0.
∑ F ext + F * = 0
This is the equilibrium condition for this lower portion of the object. Difference between the
two expressions are that because we are writing equilibrium relationship for the entire object
you do not have any internal forces or any this case internal forces because we analysing a
part of it we are accounting for the forces exhorted by the upper portion on the lower portion,
and representing it as though it is distributed over the entire area we are representing it as a
one resultant force F * .
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I like to mention that in the analysis what we are discussing even disused, we are not going
discuss about moments. Few of very formally discussing we will have to discuss moments as
well, but in terms of the concepts which we want to take over and understand discussion of
moments is not required. Since that will add to a little more difficulty we are not discussing
about moments but otherwise formula I should write moment balance etcetera, in hence forth
also we will not discuss about moment or moment balance.
Now, in terms of a definition of a stress vector etcetera it is not required. So, let us proceed
we are consider a body; equilibrium for the entire body; made a section with a particular
point of a plane at a particular angle represented by n vector, and consider that also under
equilibrium represented by this relationship.
Now this diagram is same as same as what process shown in the right hand side. Now, if you
are considering the let say we have the body, we consider the lower portion. Now if we are
considering the top portion what happens the lower portion exerts the force on the surface on
the top portion. So now, because at the same point we are on either side of the same surface.
So, based on Newton’s Third Law both should be same that is what we shown here. What we
shown is this the lower portion the same as what is shown in other image and then the top
portion. What we consider is, this resultant force which is effect of the top portion on the
bottom portion.
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Now, the − F * is the resultant force because of the bottom portion on the top portion and
remember they are the same surface one is on this side one is on the other side that is also
clearly indicated here by using the normal this n vector, this is minus n vector so
F * =− F *
If you look at the bottom portion it is F * which is the first because the top portion, look at
the top portion − F * is because of the bottom portion. Just to tell you that on either side the
forces are of equal magnitude opposite direction.
So now, let us proceed further. What we will do now is we got resultant force, we will
resolve that internal resultant force. Now if you want to resolve then you should choose a
coordinate axes you should choose directions. Now we will choose a set of three directions
which are attached to the surface; what do you mean by attached to the surface.
I take one direction which is normal to the plane; I have a plane and take a directions which is
normal to the plane. Let us assume this a internal surface though it is an external this is a
plane I take a directions which is normal to the plane and then I take two directions which are
on the surface and tangential to the plane. Now the question arises why should I take two
directions on the surface? The reason is that let us say you resolve one normal to the plane
and one on the surface that once again can be resolved to two further components. That is
why we take two directions on the surface of the plane and then of course one normal to the
plane.
So, we are chosen three mutually perpendicular directions, because we are going to resolve
the resultant force along these three mutually perpendicular directions. Because they are
normal to the plane and two on the surface of plane that is why I say this coordinate axes is it
goes along with the plane. It is not our usual x, y, z coordinate axes we will came to that
shortly, but now as of now this coordinate system is associated with the surface.
Now, we will resolve our resultant force along these three mutually perpendicular directions.
That is what we shown in the right hand side the force F * we are resolving. So, how should
we look at it, we are very familiar with the velocity vector; we know vx, v, v
y z which means
that velocity has been resolved along x, y, z axis; instead of velocity vector we have F *
vector, instead of x, y, z here we have denoted the coordinate axes n and because there on the
surface it is denoted as S1and S2. So, instead of x, y, z we have n vector, S
1vector, S
2vector.
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So now, we are resolving this F * along n vector which I denote as Fn along S1 which is F S 1
and then similarly along S2 which is F S 2 . The F * vector has been resolved along n direction
S
1 direction S
2 direction and the components are F n , F S 1 , F S 2 , only steps which are done
here.
Two things we are done in this slide: first is introduce a introduce a coordinate system
associated with the plane, one is normal to the plane and two along the surface of the plane, a
normal direction, tangential directions and then the resultant force has been resolve along the
normal direction and the two tangential directions; we have given notations for them as well.
So, now let us proceed further. We said we are interested in the stress etcetera at a point but
now we have taken a plane and then defined our resulted vector over entire plane. So, as we
have done for remember for control volume we took a control volume and then shrink to a
point so that we get the point form of differential balance of mass and the left hand side of
momentum balance etcetera.
Similarly what we will do now here, we take a small area we are not taking a volume very
obvious reason because these are surface process. So, we are interested in a small area and
look at what is happening that area and shrink it to a point so that we can look at the variation
of the surface force or the stress over the entire area. So, we take a small incremental area and
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the direction of that is n vector. So obviously, it can vary from point to point, taking a small
area ∆ A, and then the normal to that area is ∆ n.
So now, because the area is incremental the forces also denoted by incremental ∆F * . What is
that we are taking? We have F * which is an average over the entire area taking a small area,
so the incremental of the resultant force is denoted as ∆F * . Now this is where we are going
to find what is a stress vector, also called as traction vector.
∆F *
tn = ∆A
The physical significance as we have done exactly earlier; writing the balance for a small
volume and then syncing to the volume to the point.
So, remember all the terms in our equation should be point values. Remember we are going
to go back to the fluid mechanics linear momentum balance equations, differential form on
the right hand side the point value of surface force, which means that my definition should be
applicable at a point and should be valued at a point. That is why I make this ∆A→0 , so that
I get stress vector why is a vector because incremental force which is a vector divide by area
gives you a stress vector acting at a point on a plane whose direction is n.
The tn is a stress vector denoted by t vector and then the subscript n tells you that this stress
vector acts on a plane whose normal this n vector. So, when you imagine this you should
imagine a very small plane just like we said you imagine a small control volume, here again
you should imagine a very small area because that can vary from point to point. Imagine a
small area very small area because it tends to 0, and what is the stress vector acting on that
plane we say plane is denoted by the normal and that is small point.
So, the first notation introduce now in terms of stress vector we will use it very frequently as
we go along also called as traction vector. So, you come across both these terminologies. We
will mostly use terminology stress vector. Maybe stress vector we are going to discuss later
on stress tensor.
So, if you just tell stress that does not give the complete information. You should clearly
mention whether a stress vector or stress tensor but we mention just traction it is all
automatically indicated that it is a vector.
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That is a small distinction between using stress vector as a terminology and traction vector as
a terminology. We just leave it as stress it is incomplete; it could vector, it could be tensor but
if you say traction invariably it is a vector; traction vector, but we will use the terminology
stress vector. This right hand side, we will come across in a next slide as well ok. So, I will
discuss then. So, we have defined the stress vector and that is what is shown here.
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Lecture - 37
Stress vector - Part 2
We have defined the Stress Vector as
∆F *
tn = ∆A
Now, what do I do is that, just like we resolved the resultant force along the three directions n
and S1, S2; I will resolve this ∆F * incremental force along the three directions which you
have chosen, that is what we will do now. So, resolve into components, along our chosen
coordinate system n vector, S1, S2 vector. So, normal to the plane and then tangential to the
plane.
So, now, let us do that, because if you talk about force it has all the information; but what is
more useful is if you talk in terms of components ok. If you keep talking about velocity
vector that is fine, but you always talk in terms of velocity components vx, vy, vz, fine.
(∆F n n+∆F S1 S 1 +∆F S2 S 2 )

tn = lim ∆A
∆A→0
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So, the ∆F * has been resolved along the n direction, denoted as ∆F n along S1 ∆F S 1 , and
along S2 ∆F S 2 divided by area; of course, limit ∆A→0 . So, this is a component
representation of this equation given in the first bullet. That is in terms of incremental vector
itself; but now it is in terms of the component. Let us say the F n is the normal component of
∆F n represents the incremental normal force and then this is the incremental tangential force
and then the incremental tangential force along the respective directions.
( )
∆F n ∆F S ∆F S
tn = lim ∆A
n + ∆A
1
S1 + ∆A
2
S2
∆A→0
Now, we will define this incremental normal force divided by area, as area tends to 0 as the
normal stress. Why is it normal stress? Because this is acting normal to the plane.
tn = τ nn n + τ nS 1 S 1 + τ nS 2 S 2
So, this is definition of stress vector, because we have split into components this term that is
incremental normal force or the normal component of the resultant force; we want to be very
specific, divide by area as the area tends to 0 is denoted as τ nn which is normal stress.
Now, similarly the second term, that is the incremental tangential force divided by area;
tangential force along S1 direction in the limit of ∆A→0 , gives you the one of the shear stress
component; why is it shears stress? It is acting parallel to the plane or along the plane,
tangential to the plane. Similarly, along the other direction you have the other component of
shear stress. So, you have normal stress component τ nn and then 2 shear stress components
as I told you, because it is on the plane you cannot have one; even if you have one you will
not resolve along 2, that is why you have 2 shear stress components τ nS 1 and then τ nS 2 .
Now, let us understand the meaning of the subscripts. That first subscript represents the
direction of the plane and then the second subscript represents the direction of the
component. This has to be kept in mind, this is going to play major role as we go along. Just
to repeat, the first subscript n represents the direction of the plane, second the direction of the
component. Now, all these whatever you have discussed we shown diagrammatically as a
figure in the right hand side. what is shown? the stress vector is shown tn.
And then the normal component, the normal stress is shown and then the shear stress
components τ nS 1 and τ nS 2 are also shown. Normal component is along n and the shear stress
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components are along S1 and S2. What is it we have done? The earlier we resolved F * the
whole resultant force along n, S1, S2.
What we have done now is resolved tn vector along n, S1, S2. What is the difference, resultant
is over a area, averaged over a area; but now we have resolved a, what is the stress vector
acting on a plane at a particular point that has been resolved along normal direction and the
tangential direction as well. So, to summarize this slide, we have introduced the normal stress
and the shear stress components. Of course, in terms of terminology we have discussed
components of stress vector, the normal to the plane is a normal stress and tangential to the
plane are the shear stresses. So, 1 component of normal stress, 2 components of a shear
stresses.
Now, please imagine this to be somewhere inside the object; at a point we have drawn a plane
and identified it as n. We also mentioned that, same point you can consider several planes of
different n vector. And that is what is shown here, same point; please remember it is a same
point, but the orientation of the plane can be different; which means that, the n vector will
also change, based on the orientation the n vector will also change.
Now, which becomes little inconvenient for us, because our coordinate system is attached to
the plane, it is associated with the plane. So, based on the plane you consider; this will have
one n vector S1 vector, S2 vector, similarly another one will have another set of n, S1, S2.
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Which becomes very inconvenient for us and that is why we consider the plane, any plane;
but now instead of choosing the coordinate axis associated with the plane; we resolve the
stress vector along our usual x, y, z axis. Why is that, because in the earlier we want of
course, obvious what is that is required for us is the normal stress and the shear stresses. but
the way in which we resolved as difficult, we will find out the as we go along, but right now
instead of resolving the stress vector along n, S1, S2, I resolve the stress vector along the our
usual Cartesian coordinate systems directions; namely x, y and then z.
Like to mention the books of course, you would have observed, the previous figures are all
from Raymond Parnes; then this particular and few other figures are from the book Stress and
Strain by W D Means. I did not mention about this in the introduction, very good book to
understand about stress, split into very small chapters, looks handy like a story book as well.
So, strongly recommended for understanding fundamentally about stress relatively a difficult
concept put nicely very sequentially systematically in terms of slowly building on the
concepts in this particular book.
The stress vector has been resolved, now what is the nomenclature you will give. Remember
the stress vector tn was resolved along n, S1, S2. So, notation was that, the first subscript
represents the direction of the plane; that is not going to change. We are still considering any
plane, so the first index there is no change, the first subscript there is no change.
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Now, remember the second subscript represented the direction of the component. Now, we
are resolving the stress vector along the x, y, z coordinate; that is why second subscript has
been now changed to x, y, z.
tn = τ nx i + τ ny j + τ nz k
So, n represents the direction of the normal to the plane; and then the second subscript
represents the direction of the component of the stress vector.
Now, the same thing has been shown in two other different ways nicely in this book. Look at
this first figure shows the component of stress vector along x, y, z axis τ nx , τ ny , and τ nz . Of
course, the coordinate axis has different orientation; but as usual if you look at in this
direction this is our usual x, y, z coordinate system ok.
The figure in the middle shows the same information in slightly different way; the way in
which you construct the stress vector. Let us say τ nx vector is drawn parallel here and then
you have τ nz ; let us say you add this, you will get one vector and then to that you add τ ny ,
you will get the stress vector. So, the construction of stress vector is nicely shown, that is why
this book is very good in terms of understanding.
Once again example is also shown here, for example what is shown is, we have chosen a
value of τ nx = 3 kilo bar; of course, all stress value stress units are force per area. So, that is
why the unit is kilo bar, something like our pressure. And then τ ny = 1 kilo bar and τ nz = 2
kilo bar.
So, now, once again the same construction is shown here let us say you take this 3 kilo bar
and add the 2 kilo bar; you get one vector, to that you add the 1 kilo bar and you get this
stress vector. So, very good representation of the stress vector resolved, remember the plane
is still any plane; I repeat this because will relax that as well as we go along on any plane, the
stress vector acting. Remember all these are point values, already we have taken limit; you
have a plane at a point, you are resolving this stress vector along x, y, z axis and they are
called as τ nx , τ ny , and τ nz .
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Now, let us proceed. We have resolved the stress vector in two different ways ok, that is what
this slide is about; stress vector is same, remember tn is same, the left hand side that is same.
The way in which you have resolved only is different;
tn = τ nn n + τ nS 1 S 1 + τ nS 2 S 2
In the first case we resolved along coordinate axis associated with the plane. We resolved
along n resolved along S1, S2 and hence represented as τ nn , τ nS 1 , τ nS 2 , and the unit vectors
where n vector, S1 vector, S2 vector.
Same stress vector only, has now been resolved along our usual x, y, z Cartesian coordinates
and that is why the unit vectors are now i, j and then k; and then now the components become
τ nx , τ ny , τ nz . Please note the first subscript is still n, the same plane; only the second
subscript has changed, because the coordinate directions along which you are resolving is
different in both the cases, stress vector is still same.
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Now, as I was telling you, we have considered any arbitrary plane at given by n vector. If you
look in terms of Hierarchy,
● First we said any plane and then we said any coordinate direction; because the
coordinate direction is associated with the plane, which means any plane any
coordinate directions. That is very generic, very difficult to handle, we want some
form of uniformity, some form of generalization, some way of representing in
universal way;
● Secondly we said we will consider any plane, but we will resolve along x, y, z
coordinate direction becomes little bit simpler to handle. But even this is difficult
because, though we are interested in stress acting on any plane, we will make it little
more easier to handle.
● Instead of considering this any plane, I consider the planes which are parallel to our
coordinate axis. That is why I have shown here, remember all these planes are at the
same point; you have understand that as I show further figures, at the same point.
When I say a plane, you should imagine a very small plane at the same point; instead
of considering plane of normal n, you are considering our usual planes which are
parallel to the coordinate axis. What are the planes; xy plane, yz plane, and zx plane;
that is what is shown here.
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What is now shown here? Stress vector not acting on the n plane it is stress vectors acting on
the xy, yz, zx plane. We do not call as xy, yz, zx plane. We call in terms of the normal; that is
why we denoted it as stress vector acting on x plane. What is x plane? x plane is one for
which x axis is normal. So, in this case it is something like this. So, tx, ty, tz of course, I will
discuss more on this in future slides; as of now we have moved one step I would say closer to
in terms of understanding easier to represent, that is more important.
So, from any plane, any coordinate directions to any plane, but x, y, z coordinate directions;
but now see look at the organization becomes more and more organized; now easy to
understand these planes are very well known to us and coordinate axis are also very familiar
to us. Of course, finally, we have to go back to this, because our interest is on any plane what
is the normal force acting, what is the shear force acting, we will have to come back to that;
but now we are breaking down the problem into simpler and simpler conditions. Now, let us
discuss more about this in the next slides.
Now, what is shown here, earlier; in the slide prior to that, we have resolved the stress vector
on any plane along x axis, y axis, z axis. Now, instead of that any plane, I have a well defined
plane. As I told you, this is the plane which you call as x plane or actually the plane is, is in
the plane of y-z axis. So, you can call either as yz plane; but we have denoted the plane by the
normal to the plane. So, according our nomenclature it is x plane, the x axis is normal to this
plane hence it is called x plane. So, we will use this nomenclature in further discussion; when
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I say x plane usually immediately let us say this is your x axis, you should imagine this also x
plane.
The plane to which x axis is normal, that is such big sentence has become x plane. Now, tn is
a stress vector acting on any plane; now what is the notation, should be tx, because our x is a
normal and that vector is shown here tx.
tx = τ xx i + τ xy j + τ xz k
Now, just like τ nx , τ ny , τ nz were components of tn, we will introduce τ xx , τ xy , τ xz as the

components of stress vector acting on x plane. How do you interpret that how do I understand
that, let us look at this first representation of stress vector; stress vector acting on any plane.
So, that is why the first subscript was n, we resolved along coordinate axis associated with
the plane. So, second subscript is n, S1 and then S2 and the co-ordinate directions where n S1
and S2.
Next step what did we do? We resolved along x, y, z axis. So, unit vectors became i, j, k and
the components still had n; look at this, the first subscript is still n, because it is any plane.
But now, because we resolved along x, y, z axis, the second subscript became x, y, z. Now,
we are made one more simplification, the plane is not any plane, it is x plane. So, I am
replacing the n with x; hence I get τ xx , τ xy , and τ xz as the components of the stress vector
acting on x plane.
So, now, τ xx represents the normal stress and τ xy , τ xz represents the shears stress on the x
plane, normal stress acting on the x plane and then the shear stresses acting on the x plane.
And that is shown here, also nicely here look at this, the τ xx is a component of course; you
can have any component it is now along the negative x axis and you have τ xy here and then
τ xz here. So, what we have done here is moved from any plane to the x plane and resolved
the stress vector, stress vector acting on the x plane into it is components along x, y, z axis.
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Now, just quickly we will do for the other coordinate planes as well. Remember, once again I
want to repeat, at the same point instead of our general plane we are considering 3 planes
which are parallel to our coordinate axis planes. All these planes are at the same point not a
different points. Now, this is the y plane of course, this picture is much more clearer. What is
a y plane? This is y plane, because y axis normal to the plane ok. Now the stress vector acting
on the y plane is, ty.
ty = τ yx i + τ yy j + τ yz k
So, as we have done earlier, the components are denoted as τ yx , τ yy , τ yz . Why is that, the
first subscript represent the direction of the plane it is y; second subscript the direction of the
component, so x, y, z. So, these τ yx , τ yy , τ yz are the components of stress vector acting on a
plane whose normal is the y axis. And once again the construction is shown nicely in the
figure.
tz = τ zx i + τ zy j + τ zz k
Now analogously, we can discuss that plane very clear picture here of course; this is the z
plane, because z axis is normal to the plane. And the stress vector acting on this plane is tz
resolved along x axis as τ zx and then τ zy along y axis, τ zz along z axis. And this stress
vector acting on the z plane is represented as τ zx , τ zy , τ zz ; take away from all this as, the
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first index represents the direction of the normal to the plane; the second subscript represents
the direction of the component of the stress vector acting on the respective planes.
This summarizes whatever we are discussed. So, what is shown here, components of stress
vectors acting on 3 planes parallel to the 3 coordinate planes.
tx = τ xx i + τ xy j + τ xz k
ty = τ yx i + τ yy j + τ yz k
And,
tz = τ zx i + τ zy j + τ zz k
So, the x plane, the y plane and the z plane and all the components, so we have 9 components
now, τ xx , τ xy , τ xz similarly τ yx , τ yy , τ yz and τ zx , τ zy , and τ zz .
So represented vectorially, components of a stress vector on x plane and then the components
of they of that stress vector; in this diagram of course, stress vector is not shown only the
components are shown; stress vector on y plane and the components stress vector on z plane
and the components.
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The same representation little more colourful from a recent book, I think I should mention
about this book and the website. Please look at the title of the book it says Mechanics of
Materials: An Integrated Learning System. Extremely well presented book and the website is
more of animations are there, the entire subject of Mechanics of Materials are represented, it
has represented in terms of animations and movies and very interactive and easy to learn also.
So, and even look at this picture the way in which they are represented, shows like a 3
dimensional view; you have x axis here, y axis here, z axis here, we have shown some wall
like and a floor like surface becomes very clear. And this also shows very clearly, that we are
at the same point Q and then now we are considering the body is cut along using a plane
which is perpendicular to the x axis here.
Same point same that is important, same point the plane is now perpendicular to y axis;
another plane is perpendicular to the z axis and of course, the components are shown here
τ xx , τ xy , τ xz similarly τ yx , τ yy , τ yz and τ zx , τ zy , and τ zz little more colourful
representation of what we have been discussing so far, that is from Raymond Parnes and this
is from this book by Philpot.
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To summarize what all we have discussed so far, just putting in sentences, just three bullets.
● The internal forces on a plane of finite area is represented by a resultant vector F * ;

F * was sort of finite area.
● The ratio of resultant force per area as the area becomes very small, tends to a point is
defined as a stress vector also called as traction vector, that is why it is called tn.
● And, objective is to calculate the stress vector that is our objective remember always,
only to simplify things we have moved to from any plane to any plane x, y, z
coordinate axis and then to three well defined planes. Objective is to calculate the
stress vector that is a components of a stress vector; τ nn , τ nS 1 , and τ nS 2 that is
objective.
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Lecture - 38
Stress tensor - Part 1
This is the summary which we have seen, I will summarize more pictorially whatever we
have written in terms of sentences here.
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So, we began with the plane and then whose normal was n and we had a stress vector acting
on that plane and we introduce a coordinate system associate to that plane or normal to the
plane and then the two directions on the surface of the plane. Then we resolved stress vector
acting on this plane along these three directions and those are τ𝑛𝑛, τ𝑛𝑆 , τ𝑛𝑆 and represented
1 2
vectorially.
That is where we started any plane, stress vector acting on this plane and resolved along the
coordinate ax axes attach to the plane namely n, S1, S2 and one is the normal stress and other
two together are the shear stresses. Now, next what we did remember same plane, same stress
vector. But now our coordinate axes are x, y and then z very well-known coordinate axes.
Resolve the same stress vector, same plane, same point remember the plane shown there is
exaggerated should imagine a very small plane because remember stress vector is at a point.
And now that stress vector has now been resolved along x axis, y axis and z axis represented
vectorially, the same stress vector. Now, the unit vectors are i, j and then k components are
τ𝑛𝑥, τ𝑛𝑦, and τ𝑛𝑧.
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Look at the figure the slides have been made so that the same location we replace with three
planes let me go back and come back. So, that you have clear understanding at the same
point, we have some arbitrary plane of any direction n vector instead of my objective is finite
to find out the stress vector and then the components.
Because on a plane I am interested in the normal force and the tangential forces that is my
objective, because there is straight away difficult be resolved along x, y, z axis. Because this
is also straight away difficult we said I will consider three planes at the same position. Instead
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of this inclined plane any plane at the same point I consider three well defined planes. When I
say well defined those planes are parallel to our usual x, y, z coordinate planes which we
denote as x plane, y plane, and z plane.
So now, let us take the x plane; the x plane is shown by the yellow colour and that is what is
shown magnified. So, now tx is a stress vector acting on this x plane remember that is tn is
stress vector acting on the n plane and tx is the stress vector acting on the x plane shown here
with it is components τ𝑥𝑥, τ𝑥𝑦, and τ𝑥𝑧.
So, this is the normal stress acting on x plane and the shear stresses acting on the x plane, the
very clearly shown in terms of normal and then tangential directions, vectorially you
represent as,
𝑡𝑥 = τ𝑥𝑥𝑖 + τ𝑥𝑦𝑗 + τ𝑥𝑧𝑘
Now, similarly you take the y plane, the y plane is shown in light shade of blue colour and
then ty is the stress vector on the y plane and then the components are τ𝑦𝑥, τ𝑦𝑦, τ𝑦𝑧 and shown
vectorially here.
𝑡𝑦 = τ𝑦𝑥𝑖 + τ𝑦𝑦𝑗 + τ𝑦𝑧𝑘
Similarly, the z plane, the z plane shown by an orange colour and then the stress vector acting
on that z plane and the components are τ𝑧𝑥, τ𝑧𝑦, τ𝑧𝑧 and then shown vectorially here.
𝑡𝑧 = τ𝑧𝑥𝑖 + τ𝑧𝑦𝑗 + τ𝑧𝑧𝑘
We started with the tn, we have to find out that, but now we have come to tx, ty, tz how are we
going to that we will see shortly. Now, once again I will summarize this in another way I
would say completely in the reverse direction, we went in one direction forward. Now, next
slide will summarize the entire discussion in a reverse direction let us see that.
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Now, what are the steps to calculate? If we know these 9 components, remember this is where
we ended we are starting from there. If we know this 9 components, what are the 9
components, τ𝑥𝑥, τ𝑥𝑦, τ𝑥𝑧, τ𝑦𝑥, τ𝑦𝑦, τ𝑦𝑧, τ𝑧𝑥, τ𝑧𝑦, and τ𝑧𝑧.
So, if we know these 9 components we can calculate the three components of stress vector.
But these components of stress vector are along x, y and z axis. We get the component of
stress vector, but the components along x, y, z axis.
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How do we do that we will discuss later. Suppose, we are able to get these components I can
calculate the three components along the normal to the plane and tangential to the plane, this
is what we are interested in. Finally, we need to calculate these three components which are
along n, S1 and S2 and τ𝑛𝑛, τ𝑛𝑆 , τ𝑛𝑆 .
1 2
Now, second step is simple that is pure mathematics, if you are having a vector resolved
along x, y, z axis then you can resolve easily along any other coordinate axes that is the
second step. So, if you know tn resolved along x, y and then z axis you can resolve tn along n,
S1 and S2 directions. We have resolved tn along i, j, k and we are resolved along n, S1, S2.
Now, second step is easier first step we will discuss later.
Now, what we will do is collect all the components and put in a more structured way and that
is shown in the form of pictorial representation here. That is what is shown in the left hand
side let us first understand the axes; x axis, y axis and z axis. What is shown is a cuboidal
shape I want emphasize that it is called stress element it is not a physical volume. We have
seen control volumes earlier this is not a control volume this is only a representation of all the
nine components which are discussed earlier. So, once again it emphasize this is just a
pictorial representation not a control volume it is called as stress element, what is it being
shown there.
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Let us take the right hand side face and it is a x face because x axis perpendicular to that and
you have a stress vector acting on this face which is not shown. But what they shown are the
components of tx, remember we discussed about stress vector acting on x plane. What is
shown here are the components of the stress vector along x direction, y direction and z
direction. So, the three components of stress vector acting on x plane are shown here.
Similarly take the top face once again the stress vector ty is not shown, but the components of
that stress vector τ𝑦𝑥, τ𝑦𝑦, and τ𝑦𝑧 are shown there.
Similarly take the front face a stress vector tz that stress vector is not shown. But the
components are shown here along x axis τ𝑧𝑥, τ𝑧𝑦, and τ𝑧𝑧.
So, totally 9 components are shown, 3 components for tx, 3 for ty, 3 for tz and that is what is
also summarized in this table. Direction of normal to the plane x, y, z we have considered
planes whose normal are x, y, z and then the direction of components are once again x, y, z
that is why we result in combination of three by three nine components are there.
Direction of normal Direction of components of stress vector

plane
x y z
τ𝑥𝑥 τ𝑥𝑦 τ𝑥𝑧

x
τ𝑦𝑥 τ𝑦𝑦 τ𝑦𝑧

y
τ𝑧𝑥 τ𝑧𝑦 τ𝑧𝑧

z
So, if you look at the first row they are all components of tx, whatever you see on the right
side face and then if you take the second row they are all components of the vector acting on
the y plane, that top plane and then if you look the third row they are all components of stress
vector acting on the front face. So, these three rows with three elements is can be represented
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as a matrix. Whatever represented table all the 9 components have been arranged in a form of
a matrix.
Now, I called as a matrix, but a more formal representation is called is called a tensor the 9
components have been put and what is called as a stress tensor as the title indicates.
[
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 = τ𝑥𝑥 τ𝑥𝑦 τ𝑥𝑧 τ𝑦𝑥 τ𝑦𝑦 τ𝑦𝑧 τ𝑧𝑥 τ𝑧𝑦 τ𝑧𝑧 ]
Now, about the stress tensor you will gradually understand as you go along the course. As far
as this course goes when are not going to discuss in detail about tensors but we will have a
small introduction to that you will slowly understand what tensors are as we go along. So,
right now you can imagine as a matrix which has 9 elements in it and remember each row
represents the 3 components of the stress vectors three stress vectors and each com each row
we are used to represent the 3 components of the stress vectors. Now that is we have 9
components here.
Now, if you look at this diagram, there are nine other components shown with dashed lines if
you look at the left face some three components are shown, if you look at the bottom face
some three components are shown, if you look at the rear face some three other components
are shown. They are shown in opposite direction they are shown in dash line.
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Now, to understand that what are they let us look at the next slide. Now for representing
stress element we follow a sign convention. What is the sign convention for a stress
component? You consider a stress component, component of stress tensor to be positive
under two conditions, what are the conditions. If we have a positive face what is a positive
face you have a plane whose axis is towards the positive x axis, so this is a positive face. In
that positive face if the direction of force is also along the positive axis then this component
is the positive value. So, if the direction of the normal to the plane is positive and then the
direction of the force is also positive. Then the direction of stress component is positive.
Direction of normal to Direction of force

plane
+ 𝑣𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒
+ 𝑣𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒
− 𝑣𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒
What is the other possibility if the direction of the face is negative that is what is shown here,
when I say face is negative, then the direction of the normal to the face along the negative x
axis and the direction of the force is also negative, then once again you represent a positive
component of the stress tensor.
So, the right hand side representation and the left hand side representation are both
equivalent. If you take a face whose normalize along positive x axis all your arrow marks are
along the positive coordinate direction this component is along positive x axis, this
component is along positive y axis and this component is along positive z axis.
Now if you take the left hand side face the normal to the plane is along negative x axis. Now,
look at the all the arrow marks they are towards the negative axis negative x axis, negative y
axis, negative z axis, but both have both represent the same tau xx the same τ𝑥𝑥, and then
same τ𝑥𝑦, τ𝑥𝑦 that is same only. It is like, you have a plane you are looking at opposite sides
𝑥𝑧
of the same plane. Remember it is not as I told it is not a control volume this same plane you
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are looking from this side same plane you are looking from other side same equivalent
representation.
So, what we have discussed at the earlier is for the top face, for the bottom face the normal to
the face along negative y axis that is why all the directions of the force are also along
negative y axis. See τ𝑦𝑥 is along negative x axis τ𝑦𝑦 along negative y axis τ𝑦𝑧 along negative z
axis. Similarly we have discussed earlier for the front face, now for the rear face the normal
to the face along negative z axis.
So, all the direction of the force are also along negative axis τ𝑧𝑥 along negative x axis, τ𝑧𝑦
along y axis, τ𝑧𝑧 along negative z axis. So, though 18 components are shown, but they are
equivalent to just 9 components, only two ways of representing it. Just one discuss the other
way also, if one of them is opposite direction, that is if you have a positive face and the force
is along negative direction then the stress component is negative or if the direction of the
normal to the face along negative axis and the direction of the force is along positive axis,
then again we have a negative stress component.
So, if both are positive or both are negative you have positive any other combination other
combination gives you the negative value of stress component. I have an example to show
you will understand better. Now, the question arises why eighteen are shown why is it shown
as a something like a closed box.
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Explain that here this diagram is same as our last slide, what is shown in the right hand side is
the very good representation from this book by Stanley middleman on introduction to fluid
dynamics. Where only 9 components are shown that is what we want and all the left side
face, the bottom face and the rear faces are shown and all the forces are along the negative
direction.
Now, when we study, when we represent we always like to represent or easy for
understanding imam imagination if all of them are along the positive axis, that is why this
representation is shown where all the negative direction of forces and the positive direction
forces are shown, we require only either one of them either positive or negative, this
representation is sufficient very much, but we are more comfortable looking at forces along
the positive axis. That is why this representation is on the left hand side is shown, but the
right hand side representation is very much sufficient.
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Lecture - 39
Stress tensor - Part 2
Just to explain or little more understanding in the sign convention, once again it is a very nice
example from this book Stress and Strain by W D means; nothing new here little more
example to understand the sign convention. You have a stress element and x axis, y axis and
z axis and we are considering several cases like a, b, c, d etcetera and for each case we are
going to discuss what are the direction of normal, may be few cases we can discuss direction
of normal.
Direction of Direction of stress Sign of tensor

normal vector component
a + + +
b - - +
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c - + -
d - - +
e + - -
f + - -
g + + +
Let us take the case of a, look at the axis you are looking from the top that is why it says ± y;
and then you have x axis and then z axis and y axis becomes ± y, which means we have
looking from the top. Now, if you are considering this phase, the normal to this phase is along
the positive z axis; and then suppose if you represent your component along the positive x
axis, the normal to the plane is also positive, the direction of the force also positive. Hence
corresponding sign of tensor component is also positive.
Now let us take the case of b, in this side the normal to this phase is along the negative x axis,
the direction of the force is along the negative z axis. So, look at this, direction on normal is
negative, direction of the force is also negative once again this stress component is positive.
Now let us take the case of c, for this phase the normal is along the negative x axis. Now
coming to this left side phase, the normal to the phase along the negative x axis and the
direction of the force is along the positive x axis; that is why the tensor component is
negative. That is what we shown here; direction of normal is negative, the force is positive,
resulting in a negative sign for tensor component.
So, if you take let us say d, here the direction of normal is along negative y axis, the force is
also shown along negative y axis. So, you have a positive component of stress tensor and that
is why both are negative here resulting in a positive sign. So, likewise you can discuss all
other cases and of course, these are shear stress components and these are normal stress
components; whichever is perpendicular normal stress components and others are shear stress
components, then you can check the other case of e, f, g easily.
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Numerical example just to understand the sign convention, the stress tensor is
τ = [τ xx τ xy τ xz τ yx τ yy τ yz τ zx τ zy τ zz ] = [− 5 − 15 0 − 15 0 0 0 0 10 ]
Let us see how do you represent, as usual we have x axis, y axis and z axis. What is shown
here, is the stress element not a control volume. Why do we choose a stress element? See if it
is a vector we represent by an arrow mark; you want represent this 9 components in a
pictorial representation that is where we choose the stress element. We cannot represent this
stress tensor with 9 component by arrow mark; if it is three component if it is vector is an
arrow mark represent, because there are 9 components and you want to represent pictorially,
we use a stress element.
Now, let us look at this − 5. Now it says τ xx which means, the x component of stress vector
acting on the x phase; and then two ways of representing it. If you take the right hand side
phase, the normal to the phase along the positive x axis; because the stress tensor component
is negative, the direction of the force should be along the negative x axis.
Suppose if you choose to same − 5 only, suppose if you want to choose the left hand side
phase, the normal to this phase is towards the negative x axis. So, direction of force should be
along the positive x axis. If you look at the stress element, we mention only the numerical
value, magnitude only is a represented; the direction tells what is the sign of that, component
in the stress tensor.
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Now let us take the τ zz = 10 component; which means we are talking about the z component
of stress vector acting on the z plane. So, we have to consider the front phase and the rare
phase or one of them; if you consider the front phase then the normal is along the positive z
axis, so direction of force also along positive z axis. Consider the rarer phase the normal is
along the negative z, so the direction of force also along negative z axis, because the stress
tensor component is positive.
Now let us take the shear stress component. Now, if you take τ xy =− 15 , we have to consider
the x phase, component of stress vector acting along y direction. How do you represent?
Once again you can take the either left phase or the right phase, let us consider the right
phase. And for right phase the normal to the plane is along the positive x axis; so because τ xy
is negative, the direction of force should be along the negative y axis. If you take the left
phase, the direction of normal is along the negative x axis; because sign of the stress tensor
component is negative, the direction of force should be along positive y axis. So, right hand
side this arrow, left hand side this arrow or both equivalent; both represent only − 15.
Now let us take τ yx =− 15; what does it tell you? The first subscript is y, which means we are
considering components of stress vector acting on the y plane; which means we consider the
top plane or the bottom plane. For the top plane, the normal is along the positive y axis,
because it is negative the direction of force along the negative x axis. And if we consider the
bottom plane, the normal is along the negative y axis and hence the direction of force along
the positive x axis, because it is − 15. I think this is a very good simple example to clearly
understand the sign convention, probably to it would have been little more confusing in the
previous slide; now become very clear.
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We have been talking about tensor, probably new for most of us. So, quick very brief
preliminary introduction not even I would say introduction, so very brief preliminary
introduction, so that have some idea what tensors are.
Now what is the motivation behind introducing tensors? The motivation comes from the
physical quantity, physical entity. We have different types of physical quantities for example;
we have density, temperature. It is enough you would say densities let us say 1000 kg/m3,
temperature is 100 degree centigrade that is all is required and completely describes density
are temperature.
So, there are physical variables which can be described only by magnitude; of course, they
are scalars. There are physical quantities like velocity; it is not enough if you say so much
meter per second; immediately you should say what is the direction, so there are physical
quantities like velocity which require a magnitude and direction also.
Now we are come across another quantity, namely stress which requires 2 directions; that is
why we had the stress tensor components had two subscripts let us say xy, yx etcetera. So
there are why do we require 2 directions? One to represent the direction of the plane, one to
direction of the force.
So, to represent such physical quantities which require 2 directions, you cannot just leave
saying stress that is incomplete; moment you say stress you should say, what is the direction
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of the plane and what is the direction of the force, etcetera. So, such quantities require
another mathematical representation in terms of tensor that is a origin or requirement for
tensor.
Now, vector can be represented by an arrow, graphically; immediately you draw a vector by
an arrow. Or you can represent as a ordered set of 3 numbers, you want more represent as a
set of numbers you can represent that, which are nothing but the components of vector; each
associated one direction. For example, if you take velocity
v = vx i + vy j + vz k
Now why do we discuss this, so that we can discuss analogously tensor. You can not
represent tensor by an arrow mark; that is why we discuss about stress element. So, we
represent tensor by a stress element, we have seen that it is ordered set of 9 numbers and they
are the components of the tensor; now each associate to the pair of directions. If you say τ xy ,
it is a pair of directions, namely i and j are involved in it. So, if you want represent tensor. So,
first of all we will have 9 entries
τ = τ xx ii + τ xy ij + τ xz ik + τ yx ji + τ yy jj + τ yz jk + τ zx ki + τ zy kj + τ zz kk
This is the actual representation of the tensor. You can represent it as a matrix, because
several operations as similar to that of matrix operation. So, our purpose we can even say just
matrix; but otherwise formally you represent tensor in this particular way.
What is a big difference between vector and tensor, you have only one unit vector in vector
either i, j or k; but in tensor, you have a pair of unit vectors ii, ij, ik etcetera.
Now if you want to unify all of them, we can say that scalar is a 0th order tensor, vector is a
first order tensor and then of course, tensor can be of any orders what we are discussing
second order tensor. What does order represent? Order represents the number of directions,
for scalar it is 0 and vector it is 1, tensor it is 2; it can be higher also anyway that is not within
our scope.
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The same discussion just little more graphically here; components of vector of course, we
know that we have components along x axis, y axis and z axis that is how we represent the
vector.
Now, let us have small discussion on what happens when you change the coordinate axis. We
have this x, y, z axis and if you rotate the orientation, what happens, remember vector still
remain same that is not going to change; but all these components will be different let us say
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vx′ , vy′ , and vz′ . Depending on the orientation with coordinate axis vector remain same, but
the components change.
Now we also know that, as you discussed vector as such does not changed with coordinate
system and then; obviously, the magnitude of vector is independent of coordinate system.
Whatever you do, some whatever magnet let us say a magnitude of a velocity that does not
change; but vx, vy, vz can change. Of course, this known to us why your discussing as a
prelude to discussion on tensor; pictorially we represent among x axis, y axis, z axis. So,
now, just analogously we will extend to tensors.
τ = τ xx ii + τ xy ij + τ xz ik + τ yx ji + τ yy jj + τ yz jk + τ zx ki + τ zy kj + τ zz kk
Now, we have seen this representation of a tensor. Let us understand that; we said one
component is associate with the pair of directions and those pair of directions, 9 combinations
are shown here, first is both are i vector i vector. So, this τ xx is associated with this pair of
directions, both unit vectors along the x axis.
The second representation is; one the unit vector along x axis, one unit vector along y axis
and the component associate with this is τ xy .
Two directions are required, that is why every component of stress, every component of the
tensor in general are describe stress tensor associate with the pair of directions. What are the
pair of directions? For our case the first subscript represent the pair of direction of the normal
and second for the it force.
Now, as we have discussed the last slide for vectors, these components will change with
′ ′
coordinate system. If you rotate then these components becomes τ xx , τ xy all the components
will change. Now tensor as such whatever we can imagine only differences is vector we can
easily imagine as an arrow mark, that advantage is not here for the case of tensor; tensor
whatever you can understand, imagine that is not change.
And then we said, for the vector the magnitude does not change; similarly for tensor there are
some properties which will not change when you change the coordinate system. We are
mentioning only one of them, three of them are there which is little more relevant to us, we
just mention here. We represent it has a matrix, the sum of the diagonal elements is not
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depend on coordinate system; what is that, this τ xx + τ yy + τ zz that sum will not change, even
if you change the coordinate axis.
So, let us just apply this for the case. We said tensor has two directions, the tensor which you
have seen as an example now is a stress tensor; or put the other way we introduce this stress
and that physical quantity required two directions, hence tensor is introduced that is correct
way to put it. And as you have seen in the last slides, two directions are required to represent
each component of the stress tensor; one for the direction of normal to the plane and other the
direction of the components of the stress vector direction of the force, only then it is
completely specified.
And just like we mention, that based on the sign convention what we have chosen look at the
two directions of τ xx , the tensile forces become positive, compressive forces become
negative. If you draw τ xx in the negative direction [→τ xx ←] , both are equal representation,
it is a compressive force that becomes negative; tensile force we are pulling that becomes
positive. That is why pressure in our sign convention is negative, I said pressure is
compressive; according our sign convention it is negative minus p.
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So, let us summarize what we have discussed. We started differentiating between rigid body
and deformable body. We are slowly advancing in that sense, moving from rigid body to
deformable body; because we need take principles of deformable solid mechanics to fluid
mechanics. We discussed what a stress vector is, we defined it; force acting on a given
surface per unit area. As I like to mention, why it becomes stress vector there and then a
stress tensor here? The key word here is the given surface, moment I give a surface it
becomes a vector; because no more further direction for the surface.
You have a surface I say, what is the force acting on this surface becomes a vector; but stress
tensor is more generic it accounts for the vectors acting on all planes at that particular points.
This sentence will understand later, that is why in this case second case, stress tensor; first
case when you introduced we said take a plane, force acting on that plane that becomes a
vector, because you specify the direction. When you allow the direction of the force and the
plane to vary it becomes a stress tensor; this particular point you understand a later much
clear ok.
So, of course, we introduced the stress tensor; what is the stress tensor, what are the
components. The 9 components there are; components of 3 vectors 3 stress vectors, those
stress vectors are all acting on planes parallel to our coordinate planes. We also discuss sign
convention for the components of stress tensor. Looked examples also, you also had a very
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quick introduction to tensors; these are physical quantities with magnitude and two
directions.
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Lecture – 40
Cauchy’s formula
We are in solid mechanics. We have take a diversion to solid mechanics to understand the
surface forces on the right hand side of the linear momentum balance. And in this first visit to
solid mechanics we are discussing internal forces and stress and in this we have discussed
about the stress vector and the stress tensor.
Now, we are discussed the other two topics namely the relationship between stress vector and
stress tensor what is the relationship between them and what are the properties of stress
tensor, of course, you will have an example in between, numerical example in between.
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Just to set the stage for today’s discussion, we will recall this particular slide which you have
seen earlier, where I summarized about stress vector stress tensor in the reverse direction that
will set the stage for today. We said if you know the 9 components, these are the components
of stress vectors acting on three planes parallel to the coordinate axis.
So, if we know this then we can calculate the three components of the stress vector. Those
components are along x, y, z axis of the stress vector. So, this is what we are going to do
now, how to relate the nine components to the three components that is the first step.
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Second step is much more simpler because if you know these three components just use
simple vector algebra to find out the components normal to the plane and tangent to the
plane. This way much more simpler; the second step is much simpler, first step involves
some concepts.
So, we will proceed the first step now where we are going to relate the 9 components to the 3
components. The expression what you are going to derive is called the Cauchy’s formula
named after the who derived it namely Cauchy whose photograph is shown here. We are
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going to relate stress vector and stress tensor or to put short nine components with three
components. And, to have a quick idea what you see here in the left hand side is the same
slide minimized there to show that we are given those nine components and we have to find
these three components which are the components respective along x, y, z axis.
Now, we said that we have an arbitrary plane and then we have normal to the plane, at the
point we are considering three planes parallel to the coordinate axes. So, now, I should
consider the geometry with includes all these four planes such a geometry is a tetrahedron. As
you see here A I will mark minimally on the slide. So, already lot of things are, there lot of
text is there. So, if you look at ABC is arbitrary plane whose normal is n vector here and the
three planes parallel to coordinate planes are BPC whose normal is x-axis. And then we have
the plane CPA whose normal is y-axis, and then we have the plane BPA whose normal is the
z-axis. Of course, all the normal are towards the negative axis not the positive axis.
So, we choose tetrahedron for this reason that we have to relate the components of stress
vector acting on this plane we call as arbitrary plane; arbitrary because n can have any value.
And to the components of stress vector acting on those three well defined planes, when I say
well defined planes please understand that they are parallel to coordinate planes. Now, what
else is shown here the stress vector acting on the arbitrary plane is shown here tn and then the
components of the stress vector along x, y, z axis are also show here in red τ nx , τ ny , τ nz ,
this what you have to find out.
Now, the given information to us are the components of stress vector acting on those three
planes. Let us consider the plane whose normal is x-axis that is the plane CPB. Now, it is a
plane whose normal is towards the negative x-axis and based on our sign convention all the
forces are to be directed towards the negative axis. So that why you see the τ xx directed
towards the negative x-axis, τ xy towards negative y-axis, τ xz towards negative z-axis. We
always show in terms of a positive sense.
Now, similarly we have the plane APC, the components of stress vector acting on that plane
are shown, let us start with τ yx , τ yx once again all arrows are shown in the towards the
negative axis τ yx , τ yy , τ yz . And, then if you take the plane whose normal is z-axis, what is
that plane? APB and once again all the components are shown towards the negative axis τ zx ,
τ zy and then τ zz . Whatever are shown in blue the nine components which are given to us we
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will have to find out the components shown in red which are the components of stress vector
on the arbitrary plane.
What else is shown here are the areas ∆ A is the area of the arbitrary plane ∆Ax , ∆Ay , ∆Az
which are the planes whose normal are x-axis, y-axis, z-axis. Now, how should we imagine
this tetrahedron? The way in we should imagine as tetrahedron is you have a solid object in
that you have taken a small tetrahedron element. So, your tetrahedron is somewhere inside
the solid object that is how we should interpret this.
Now, we are considering the object under equilibrium as we have discussed earlier any part
of the body is also under equilibrium. So, this tetrahedron also should be under equilibrium.
So, we do a force balance and we do a force balance first along the x direction, then
analogously we can write for other directions. Now, when you write a force balance you
multiply the stress values with the area on which it acts. So, we are writing a force balance x
direction. So, we should account for all the components of stress vector acting along the x
direction.
τ nx ∆A − τ xx ∆Ax − τ yx ∆Ay − τ zx ∆Az + 13 ∆AhB x = 0
So, let us take the component of the stress vector acting on the arbitrary plane τ nx and that is
along positive axis because when we dissolve vector along the coordinate axis they are along
the positive axis. So, τ nx along the positive axis so, it is positive and the area over which it
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acts is ∆A . Now, next coming to the x face τ xx is the component acting along the x-direction
and it is along the negative x-axis. So, we have an negative sign here and multiplied by the
area over which it acts which is ∆Ax So, we expect force balance of multiplying the stress by
the corresponding area.
Now, for the y face I should consider the component which is acting along x-direction which
is τ yx and then of course, it is along negative x-axis multiplied by the area over which acts it
is ∆Ay , similarly for the z direction − τ zx ∆Az . Now, this tetrahedron will also have a body
force, we will denote that body force along the x direction; along the x-axis positive x-axis as
Bx and that you need a body forces body force per unit volume. And, we know that the
1
volume of tetrahedron is 3 ∆Ah , where h is the perpendicular distance from P to the surface
of the arbitrary plane. So, this is the volume of the tetrahedron multiplied by the body force
per unit volume; h is the perpendicular distance from P to the incline plane, Bx body force per
unit volume in x direction.
Now, if look at this expression you have the area of the arbitrary plane and then you have the
area of the planes parallel to the coordinate planes. So, now, we will have to find the
relationship between these two, so that you can cancel out some common factors that is what
we will do next. We are going to relate that ∆Ax , ∆Ay , ∆Az which are the areas of the
planes parallel to the coordinate planes to the area of the arbitrary plane which is ∆A .
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Let us do that. For that if you look at the area of let us say CPB, ∆Ax we can easily
understand that that area is nothing, but the projection of ∆A on a plane whose normal is
x-axis. You have ∆A which is the area of the arbitrary plane if you project on a plane on the
let us say z y plane you get the area ∆Ax or putting in the other way you project on a plane
whose normal is x-axis, now we will have to relate this. To relate, I have a plane which is
shown and then you are going to look at the area of this projected plane on this plane. This
arbitrary plane and this plane for our case is the y plane because it is normal is y-axis.
Now, if look at the projection then this width remain same, but the L becomes L cos( θ )
where θ is angle between this plane and the horizontal plane. That is what is shown that the
actual area is L x W, the length and the multiplied by width if θ is the angle which it makes
with the horizontal plane, then the length of the projection is L cos( θ) x W. So, let us write
down that.
Ap = W L cosθ = Acosθ = A n.j
Ap is the projected area, and area of the plane is A, where theta is angle between the plane
and in this case the horizontal plane. Now, how do we interpret this theta in the more general
way that is what is shown here. If you look at this triangle which is the front view of this, this
one is the arbitrary plane and this is a horizontal plane and θ is the angle between them.
So, the angle which the plane makes the horizontal plane is equal to the angle between
normal to the plane and the normal to the plane on which you are projecting; j vector is the
normal to the plane on which you are protecting, n vector is the normal to your plane.
So, both these angles are same; angle between the plane and the horizontal plane in this case
and the angle between the normal to the plane and the normal to the plane on which you are
projecting. So, which means that this cosθ can be written as n.j that is what I have done here,
n.j can be represented as cosθ remember both are unit vectors. Now, we can generalize this;
now, of course, other way of representing is shown here from reference.
So, this is the plane and what you see here is the projection of the plane; probably you would
have drawn this in the engineering drawing course. So, remember n vector is a unit vector
and it has components along the i, j direction which I call them as nx, ny, nz.
n = nx i + ny j + nz k
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We have seen that ∆Ax represents projection of ∆ A on the x plane which, means
∆Ax = ∆A n.i = ∆Anx
Similarly, for the y direction now this becomes almost same as this,
∆Ay = ∆A n.j = ∆Any
And, similarly
∆Az = ∆A n.k = ∆Anz
So, now let us substitute all this in the force balance equation.
We have,
∆Ax = ∆A n.i = ∆Anx
∆Ay = ∆A n.j = ∆Any
∆Az = ∆A n.k = ∆Anz
We said that was our objective, we have ∆ A and ∆Ax , ∆Ay , ∆Az we said we will relate so
that we can cancel out ∆A . Let us do that.
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τ nx ∆A − τ xx ∆A nx − τ yx ∆A ny − τ zx ∆A nz + 13 ∆AhB x = 0
∆A can be cancelled out that was our object
τ nx − τ xx nx − τ yx ny − τ zx nz + 13 hB x = 0
Then, we take limit ∆x→0 , ∆y→0 , ∆z→0 and h→0 some explanation here. First if you
look at the first equation we had cancelled out area this is similar to what we had done earlier
when you wrote a balance for a control volume we divided by the volume because we wrote
it for a control volume. Now, we are writing over a surface so, dividing by the area of the
surface;
Second, when we derived the conservation equation let us your mass left side of momentum
balance. We wrote the balance of the control volume and then we shrink the control volume
to a point we do the exactly the same thing here as well in the limit of ∆x→0 , ∆y→0 ,
∆z→0 which means that we are shrinking this tetrahedron to a point and as we have done
earlier what did we say we shrink so that this aspect ratios maintained same.
We should shrink as a cube, we should not shrink as this length becoming 0 or this length
very large we should shrink symmetrically, so that the shape is maintained. Similarly, here
also we shrink the tetrahedron to your point maintaining the shape of tetrahedron. So, all the
∆x→0 , ∆y→0 , ∆z→0 which means that h also goes to 0. What is the h? The distance
between, the normal distance between P and the surface that also goes to 0 and why do we do
that as always we want always a relationship it is valid at every point in the object.
Remember, we are going to substitute bag use it in the right hand side of the conservation
equation, our conservation equations are at every point in the fluid there. Now, when we go
back we substitute a relationship which is valid at every point. So, this relationship which you
are going to write now is valued at every point inside the solid object, which means that when
we wrote this expression they are just average values, exactly analogous to what it were
control volume.
Remember, τ nx is average over the arbitrary plane when I write τ xx it is average over this
area whose normal is x-axis, when we take limit they become point value. So, conceptually
they are same as what we have done earlier; objective is to get a relationship which is valid at
every point inside the solid object.
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τ nx = τ xx nx + τ yx ny + τ zx nz
Now, we can do a similar force balance along the y direction and then z direction and then
get
τ ny = τ xy nx + τ yy ny + τ zy nz
And,
τ nz = τ xz nx + τ yz ny + τ zz nz
So, now let us summarize all of them the three relationships which we have derived we have
achieved our objective of relating the components of the stress vector to the components of
stress tensor and similarly.
τ nx = τ xx nx + τ yx ny + τ zx nz
τ ny = τ xy nx + τ yy ny + τ zy nz
τ nz = τ xz nx + τ yz ny + τ zz nz
Now, if you observe this, if you look at the second subscript we know that second subscript
tells the direction of the force. So, that is why we have x as a second subscript and here you
have τ xx , τ yx , τ zx . In fact, that is how we wrote the balances as we took all the components
acting along the x direction.
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In the left hand side what we have is n because the component for arbitrary stress vector and
then that relates to on the right hand side you have x component of the three different stress
vectors. That is why you have x-axis, y-axis, z-axis; left hand side is only one stress vector
acting on the arbitrary plane, right hand side you have the x components of three different
stress vectors acting on the x, y, z plane that is why the first subscript is x, y, z. Of course,
moment you look at the second subscript that tells you the direction in which you made the
force balance.
Now, what we will do is we have three equations, well let us put in a more simple way and
more formal way or elegant way.
[τ nx τ ny τ nz ] = [n x ny nz ] [τ xx τ xy τ xz τ yx τ yy τ yz τ zx τ zy τ zz ]
Express the left hand side as 1 x 3 matrix, and then right hand side can be expressed as a
simple matrix multiplication of this n vector with the stress tensor.
tn = n.τ
So, this three equations can be simply represented as a matrix multiplication of matrix 1x3
matrix made of the components of the normal vector and another 3x3 matrix whose
components are the components of stress tensor. This is why to begin with I said for our
scope, the stress tensor is almost a matrix. All the matrix multiplication rules are applicable
here as well.
So, how do we represent this? The stress vector the earlier expression, this equation represent
in terms of components, this equation represents in terms of a vector. Left hand side you have
a stress vector acting on plane n, right hand side you have n vector dotted with the stress
tensor. You are not going to discuss about dot product formally I should say as dot product of
n vector with stress tensor within our scope for understanding you can understand that is just
as a matrix multiplication of n vector with stress tensor.
So, this is the question we asked and we have answered that. If you know the nine
components of stress tensor that is our right hand side, we can calculate the stress vector
acting on any plane; when I say any plane our n is given to us; passing through that point.
Remember, all are at a point, so, you should imagine a small point you have a small plane
and you are replacing that with 3 planes of the same point. So, that should be your
imagination 3 planes are there and you have arbitrary plane all very small at a point,.
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So, if you know the 9 component of stress tensor, we can calculate stress vector, τ nx τ ny τ nz
on any plane because any plan is described by the components of the normal vector to it and
so, this is a relationships which we are seeking.
Also, I like to mention if you look at the stress tensor if you look at one row what does it
represent? Components of stress vector acting on x plane; if you look at one column what
does it represent? It represents x component of three different stress vectors.
So, the way in which you have arranged nicely when you multiply what happens you
multiply nx τ xx plus ny τ yx plus nz τ zx and that is exactly what you have here. So, the way in
which arranged it when you multiply you get all the components or the contribution of all the
x components of three different stress vectors to the x component of the stress vector acting
on arbitrary plane.
Now, at terminology state of stress at a point; what do we mean by state of stress at a point?
● The first sentence is same as last sentence, if we know the 9 component of stress
tensor we can calculate the stress vector acting on any plane passing through that
point. Which means that at a point I can have infinite number of planes and for any
plane I can find out the stress vector acting on it which means that whatever
information is required is contained in your stress tensor that is advantage. That is
why, we came from a arbitrary plane arbitrary axis to arbitrary plane and x, y, z
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coordinate axis; that means, millions of possibilities are there infinite number of
possibilities are there. By going to a stress tensor we are limited to or we can get those
values, but what needs to be given is only those 9 components, moment you give this
9 components I can find out 3 components for any plane. So, we are reducing infinite
number of some information to a just 9 components and then of course, the n vector.
● Thus stress tensor has all the information to calculate the stress vector acting on any
plane passing through that point, can have an infinite number of planes you are just at
a point. Let us say you are at a point, you can have infinite number of planes at a same
point and it is enough that if you have the stress tensor at that point you can get stress
vector acting on any of these planes, and
● Hence stress tensor represents the state of stress at a point.
So, of course, little bit not as easy as vector to understand if you look at a stress tensor you
should imaging that tells about state of stress at a point. Why does it tell about state of stress,
because it has all the information to calculate stress vectors on any plane passing through that
point. So, by this way we answered the first part of the question; second part is of course,
more of vector algebra.
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Lecture - 41
Components of Stress Vector: Example
Now, we will look at an numerical example with an illustrate whatever we have discussed so
far in terms of expressions. But before going to that I would say mathematical or theoretical
example, what is shown right hand side of the figure, where whatever it discussed more
practically applied. What is shown there is a bar, a vertical bar and subject to a compressive
load, compressive because both are acting towards each other, it is a compressive load.
Now, based on the equations what we have derived we can find out that at 45 degrees you
have maximum shear stress. Now, if the material stress which is can withstand is less then
this maximum shear stress then It breaks along 45 degrees axes, 45 degrees plane. So, you
can prove that based on this Cauchy’s law that maximum shear stress occurs at an angle of 45
degrees. Because how can you do that? Our n can be any plane. So, find out the n or angle at
which the maximum shear stress. And practically, you can observe that when you keep
increasing the load, and if the maximum shear stress exceeds the allowable shear stress.
Usually, materials have some limit for shearing direction or for normal direction. The normal
values may be more, but shearing values may be less.
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So, if your resulting shearing stress along 45 degrees exceeds then it starts breaking. That is
the example shown here. So, if you look at solid mechanics book lot of such practical
examples are given. Our objective of studying solid mechanics to take principles from here
and applied to fluid mechanics, so we are not discussing in detail about such examples. What
we will do is a more mathematical example, theoretical example with clearly illustrate what
we had discussed so far. So, that is why this example is shown in this slide. There is no
relationship between this diagram and this example apart from that both are applications.
Now, suppose that the stress tensor at a point in a solid is given by, let us say matrix.
τ = [2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 ]
We are given all the 9 components of stress tensor. Then we are asked to calculate the
following,
● Compute the stress vector at point P. The stress tensor at a point P is given, we are
asked to find out stress vector at point P for a surface with orientation
n = [2/3 1/3 2/3 ] , which means the normal vector to the plane is given to us.
● Now, for the surface determine the normal component of stress vector which in the
normal stress.
● Next is compute the two tangential components meaning the shear stresses.
Remember this was our objective to calculate these values. As I told you the first step was
done through Cauchy’s formula, second step is more easily done through vector algebra that
will be illustrate in this example. Second step is we have stress factor components along x, y,
z, we have to have components along n, S1, S2, we will see that now.
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What is given to us? Let us understand that in two ways. Remember we had this stress
element with 9 independent components, we had 9 more which are same as the other 9 and
earlier we had expression for τ just introduced variables. Now, we have numerical values for
them in this example.
τ = [τ xx τ xy τ xz τ yx τ yy τ yz τ zx τ zy τ zz ] = [2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 ]
So, let us say each row represent components of stress vectors acting of x-plane, y-plane and
z-plane.
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Looking at the other way, this is very good representation of what is given to us. We have
three well defined planes and components of stress vector acting on x-plane for example, τ xx ,
τ xy , τ xz are given as 2, 1, 1. And if you take the y-plane components of stress vector acting
on the y-plane τ yx , τ yy , τ yz are given as the second row, 1, 2, 1 and for the z-plane
components of stress vector acting on z-plane τ zx , τ zy , τ zz are given as the third row, 1, 1,
3. Just understand what is the value given to us, what is the matrix or stress tensor given to
us.
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Now, we will find out components of stress vector in two ways, one along x, y, z axis which
is shown here, then we will find along the normal and tangent to the plane. So, these are the
values given to us, given stress tensor and the normal vector is given to us, it is a unit normal
vector.
τ = [2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 ]
And,
n = [2/3 1/3 2/3 ]
Now, stress vector tn just now seen the expression as
tn = n.τ
So, components of stress vector along x, y and z coordinates are the simple matrix
multiplication of the n vector with the stress tensor.
[τ nx τ ny τ nz ] = [n x ny nz ] [τ xx τ xy τ xz τ yx τ yy τ yz τ zx τ zy τ zz ]
So, simple matrix multiplication of we have the values of nx, ny, nz. We have values of all the
9 components here, simple matrix multiplication, you can use your calculator as well and get
this three components of the stress vector, but they are along x, y, z axes.
[τ nx τ ny τ nz ] = [2/3 1/3 2/3 ] [2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 ] = [2.33 2 3 ]
tn = 2.33i + 2j + 3k
Now, this is a first step, where we related the component of stress tensor to components of
stress vector along x, y, z axis. What is our objective? We have to find out along normal and
tangential directions. So, next step is to find components of stress vector. Normal to plane,
that is one component which is a normal stress and tangential to the plane, two components
of them are there, they are the shear stresses.
Now, we have got a vector, we want component along a particular direction. Simple, what we
should do just take projection of the vector along that direction. This we have already done. If
you recall back when we discussed about Reynolds transport theorem, integral balances
etcetera, remember we had a let us say an out flow surface, and then we had normal to the
surface, and then we had velocity vector along some other direction. What do we do? We
took v .n , which means that we are taking a component of v vector along the normal. So, to
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find projection of any vector along some other direction, it is enough if you just take a dot
product of the vector with the direction vector that is what we have done here. We wanted
when we say v .n , it is component of v along the n direction. So, we were interesting in
getting what is the velocity along this normal direction, so we took up a projection of this.
Similarly, here we have one stress vector, we have the components of that, but we want
components of the stress vector acting among some three well directions. So, we have to take
a dot product of this vector with the direction vector which means that now, if you find out
the three direction vectors this is nothing, but the stress vector. If you have vectors for all the
three direction just take dot product that is what we are going to do now. This step is simple
taking the dot product. What we are going to discuss now is what are the three direction
vectors among n, S1, S2.
So, just to put it very clearly; we have evaluated τ nx , τ ny , τ nz . We want to evaluate along
the normal which is τ nn and then other component is along S1 and S2, τ nS 1 another
component is τ nS 2 . Right now what we are doing is, we are going to find out what is n
vector, what is S1 vector, what is S2 vector. If you know that simple dot product of this stress
vector with the direction vectors will give you the components along normal and the
tangential directions.
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Among this n is already known, n is given to us. So, what is objective? To find unit vectors
along normal and tangential directions that is objective, once you do that, simple dot product.
n = [2/3 1/3 2/3 ]
Now, unit vector along normal is given to us because that is a plane we are given, so n is
given to us. Now, we have to find out the tangential directions.
Now, recall back that, when we introduce this coordinate system we introduce that coordinate
system we introduce as a orthogonal coordinate system, n is normal to the plane, S1, S2 on the
surface of the plane. All these three directions form a orthogonal coordinate system. And we
will use this to find out S1 and S2, to find unit vectors along tangential directions that is the
objective right now, because n is known to us.
Now, the three unit vectors from orthogonal coordinate system; what does it mean? The dot
product of these vectors in pair should be 0,
n.S 1 = S 1 .S 2 = S 2 .n = 0
Let us call
S 1 = [a1 a2 a3 ]
Those are the components which have to identify and then
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S 2 = [b1 b2 b3 ]
And, those are the components which are the components to be identified.
Now, if you see there will be one degree of freedom which means that out of 6 components
one can be arbitrarily or should be specified and we take one of the components to be 0. Here
we have taken that
a2 = 0
Now, will find out S1, as we have discussed now, they form orthogonal coordinate system, so,
S 1 .n = 0
2
a
3 1
+ 23 a3 = 0
a1 =− a3
S 1 .n should be equal to 0 because they are perpendicular to each other.
Now, remember S1 is a unit vector, which means that
a21 + a22 + a23 = 1
So,
a2 = 0; a1 =− a3 → a21 = a23
So,
2a21 = 1→ a1 = 1
√2
; a3 = − 1
√2
Which means that we have found out what is the S1 vector,
S1 = [ 1
√2
0 − 1
√2 ] = [0.707 0 − 0.707 ]
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Now, we have to find out the S2 vector; to find components of S2. Now, once again will use
the fact that all three form a orthogonal coordinate system, and S2 is perpendicular to both n
and S1. So, how do you find out S2? Simply, as the cross product of n and S1. We know that
result of a cross product is perpendicular to both the vectors. So, S2 is perpendicular to both n
and S1, so we will use this fact to find out S2.
S2 = n x S1
[b1 b2 b3 ] = i j k 23 1 2
3 3
a1 a2 a3
You have found out already a1 , a2 , a3 . Of course, a2 was assumed. So, now, let us find out
component wise,
The ith component of S2 vector
b1 = 13 a3 − 23 a2 = 1
3 (− ) − 0 =− 0.236
1
√2
Similarly, for b2 of course,
b2 − ( 23 a3 − 23 a1 ) =− [ (− ) − ( )] =+ 0.943
2
3
1
√2
2
3
1
√2
Then similarly the kth component, component on the z-axis is
b3 = 23 a2 − 13 a3 = 0 − 1
3 ( ) =− 0.236
1
√2
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Of course, many of us would have used about cross product, used it in moments etcetera. It is
another example where we are finding one direction is perpendicular to two other direction
using cross product, and I would say application of cross product, yeah. So, now, you are
determined S2 vectors.
S 2 = [− 0.236 0.943 − 0.236 ]
Let us summaries all the results, whatever we have got. Last one more step is left out. We
have found out all the unit vectors along normal and tangential directions. Let us, list them
n = [2/3 1/3 2/3 ]
S 1 = [0.707 0 − 0.707 ]
S 2 = [− 0.236 0.943 − 0.236 ]
Then as we are discussed earlier simple dot product of stress vector with these direction
vectors will give the component along n, S1, S2, and that is what you are going to do now.
Component of vector along a direction, just repeating what we are discussed earlier, it is
vector dotted with direction vector, want to emphasis that the dot product. So, the stress
vector is in terms of x, y, z component is
tn = [233 2 3 ]
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tn = 2.33i + 2j + 3k
And,
So, τ nn is the component of stress vector along normal to the plane or the normal stress
acting on the plane.
τ nn = tn .n = 4.22
τ nS 1 = tn .S 1 =− 0.471
And,
τ nS 2 = tn .S 2 = 0.629
So, now, you are able to express the stress vector in terms of components along normal and
tangential directions. Look at the way we expressed a tn here in terms of i, j, k, they are the
unit vectors. Here the unit vectors are n, and then S1, and then S2. The components are
whatever we have found out right now 4.22, minus 0.471 and then plus 0.629. So, that was
what we required.
tn = 4.22n − 0.471 S 1 + 0.629 S 2
We wanted the components of stress vector along the normal to the plane and along the
direction, tangential directions. And this is the normal stress and these two are the shear
stresses. Only these are the normal stresses and shear stress acting on the plane that was our
objective, we have done a complete cycle I would say. When we began with solid mechanics
this is the diagram we saw. Then we went to x, y, z components, then we went to the 9
components. Then, now we are complying in the reverse directions, 9 components, x, y, z
components and then components along n, S1, S2. In terms of discussion we came in the
forward direction, in terms of application you going in the reverse direction that should be
kept in mind. In fact, now only will be have a clear idea why do we start, where we start,
where we end, how to connect etcetera.
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Now, there are so many terms on stress. So, I think it is time to summaries them, so that have
a clear understanding and you really mean what you mention. So, far causally would have
talked about stress, that could be in average, that could be in a vector, that could be in tensor.
τ = [τ xx τ xy τ xz τ yx τ yy τ yz τ zx τ zy τ zz ]
So, these stress with the 9 components this stress tensor. Remember all are at a point stress
tensor, ok; it has 9 components, you call them as component of stress tensor. And the
diagonal components are normal stresses, τ xx , τ yy , τ zz because they are acting normal to the
respective planes x-plane, y-plane, z-plane. Off diagonal elements they are all the shear stress
components acting on the respective planes x-plane, y-plane, z-plane.
And now, tn is the stress vector acting on any plane. Moment you see n, it is of course,
represents any plane. And now, this stress vector has components, components of stress
vector. Those components can be two ways, τ nx , τ ny , τ nz , along x, y, z axis or it could be
τ nn , τ nS 1 , τ nS 2 which is are we interested in as the normal and shear stress acting on any
plane. So, that kinds of summarizes what you are discussed in terms of terminology.
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Remember, when we discuss ocean on ocean applying the continued equation to estimation
of down the velocity in ocean, we discuss this coordinate axes. So, the first one is something
very familiar to us, and if you switch this x, y, z twice then you get the third coordinate axis,
no, and then we discussed what the advantages etcetera. You may be wondering why this
coordinate axis now.
Reason is very simple. I am going to show all the results using three-dimensional graphs
using MATLAB and MATLAB uses the third coordinate axis default. With lot of difficulty
and some effort it can be changed, but just because to be easy and then, so that you can also
try to reproduce in the results, I am just presenting the way in which MATLAB represents
and that coordinate axis what is shown here. That is why just recollect showing these three
coordinate axes. So, what we will see is whatever you have seen in terms of numbers and
vectors, and set of elements matrices, etcetera, we will see pictorially in terms of 3D
representation.
496
First all our attention on the plane and the normal to the plane, so that is the first graph. What
you are seeing here is x, y, z coordinate axis and the plane is shown and of course, the plane
is shown so large always imagine, it is a very small plane, it is a point. And we are given the
components of the normal to the plane and so the plane and the normal to the plane are shown
here. Our objective is to find out normal stress and shear stress on this plane. That will be the
final a diagram, final 3D graph. In between, let us see what happens.
497
This is the plane whose normal is x axis. So, that that plane is shown. And remember the x
axis here, so normal to that plane is also shown here.
Now, remember when the stress tensor is given the first row represents the components of
stress vector acting on x-plane. So, what is shown here is the stress vector acting on x-plane
and those components are shown. The x component is 2, the y component is 1, z component
is 1. Now, you are seeing the, in fact, we are also seeing the x-plane; x-plane is shown, stress
vector in x-plane is shown, the components are also shown. Of course, this components are
along x, y, z axis.
498
Now, analogously is an the y-plane and the normal to the y-plane is shown. Of course, we
should understand that this is the y axis, so that is why this is the y-plane, and normal to the
y-plane in facing something away from us.
Now, similarly the second row represents the component stress, components of stress vector
acting on the y-plane, so these are y-plane. And the stress vector acting on y-plane is shown,
and the components are shown this is the x component this is the y component and this is the
z component.
499
Now, similarly z-plane of course very easy to see because something in the floor, and the
normal to the z-plane is also shown.
And the last row represent the components of the stress vector on z-plane. And the
components are along the x axis 1, y axis 1 and z axis 3. Now, we have seen the
representation information given to us, that is all we have done.
500
Now, what did you do? We applied the Cauchy’s formula and found out the components of
stress vector along x, y, z axis that is what is shown here. The plane is also shown. And then
the normal vector to the plane is shown here, and the stress vector acting on the plane is also
shown.
Now, what else is shown? The components of stress vector along x, y, z axis is shown and the
component are 2.33, 2, and 3. Of course, you do not see as 2.33 because the angular view. So,
this is representation of our intermediate result. That is a result which you obtain after
applying Cauchy’s formula; gives a components of stress vector, but along x, y, z axis. Now,
the final result.
501
Now, let me explain what is shown here, the plane certainly and then first let me explain the
axis. Axis important is for this figure are the normal and the tangential directions. So, the
normal to the plane is shown. The first tangential direction S1 is shown, second tangential
direction S2 is also shown.
Now, the stress vector acting on the plane is shown by this yellow arrow mark. What I shown
here is a representation which used in the previous slide in terms of x, y, z axis. More
importantly what you see here is a representation of the along in terms of components, along
our chosen coordinate axis which is attached to the plane that is why you see here n, S1, S2.
Now, let us look at the components. 4.22 acts along the normal, then minus 0.471, but it is
minus 0.471 that is why you have along the negative direction to S1 is along this direction
because we have minus 0.471, it acts opposite to that. Finally, you have S2, tangential vector
the values 0.629 and that is what you see in the magenta colour.
So, we have shown the plane, and then the three coordinate directions, and then we also
shown the stress vector, and also shown the normal stress component and the stress
components. Of course, the arrows are not sharp. I made them very thick, so that becomes
easy to visualize.
502
Lecture – 42
Properties of stress tensor – Part 1
Now, we will discuss the properties of the components of stress tensor and how does it help
us in terms of simplification. The two dimensional plane element is shown here. So, how do
you imagine two ways of imagining, every kind of imagine is a plate like this or a character
of imagining is the small two dimensional region inside a solid object as usual. We said
tetrahedron inside a solid object now this two dimensional element inside the solid object.
And then it has a thickness we are going to proof for two dimensional case then we can
extend for three dimensional case. Now, so we have a plate and it has a thickness and we are
given the dimensions ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑦 and then let us say thickness is h.
And the stresses acting on the different surfaces the normal and shear stresses are shown, let
us go one by one. We have τ̇𝑥𝑥 on the right face, remember all the forces are shown in the
positive sense. Which means that we are using our sin convention on a positive face force
should be along positive direction negative face force should be along negative direction, that
is what I mean by positive sense.
503
So, the right side face called as τ̇𝑥𝑥 and it is along the positive x axis, the left side face we
have τ𝑥𝑥, so along with negative x axis. Now, take the y direction we have τ̇𝑦𝑦on the positive
y face, τ𝑦𝑦 on the negative y face, so these are the normal stresses. We have specifically taken
τ𝑥𝑥 on the left hand side and some other value τ̇𝑥𝑥 on the right hand side, similarly in the y
direction also to begin with later on we will see what happens.
Now, let us go to the shear stresses on the right face we have τ̇𝑥𝑦, xy because the plane is x
and direction is y; shown in the positive sense because, normal is along with positive axis
force along positive axis. So now, coming to the left face I have shown as the τ𝑥𝑦, it is a x
face hence tau x second subscript is y because force along y direction, negative face so force
along negative axis.
Now, let us take the top and bottom face and the top face it is τ̇𝑦𝑥, normal is along y direction
force along x direction both are positive and then we have τ𝑦𝑥 normal is y forces along x
direction and of course both are negative and then of course, what is shown are also the body
forces Bx along x direction, By along y direction ok. That is the terminology for this diagram
we will use this 2D element to arrive at properties of the components of stress tensor.
Now, as we have taken earlier we will take this two dimension element under equilibrium.
So, let us say for easy understanding plate is also under equilibrium which means that we can
do the force balance along x direction and we can do along y direction as well. Let us write
the force balance along x direction taking this element to be under equilibrium. Now, for
writing the force we need the direction, we need the stress and we need the area. So, three are
required let us do one by one, let us take the left face
− τ𝑥𝑥∆𝑦ℎ + τ̇𝑥𝑥∆𝑦ℎ − τ𝑦𝑥∆𝑥ℎ + τ̇𝑦𝑥∆𝑥ℎ + 𝐵𝑥∆𝑥∆𝑦ℎ = 0
Remember we should take components of the stress acting along x direction just like written
for the tetrahedron. So, τ𝑥𝑥 the force is along negative x axis so negative sign.
504
So, now τ̇𝑥𝑥 on the right side it is along positive axis so, this is positive. And now coming to
the shear stresses τ𝑦𝑥 that is along negative x axis. This equation represents the force balance
along x direction.
So, now let us cancel out h it is common, other way of explaining is just two dimensional
case h is common to all the terms.
− τ𝑥𝑥∆𝑦 + τ̇𝑥𝑥∆𝑦 − τ𝑦𝑥∆𝑥 + τ̇𝑦𝑥∆𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥∆𝑥∆𝑦 = 0
Now, we as usual even for this properties we are interested in getting properties violated at a
point always keep that in mind. We should shrink this plate this let say rectangle to a point we
do it in two different ways.
What we do now is take limit ∆𝑦→0, it will become a line. So, we have a plate ∆y ∆x we are
shrinking ∆𝑦→0 it becomes a line like a horizontal line. If you include this face alone will be
available the entire plate will become just this face alone. Just for visibility I have shown this
as a small rectangle either you can say it becomes a line if I attach a surface becomes a one
thin plane and that is what we see now.
− τ𝑦𝑥∆𝑥 + τ̇𝑦𝑥∆𝑥 = 0
So, I have this line or face now I will make ∆𝑥→0; it becomes a point.
τ𝑦𝑥 = τ̇𝑦𝑥
Now, if we take a rectangle it became a line then it became a point or if you take it as a plate
with the surface it became a surface alone then became a point.
So, eventually what is that we have done we have proved this relationship τ𝑦𝑥 = τ̇𝑦𝑥
I will explains what it means, for a point on a surface. We have a surface at every point on the
surface this relationship is valid. What is the physical significance of that? So, we have a let
us assume this is the plane on opposite sides of the plane the shear stresses are equal and
opposite that is all it says. On a surface the shear stresses acting on opposite side of a
interface of a surface are equal and opposite in direction.
505
Now once again remember when we derived the expression for a control volume tetrahedron
etcetera, we have always start with average values similarly applies here also at this stage
they are all average values. When you take limit finally, this limit in two successive stages
they become point values, all our relationship are to be derived at a point.
So, we have not distinguished in terms of nomenclature, but at first stage they are average
values the last equation they are point values. So, we have seen that τ𝑦𝑥 = τ̇𝑦𝑥 .
If you consider equilibrium along y direction then do the force balance along y direction, and
do the similar steps you will see is
τ𝑥𝑦 = τ̇𝑥𝑦
Here also, same physical significance but along other direction. If we have to face the shear
stress acting on opposite sides are equal and opposite in direction. So, these two are same. So,
shear stresses acting on opposite sides of an interface at a point, look at the sentence it says
opposite sides of an interface at a point. So, at every point on the surface this is valid, what is
it valid; their shear stresses equal in value of course and then oppositely directed. So, if you
take a face you have shear stress here shear stress here and they are opposite direction equal
in magnitude, either it be in x direction or x face y face or whatever face it is.
506
Now, what we will do? We will now start once again with the force balance in the x direction,
that step is same no change in it.
− τ𝑥𝑥∆𝑦ℎ + τ̇𝑥𝑥∆𝑦ℎ − τ𝑦𝑥∆𝑥ℎ + τ̇𝑦𝑥∆𝑥ℎ + 𝐵𝑥∆𝑥∆𝑦ℎ = 0
This step is same as last slide then divided by h as we done in the previous slide.
− τ𝑥𝑥∆𝑦 + τ̇𝑥𝑥∆𝑦 − τ𝑦𝑥∆𝑥 + τ̇𝑦𝑥∆𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥∆𝑥∆𝑦 = 0
Now, the difference appears, earlier we first took ∆𝑦→0 and then took ∆𝑥→0. So, what
happened? This rectangle became this face and then became a point, now what I am doing I
am taking ∆𝑥→0. So, first it becomes a vertical line. So, terms with ∆x will now vanish only
terms with ∆y will remains.
− τ𝑥𝑥∆𝑦 + τ̇𝑥𝑥∆𝑦 = 0
Now, I take ∆𝑦→0 exactly opposite of what we did in the last case. So now, what happens the
vertical line just become a point and this goes to a point.
τ𝑥𝑥 = τ̇𝑥𝑥
Now, this relationship is valid at every point in the face. So, if you have an interface and what
is significance, if you have a plane opposite sides of the plane the normal stresses acting on
opposite sides of the plane are equal in terms of magnitude opposite in direction. Now, repeat
the same exercise along the y direction you will prove that these normal stresses are equal in
magnitude opposite in direction. So, normal stresses acting on opposite sides of an interface
at a point equal in value oppositely directed. So, if you want to combine the previous slide
inference and this slide conclusion. If we have interface normal stresses are also equal and
opposite, shear stresses are also equal and opposite that is the conclusion from these two
slides.
507
Now, what we have discussed now, in fact, already used it though I did not explicitly
explained. Where do we use remember this is the stress element 3D stress element when I
marked and then we said nine components are there one more set nine components are there
in opposite direction, they both are equal and when I marked look at the way I represented,
right hand side it is τ𝑥𝑥 also left hand side I noted τ𝑥𝑥 I have not shown different value. Which
means that remember these are two different representations same surface on one side τ𝑥𝑥
other side τ𝑥𝑥 opposite direction.
So, in even in this nomenclature this has been used, though of course that not the point
discussed. Now, no we have to know how what was the concept used in representing τ𝑥𝑥 of
this side on τ𝑥𝑥 on the other side. Similarly I have used τ𝑥𝑦 in this direction and τ𝑥𝑦 in the
opposite direction, similarly τ𝑥𝑧 in this direction and τ𝑥𝑧 in the opposite directions.
So. In fact, we have used on opposite side of this in surface, the normal stresses are opposite
and equal similarly shear stress are equal and opposite. So, it has been used, but we have now
proved theoretically and justifying the nomenclature for the stress element.
508
Lecture - 43
Properties of stress tensor – Part 2
We will now derive another property for the components of stress tensor which will help us
to simplify the stress tensor. In this case, we do a moment balance for the same geometry.
And for the case of moment balance we need a axis of rotation, so that we can identify the
lever arm for each of the force. So, let us do that.
509
So, moment balance we are going to write. We take moments about an axis parallel to z axis
at corner A. We have plane in the xyz axis and I had taken a z axis at corner A. Now, let us
write down the moment balance. We will have to account for the sign, the force and the
perpendicular distance, 3 are to be accounted for each of them.
− τ̇ yx ∆xh∆y + τ̇ yy ∆xh ( ∆x
2 )
− τ yy ∆xh ( ∆x
2 )
+ τ xx ∆yh ( ) + τ̇
∆y
2 xy ∆yh∆x − τ̇ xx ∆yh ( ) − B ∆x∆yh ( ) + B ∆x
∆y
2 x
∆y
2 y
And we consider clockwise as negative anti-clockwise is positive. How do you assign

clockwise, anti-clockwise? Let us say you have pivoted your plate here and if you are
focusing on one force let us say that force deflects your plate in this direction that is
anti-clockwise and then you pivot it let us say that force deflects your plate in the clockwise
that is clockwise sense. That is how we identify the sign. Let us keep this in mind and let us
look at the sign of each. So, τ̇ yx , we pivot it and then allow that force alone it will rotate in
the clockwise direction. That is why it is negative, anti-clockwise is positive. So, we
multiplied the stress with the area to get the force and multiply with the perpendicular
distance and taken the sense of rotation as well.
Now, let us go to τ̇ yy . Now, this will rotate in the anti-clockwise direction. If you pivot it
here and allow this force this will rotate in the anti-clockwise direction and that is why this is
positive.
510
And let us go to the next term τ yy . So, now, this will rotate in the clockwise direction. This is
acting in this direction, if you pivot it here this will rotate in the clockwise direction and that
is why you have negative sign here. So, similarly you can explain other terms for τ̇ xy , τ˙ xx ,
and τ xx .
Now, coming to the body force. We have Bx per unit volume, so we multiply by volume you
get the force per unit volume multiplied by volume you get the force and if you leave the B x
it rotates in the clockwise direction that is why this negative. Analogously for the that due to
the y direction body force By multiplied by volume perpendicular distance. That is a moment
balance.
Now, let us write that quickly the moment balance here.
2 )
2 )
+ τ xx ∆yh ( ) + τ̇
∆y
∆y
2 x
∆y
2 y
Now, we will divide by ∆x∆yh that is the next step,
− τ̇ yx + τ̇ yy ( ) − τ ( ) + τ ( ) + τ̇
∆x
2∆y yy
∆x
2∆y xx
∆y
2∆x xy − τ̇ xx ( )−B ( )+B
∆y
2∆x x
∆y
2 y ( ∆x2 ) = 0
Then,
− τ̇ yx + (τ˙ yy − τ yy ) 12 ( ) + (τ
∆x
∆y xx − τ̇ xx ) 12 ( ) + τ̇
∆y
∆x xy − Bx ( )+B
∆y
2 y ( ∆x2 ) = 0
511
Now, what should you do next? We are trying to find a relationship at a point. So, as usual
take limit ∆x→0 , ∆y→0 , it becomes a point. Now, as I repeated several times, it becomes
very evident here, you should keep the aspect ratio same. You should not say that ∆x→0 ,
∆y→0 , it becomes indeterminate. We shrink the plate keeping the expect aspect ratio same,
∆x
so this ∆y is a finite value till the final point to string to a point. So, it becomes very clear
this example, in this particular case. We are done told this several times for control volume,
surface, etcetera. Here there is a ratio of the dimensions of the length and width. You are
∆x
sinking this plate to a point and should always keep the aspect ratio, so ∆y is a finite value
till even though both of them tends to 0. And as usual, when I write the moment balance they
are all average values, now they become point values.
So, now as we proved earlier,
τ xx = τ̇ xx
τ̇ yy = τ yy
So, now, because ∆x→0 , ∆y→0 , the body terms also will not contribute. So, what is left out
are only the shear stress terms. So, now, all the terms vanishes resulting in
τ̇ yx = τ̇ xy
512
Now, we have taken this moment, moment about A and proved that τ̇ yx = τ̇ xy . So, it is
intuition, by intuition we can say that to prove others we should correspondingly take
moments about other axis. So, let us take moment about corner C. We take moment about
corner C, so obviously, we will prove that
τ xy = τ yx
Now, taking moments about corner B, if you take about corner B then we will prove that
τ̇ xy = τ yx
Finally, taking moments about corner D. Corner D, then we will prove that
τ̇ yx = τ xy
Eventually, what happens? Though there are 4 terms shown there all of them are same. We
have proved shown that though I have drawn to begin with the different variables all of them
are the same values; all of them are τ xy that is all. What is the conclusion? Cross, shears, the
shear stresses acting on adjacent faces at a point are equal. You have a point, earlier it was
same face opposite side. Now, we have two adjacent faces.
So, cross shears acting on adjacent faces are equal that is a conclusion. What is the
implication of that? Stress tensor is symmetric, only 6 independent components, that is some
relief for us, otherwise we are deal with 9 stress tensor components. Thanks to this equality,
thanks to the moment balance that only 6 independent components.
τ = [τ xx τ xy τ xz τ yx τ yy τ yz τ zx τ zy τ zz ]
We proved that,
τ xy = τ yx ; τ zx = τ xz ; τ yz = τ zy
So,
τ = [τ xx τ xy τ xz τ xy τ yy τ yz τ xz τ yz τ zz ]
So, among the 6 off diagonal elements we need to consider only 3 of them, look at the way in
this stress tensor has written. Earlier we have written as all the 9 to be independent. Here
these lower diagonal elements below the diagonal are written as same as those above the
diagonal. So, in this stress tensor representation only 6 independent components are shown, 3
513
along the diagonal and only 3 off diagonal elements; not 6 off diagonal elements. So, only 6
components have to be dealt with. Same thing can be extended to other planes as well.
What you have discussed is these 4. Similarly of course, representation from Parnes, that
τ yz = τ zy that is what we have seen and similarly these two on the opposite faces; τ zx = τ xz
similarly opposite faces. Even the example which you have consider the numerical example
to illustrate stress element, we took only a symmetric stress tensor. Though of course, I did
not really mention that time, now we can recall saying that it says what a symmetric stress
tensor.
514
Now, what we have derived is under static condition because an equilibrium condition, but
whatever results we have seen are valid under dynamic conditions also. And that is what we
are going to just mention here, not really prove. Let us summarize what we have done, all the
results whatever I discussed so far in this part.
● Remember we started with Cauchy’s formula. We wrote a force balance.
● The force balance is shown here. On the right hand side was 0, all the time we took
the right hand side to be 0 and,
● Next, we proved that shear stresses acting on opposite sides of interface at a point and
normal stresses acting on opposite sides of an interface at a point are equal in value
opposite direction. For that we use the force balance again, of course, geometry is no
different for the case of Cauchy’s formula it was tetrahedron, now it is a two
dimensional plate. Here again, right hand side was 0.
− τ xx ∆yh + τ̇ xx ∆yh − τ yx ∆xh + τ̇ yx ∆xh + B x ∆x∆yh = 0
● Now, for cross shears we proved that shear stress on adjacent plane adjacent faces at a
point are equal, we wrote a moment balance. Again in the moment balance we took
the right hand side to be 0, all these equations the force balance at the right hand side
0, the moment balance the right hand side 0 are all under static conditions.
515
2 )
2 )
+ τ xx ∆yh ( ) + τ̇
∆y
∆y
2 x
∆y
2 y
If you are writing the balance under dynamic conditions what will you have in the
right hand side, you will have a rate of change of term, rate of change of momentum
term. And then you will have rate of change of linear momentum for force balance.
You will have rate of change of angular momentum for the momentum balance. But
those terms are all proportional to volume, proportional to mass and,
● Remember, when we took the limit ∆ x →0 , ∆y→0 these terms wherever you had
body force they are also proportion the volume. They never played a role in the final
relationship. These terms never played final role in the final relationship. So, even if
you include the right hand side, the rate of change of linear momentum rate of change
of angular momentum those being proportional to the volume or mass, they will not
play a role.
● In the surface area, you have some linear dimensions squared length into width or
something, there you will have length width and some thickness also is there that is
proportional to volume. When you shrink ∆ x →0 , ∆y→0 , one linear dimension
remains and when you shrink to 0 that will vanish. So, those will not contribute. So,
that is why we are not, just to avoid complexity we are just mentioning you are not
taking that into account the derivation, but intuitively reasoning out we can
understand.
● So, derive for static condition valid and dynamic condition also. We have discussed
that rate of change of linear angular momentum proportional to the volume of element
will vanish in the limit ∆ x →0 , ∆y→0 . So, we should not assume or come to the
conclusion that these results are valid only under static condition. They are certainly
valid under dynamic conditions also. That is the key thing I have to say.
516
So, let us summarize we derived a relationship between the stress vector and stress tensor,
namely the Cauchy’s formula, simple force balance. So, now, we should you know what is
that relationship, simply writing a force balance. And we also discussed what do you mean by
stress at a point conceptually. It has all the information for finding out stress vector on any
plane.
We looked at a numerical example represent that in terms of 3D representation in terms of

vectors. Then we arrived the properties of stress tensor first is that opposite sides of
interphase the shear stresses and the normal stresses are equal and opposite. And we also
discuss about equality of cross shears, two adjacent planes, the shear stresses are equal.
Important conclusion is that the stress tensor is symmetric, that is the most important to take
away from the second property.
517
So, this brings us to the close of our first visit to solid mechanics. In terms of our journey to
the Navier-Stokes equation we started with the Newton’s second law of motion, applied the
Reynolds transport theorem and derived the integral form of linear momentum balance. We
applied that for a small control volume, derived the differential form of linear momentum
balance, the left hand side and the gravity on the right hand side.
And we had surface forces in the right hand side understand surface forces, we took a
diversion to solid mechanics. And now, this highlighted box is very clear to us, we discuss
about stress vector, stress tensor, the relationship between the two and the properties of stress
tensor.
518
Summarize whatever I discussed during the first visit to solid mechanics. These are the topics
which I discussed. We defined a stress vector, force acting on a given surface per unit area.
We discuss about a stress tensor and a stress tensor that is 9 components and these are the
components of stress vector acting on 3 planes parallel to the 3 coordinate planes. We also
discuss about the sign convention for the components of stress tensor, and then we related the
stress vector to the stress tensor by the Cauchy’s formula and hence discussed the state of
stress as stress at a point.
We derive the properties of stress tensor. What are the properties? On the opposite sides of an
inter phase the normal and the shear stresses are equal, but opposite in direction and we also
proved by using a moment balance that the cross shears are equal which means that the stress
tensor is symmetric.
519
Lecture - 44
Total stress tensor for fluids
We are in the process of deriving the differential form of the linear momentum balance.
Then, to understand the surface forces in the right hand side we took a diversion to solid
mechanics and now that we understood the internal stresses through solid mechanics, we are
traversing back through this arrow mark and coming back to fluids. And, then we are going to
discuss total stress. We will understand that is we go along or in general internal stresses in
fluids.
520
In terms of our journey, we start with Newton’s second law of motion, apply the Reynolds
Transport theorem, derive the integral form of the linear momentum balance and then apply it
there for a small control volume, derived the differential form, the left hand side of that and
then we considered the body force the right hand side and then there are surface forces. To
understand that only we went to we took a diversion to solid mechanics.
We discussed stress vector, we discussed stress tensor, also relationship between these two,
we also looked at properties of stress tensor. Now that is the block in orange. Let us move to
the two blocks shown in terms of blue color it is applicable for fluids. What do they mean we
will understand later, but should know that in terms of our journey to the Navier-Strokes we
are in this highlighted portion. Once we do that we will be able to complete the differential
form of linear momentum balance.
521
So, that is the outline of course for a part of the differential linear momentum balance. We
will introduce total stress tensor for fluids and then discuss solids versus fluids. What are the
differences between solids and fluids? Some properties are known to you, very well known to
everybody. We will discuss specifically in terms of properties were relevant to our scope
from a mechanics point of you.
And, then we quantify total stress and fluids write in terms of expression and then we will be
in a position as I told you to complete the differential linear momentum balance, namely the
surface forces in the right hand side. And, then you would feel that we are almost there, but
then we will come across a new problem which call as a closer problem. We will discuss that
as well.
522
I used the word introduce because we have discussed stress tensor for solids. Now, for the
case of fluids introduce another nomenclature T. In the case of solids it was τ . Now,
introduce T as a total stress tensor. If you look at the components, they are analogous to our
components of τ
T = [T xx T xy T xz T yx T yy T yz T zx T zy T zz ]
Now, why these total stress tensor? Of course right now just a statement you understand as
we go along; when a fluid is stationary, some stresses are acting, when a fluid flows
additional stresses are acting. So, you should combine both this and that is why we call as
total stress.
We will discuss and you will understand clearly what this statement means as we go along,
right now just introduction. All discussions on stress tensor τ for solids are extendable to T
for fluids whether it is stationary or flowing. This is what you are going to discuss now, going
to be a just it is going to be a just revision of what you done for solid mechanics with a
change in nomenclature from τ to T. Putting it the other way, suppose if you are not gone to
solid mechanics to understand surface forces. We have remained in fluid mechanics and
discuss surface forces in fluids itself that is this is how I would have started.
But just have better clear understanding and also to understand analogy between solids and
fluids, we went there understood clearly I would say and then we come back. If we have
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starting straight away with fluid mechanics let us say stress and fluids, then this is how we
would start.
The slides we are going to see now are same slides as we have come across for solids. Only
difference is the nomenclature not alone that when you now imagine visualize you should
imagine this is a fluid body. Because, it is little difficult to imagine as a fluid body it was very
easy for us to let us say take a solid look at a section etcetera. We went to solid mechanics
and we are come back.
So, now of course a color also matches more the fluid rather than a solid I would say. So,
now what did we say? We began our solid mechanics on stress saying that I have a solid
make a section. All these are applicable for a fluid and then we said at a point there is any
surface. Just imagine as of this is a fluid body and then we are at a particular point and there
is a surface at a particular angle.
So, now what did we do? We defined a stress vector. We can define for fluids as well and
then we said we will introduce three directions one normal to the plane and two tangential to
the plane n, S1, S2. Only difference now is when I resolve the stress vector I resolve in terms
of T nn , T nS 1 and T nS 2 .
tn = T nn n + T nS 1 S 1 + T nS 2 S 2
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Earlier there are in terms of τ nn , τ nS 1 , τ nS 2 ; that is why I told you whatever you discuss for
tau, it is all applicable for the T tensor.
So, now the components are denoted as T nn , T nS 1 and T nS 2 the significance remind same
normal stress and then shear stresses, normal stress perpendicular to the plane shear stresses
on the surface of the plane. So, this whatever I discussed is completely applicable for fluids.
Now, what do we do next? We said we will consider any plane, but resolve the stress vector
along x, y, z axis. Exactly it is applicable now also, but now as usual of course as I told you
imagine as the fluid body and then now the components are T nx , T ny , T nz . Earlier we had
τ nx , τ ny , τ nz . So, instead of that now we have T nx , T ny , T nz
tn = T nx i + T ny j + T nz k
The discussion still remains valid instead of resolving the stress vector along coordinates
associate with the plane. We are resolving the stress vector along our usual Cartesian
co-ordinate axis namely x, y, z. So, same first subscript represents the direction of the plane,
second subscript represents the direction of the component of.
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Now, we said instead of considering the plane I will consider three planes which are parallel
to the coordinate plane same discussion applies now also, but now these point is inside a fluid
domain and this planes are inside the fluid domain. Now, what did we say? We considered
stress vectors acting on these three planes one by one, we consider for example, the x plane.
Now, the stress vector acting on the x plane is resolved into the components T xx , T xy , T xz
instead of the our earlier τ xx , τ xy , τ xz .
tx = T xx i + T xy j + T xz k
Similarly, stress vector acting on the y plane and stress vector acting on the z plane are
ty = T yx i + T yy j + T yz k
tz = T zx i + T zy j + T zz k
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So, what we will do just like we did for solid; we will put together all the three components
of each of the stress vectors acting on these coordinate planes into a stress tensor.
T = [T xx T xy T xz T yx T yy T yz T zx T zy T zz ]
This is the total stress tensor. The same slide as we have discussed for solids I shown here.
Instead of stress tensor I use the word total stress tensor and then all the discussions are
applicable here as well, we can represent that using a stress element where now we have 9
components. On the other surface we have other 9 components. You can choose any one of
them.
And, then in terms of significance the first subscript represents the direction of the normal to
their plane and second subscript represents the direction of the force. So, as we have seen for
τ , we have this 9 stress tensor components, total stress tensor components which we said
total stress tensor or simply let us say matrix, and in terms of sign convention it is applicable
and in terms of significance the diagonal elements are the normal stresses and off-diagonal
are the shear stresses. So, every discussion is applicable for fluids what I discussed for solids.
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Then, we wanted to relate the components of stress vector to the components of the stress
tensor and we discussed the Cauchy’s law. Now, the title says relationship between stress
vector and total stress tensor. It was simple force balance. So, it applicable now as well but
only thing only difference as I told you is that this tetrahedron to begin with is inside of fluid
body, inside of fluid domain where fluid is flowing not necessarily fluid stationery.
We have a domain through which fluid is flowing and this tetrahedron is inside the fluid
domain and you are interested in any surface in the fluid domain. And then we took a force
balance and then we shrink the tetrahedron to the point. All those are exactly valid here as
well. Now, what is the difference in terms of nomenclature in this diagram I have shown?
The stress factor of course is tn , but now the components are T nx , T ny , T nz and then the
stress tensor components as we have seen are T xx , T xy , T xz and analogously for other
phrases y phase and z phase.
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Now, we derive the Cauchy’s formula. So, simple force balance certainly applicable now as
well. Now,
T nx = T xx nx + T yx ny + T zx nz
T ny = T xy nx + T yy ny + T zy nz
T nz = T xz nx + T yz ny + T zz nz
T nx , T ny , and T nz are related to the components of the total stress tensor. So, let us put and
then we express that in form of a simple matrix multiplication, same is applicable now as
well.
[T nx T ny T nz ] = [nx ny nz ] [T xx T xy T xz T yx T yy T yz T zx T zy T zz ]
tn = n.T
Now, the difference is that their stress vector is equal to the normal dotted with or matrix
multiplication between n vector and total stress tensor, analogous description only this
nomenclature change. Physically what it means we will discuss now.
So this statement is applicable now; if you know the 9 components of total stress tensor; we
can calculate stress vector acting on any plane passing through that point in a fluid domain.
You can just add saying that in a fluid domain.
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Now, we derived the properties of the components of stress tensor. Now it is total stress
tensor. All the properties are applicable. Now, look at the advantage of going to solid
mechanics, solid mechanics I could say that this is a plate. Consider a plate or imagine as a
2D region in a inside a solid.
Now, you can easy now we extend that it is a two dimensional region or a plane in a fluid
domain. That is advantage of one big advantage of going to solid mechanics. I can show you
something. I cannot show you fluid domain like this in a region of fluid domain, but I can
easily show you like this in a solid and so, now it is easy for us to extend all the discussion to
case of fluids and look at the nomenclature all in terms of T, components of the total stress
tensor. So, let us quickly list whatever you have discussed earlier
● Shear stresses acting on opposite sides of interface at a point. So, you have a interface.
Now this interface is inside of fluid domain. On opposite sides of interface we have
seen that the shear stresses are equal in value oppositely directed. So, in our
nomenclature now it is
T xy = Ṫ xy
● Now, normal stresses acting on opposite sides of an interface at a point Once again a
plane inside a fluid domain, normal stresses are equal in value and oppositely
directed. So, in our nomenclature in terms of T
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T xx = Ṫ xx
● Finally we are said the cross shears, the shear stresses acting on adjacent face at a
point; if we have a two adjacent faces, the shear stresses acting on adjacent face at a
point once again inside a fluid domain are equal. So, in terms of our nomenclature
T xy = T yx
Similarly other components are equal. So, the total stress tensor is symmetric just like we said
τ is symmetric, the total stress tensor. As of now what we have done is, we have something
called τ for solids, we have something called T for fluids. What actually means we are going
to discuss now, but right now as I told you; if we would started discussion for fluid
straightaway, we would have set worked in terms of T. That is what I have done quickly,
having discussed all the concepts using solid mechanics.
531
Lecture - 45
Comparison of solids and fluids
Now we are proceeding towards understanding, what is the total stress tensor, why did we
call as total stress tensor, what are the components, what is the meaning for the word total
there? Now to do that we will have to understand distinction between solids and fluids that is
what we are going to do now. A very nice table (in the above referred slide) from this book
by Shaughnessy and others Introduction to Fluid Mechanics.
This table shows the characteristics on the first column and then these characteristics are
listed for solids and then within fluids we have liquids and then gases. Now there are several
characteristics listed, several properties listed. We will discuss these properties in two sets;
first the highlighted properties we will discuss, then the unhighlighted properties will be
discussed which of course I will highlight later. What is the distinction between these two set
of properties. The highlighted properties here are very well known to us. Everyone of us will
easily know these differences.
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The other difference are something very special to this mechanics of fluid versus solids. So,
we will discuss next. What we going to discuss is just a revision of what you already know in
terms of differences between solids, liquids and gases. So, let us go through that
● Distance between adjacent molecules, smallest in solids, small in liquids, large in

gases known to us
● Molecular arrangement ordered in gases, it is random. So, liquids we can say semi
ordered.
● Strength of molecular interaction of course strong in solids, intermediate in liquids
and weak in gases
● Ability to confirm to the shape of a container if you take a container and put a solid
that will have its own shape. So, it will not confirmed the shape of a container. If you
take a liquid, yes it will take the shape of the container itself, gas certainly yes
● Capacity to expand without limit. Now if you once again take a cylinder that is the
good example to take and then you take a solid that will occupy its own space. So, it
cannot expand and if you take a liquid once again, it cannot expand to the entire
region, whatever volume it occupies, it will occupy only so much volume, but
suppose if you fill the gas and you keep expanding the piston larger and larger away
from the bottom surface, the entire space will be occupied by gas. So, that is why it
says capacity to expand without limit is yes for gases.
● Ability to exhibit of free surface if you have a solid it exhibits a free surface, if you
take a liquid inside this exhibit the free surface, but gas you cannot define a free
surface,.
Now these are the differences well known well known to us. We have just revised it I would
say.
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So, now we are going to discuss the difference between solids and fluids which will lead to
our understanding of the total stress tensor. What I have shown on the left hand side, we have
taken two plates and then let say we have a solid object.
Let us say we have solid object. Imagine it is completely solid and I have a solid object
between these two plates and this object is fixed to the bottom plate and then I am applying
tangential force to the top plate and that is what I have shown here stationery rigid bottom
plate and the rigid upper plate in contact with the sample and then you are applying a
tangential force.
Now, what happens, the solid object deforms for our case. We will see what formally
deformation is later, right. Now we will say change in angle. That is what you see here. Let
us say in front it was a square it becomes some like a parallelogram. That is what is shown in
3D and that is shown here in the front view. If you mark points D and C to begin with, they
would have moved to D’ and C’.
So, now it starts deforming and internal shear stresses develop because of the external
tangential force. Now this deforms until the internal shear stresses balance the external force
and most important word is it stops deforming. That is all. It was in one state, then it deform
or change in angle. So, from one equilibrium state it went to another equilibrium state. So, it
means it has a resistor the shear stresses under static condition.
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These are very keywords of course I will summarize in the next slide. So, there was change in
angle and then you remember you continue to apply your tangential force, you are not
removed it continue to apply the tangential force. There is the deformation in our case change
in angle that happened until the internal shear stresses balance the external force and then it
stops deforming. After that it does not move. Something like it resisting the shear stresses and
it is static also.
This may happen whatever time period, but after that is independent of time. That is why we
say it goes from one equilibrium state to another equilibrium state. Now if you remove the
force, it will go back to the original state. Of course, all these happen at the micrometer level.
We cannot so easily see even when you apply a mega Pascal. Let us say force area of that
order, then these changes will be something order outer of 10 power minus 6. That is the
scale.
So, in that way it is little certainly difficult to see by naked eye, but it should be able to
imagine yourself. So, that is what happens for solids. One more explanation can be given by
using the cylinder. I will give the same analogy in terms of this Cartesian coordinate that is in
terms of cylindrical coordinates.
Now, there was some equilibrium state. Now the force required for this deformation depends
on how far it is from the original equilibrium state. If you want to deform further and further
let say you have D’, you have C’, so more force is required to deform further and further
from away from the original equilibrium state. So, it depends on the angle for our purpose
what happens here in a cylinder. Let say in the cylinder you put a solid and you want to let
say you are interested in the force required to rotate the inside cylinder.
Now, the force required depends on how much want to deform the solid from an initial state
or initial equilibrium state how far you are away from that. All these keywords we will keep
and understand when it is distinguish fluids. So, how far from the original state matters in the
case of solids? So, that is what happens for the case of solids.
Now let us take in the case of fluid. I think the configuration is something known to us. For
the case of fluids we have come across few times. In our earlier lectures we said we consider
flow between two parallel plates.
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So, if you come across configuration few times and many times what we come across is
where both the plates are fixed, few times come across the configuration where the bottom
plate is fixed, the top plate is moving. That is a configuration we are seeing here. What is
shown here, bottom plate and then a top plate which is moving.
So, now instead of this imagine this to be a fluid body instead of a solid body and then it is
between two plates and then you are applying the tangential force. There also you continue to
apply the tangential force, here also you continue to apply the tangential force. Now what
happens in the case of fluids if you see here, this shows the configuration of the fluid, let say
shape of the fluid object and then it has undergone some change. After sometime if you
continue to apply the angle has further increased and that is what is shown here
schematically. Let say to begin with you mark points D and C. After sometime it moves to D’
C’ moves to D’’ C’’. As long as you continue to apply the force tangential force, it continues
to deform look at the distinction between solids and fluids. What did we say for the case of
solids? It deforms and stops deforming no further deformation. That is why D became D’ and
C become C’ that is all. That is why you said it went from one equilibrium state to another
equilibrium state, but now there is no such static condition at all it continues to deform.
So, what does it mean? If it is stationary, it cannot resist any shear stress. Moment you apply
even in the slightest shear stress, we apply slightest tangential force, you apply it will start
moving. So, that is why we say that fluids cannot resist shear stress under static condition,
moment you apply it, starts moving and as long as you continue to apply the fluid deforms
continuously and that is why we say fluid flows. I did not use the word flow for solid for the
case of fluid because it continuously deforms as long as we apply. We say the fluid flows.
Now, what happens if you remove the tangential force just retains. There is no regaining the
original shape, there is no preferred shape or anything for fluids. So, if you leave at this.
Leave meaning you stop applying the tangential force that is all. It will just stay there. So,
just retains them final state. So, now other way of explaining is that there is no change of
angle I can talk about from some initial state always that change of angle is 0 because every
instant there is the shape and the deviation from that state is 0. So, I cannot talk about a
change of angle, you will understand shortly.
Now, as we explained for the solids let us take in this case. I want interested in the force
required to move this plate. Now this will not depend on the angle, but it will depend on the
536
rate at which the angle changes. There is no preferred or something call initial state. So, I
cannot talk about a change in angle from initial state, but if you want to move the let us say
move the fluid faster, then you require larger force. So, depends on rate at which deformation
takes place or rate at with the angle changes easier to understand in terms of this cylindrical
geometry and between the two cylinders you now have a fluid.
Now, let say as earlier we are interested in the force required to rotate the inside cylinder.
Now it depends on how fast you rotate the inside cylinder. Earlier we said the force required
depends on how far we are from the initial state in the case of fluids; it depends on how fast
we rotate the cylinder. It depends only on the rate of angle change or rate of defamation.
These two differences deformation rate of deformation etcetera we will discuss again later in
detail.
I will also demonstrate this. I think this slide we have discussed earlier when we discussed
demonstration of a system. So, this slide is same as what we have discussed earlier. We have
come across this slide when we wanted to demonstrate a system. In fact, the same slide is
there. I will just change the title to fluids deform continuously. So, same demonstration can
be shown now to show that fluids deform continuously the configuration is well known to us.
Now, earlier we said I dye a particular region of fluid and then what happens in their focus on
that particular region etcetera instead of that just slightly change our imagination, change our
visualization. Instead of saying you identify a part of the fluid and call it as system just like in
537
our previous slide. So, imagine we have two plates and the red now represents the whatever
region of fluid which have discussed.
Now, when you start applying the force, let us see what happens. We have seen this video
earlier (Refer lecture video for better understanding), but earlier we viewed this as a system
and you are following the system now you view this as a volume of fluid and then that
deforms continuously as long as you apply the force. As long as I continue to move the top
plate, this fluid continuously deforms. That is why we say the fluid flows. So, now we have
seen in different ways the difference between solids and fluids etcetera.
Let us summarize them before that. Let us look at the differences which I have not discussed
same table. The differences now will become clear after our distinction between solids and
fluids. What are the differences? Look at the first difference.
● The first difference is response to shear stress. We have discussed now how does a
solid response to shear stress, how does a fluid response respond to shear stress? Now,
solids resist deformation and liquid resist rate of deformation, there is no discussion of
angle, but here it is rate of change of angle. That is why we said for solids how far
from the initial equilibrium state, but for liquids the force depends on the rate of
change of angle. Once again this particular difference we will discuss again and then
discuss later as well.
538
● Now, what are the other differences; able to resist a small tensile stress? What does it
mean? Let say you take flour and then you add water and then you apply let us say
this plate. Now of course we are applying a normal stress, but if you look at the
horizontal direction it is tensile. You are applying a normal stress perpendicular, but if
you apply in look at the other direction it looks as if you are applying a tensile stress
to the liquid. Take let us say a small full of water and applying let us say you apply
this force on the plate. Now, the liquid spreads becomes thinner and thinner and
thinner. It is equivalent to applying a tensile for its direction.
● Now let us discuss ability to resist a small tensile stress. What does it mean? If you
have a solid object and if you are applying a tensile stress or tensile forces opposite to
each other then it will resist the tensile stress. Yes in terms of liquids you can
theoretically say yes, but practically as explained you as long as you apply this normal
force, it keeps on thinning, thinning and thinning which means that just exchange
practically there is no ability to resist a tensile stress becomes thinner and thinner and
thinner which means that keeps on expanding. So, practically no but theoretically yes;
always if you look at the differences, the properties or liquids are in between of course
solids and gases. That is why you look at words like semi ordered, intermediate
etcetera. Here also it intermediate behavior of course gases certainly cannot resist
tensile force. What does it mean? Same let say you have a gas in a cylinder and let say
you have some two pistons like this. We expand, as long as expand it will just keep
expanding. So, there is no resistance to tensile stress.
● The last line difference is compressibility. For solids essentially 0, for liquids virtually
incompressible and for gasses highly compressible.
539
So, now let us distinguish solids and fluids. This is just summary about mentioned.
Solids Fluids
Resist shear stress under static condition Cannot resist shear stress under static condition
(even for very small shear stress)
Reach an equilibrium stage and stop Deform continuously – fluid flows

deforming
Regain original shape Does not return to prior shape
Force depends on the deformation Force depends on rate of deformation
540
Lecture – 46
Fluids at rest
We will take the lead from this characteristic feature of fluids. Fluids cannot resist shear
stress under static condition. So, in a static fluid there are no shear stresses.
541
So, now we shortly understand what the total stress tensor means. So, let us consider Fluids at
rest; the total stress tensor for fluids was introduced as
[
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑥𝑥 𝑇𝑥𝑦 𝑇𝑧𝑥 𝑇𝑥𝑦 𝑇𝑦𝑦 𝑇𝑦𝑧 𝑇𝑧𝑥 𝑇𝑦𝑧 𝑇𝑧𝑧 ]
The total stress tensor is symmetric I have shown a symmetric total stress tensor here ok. As
we are discussed all the discussions for solids are applicable for fluids as well for total stress
tensor. So, what I shown here is a, symmetric total stress tensor or we can say, it cannot
sustain shear stress. What does it mean? This stress tensor, if you apply for a fluid at rest
under static condition, then you will not have all this shear stress components at all.
The diagonal elements are the normal stress components, the off diagonal elements are the
shear stress components. Now we said, if you have a fluid in a rest; we are considering fluid
under rest condition and because there are no shear stresses all the off diagonal elements
become 0. And so, the total stress tensor is diagonal for a fluid under static condition, under a
rest condition.
[
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑥𝑥 0 0 0 𝑇𝑦𝑦 0 0 0 𝑇𝑧𝑧 ]
Now, we will find out the stress vector for a fluid under rest condition.
[ ][
𝑡𝑛 = 𝑛. 𝑇 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧 𝑇𝑥𝑥 0 0 0 𝑇𝑦𝑦 0 0 0 𝑇𝑧𝑧 ]
542
We apply the Cauchy’s formula, we also seen that the Cauchy’s formula is applicable for
fluids as well in terms of total stress tensor. The total stress vector is equal to; for our
understanding matrix multiplication with total stress tensor. So, this is the components of the
unit normal vector and then these are the components of the stress tensor, it is a matrix only
the diagonal components are there.
So, simple matrix multiplication will give us the stress vector as,
𝑡𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥𝑇𝑥𝑥𝑖 + 𝑛𝑦𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑗 + 𝑛𝑧𝑇𝑧𝑧𝑘
So, the stress vector has been expressed in terms of the components of the total stress tensor
and the components of the unit normal vector. So, we have got expression for total stress
vector in one way. We will now write another expression for total stress vector in another
way.
For that look at the diagram shown (in the above referred slide), which is same as what seen
for solids, you should imagine this is a fluid body and then a surface in the fluid body, just to
give a feel I made it colored as blue. But now look at the components the normal stress is 𝑇𝑛𝑛
and the shear stresses are 𝑇𝑛𝑆 , 𝑇𝑛𝑆 and then directions n, S1, S2 are shown. The stress vector
1 2
we resolved along the normal and the tangential directions.
Now, this applicable for a fluid under moving condition; now imagine this to be a surface in a
fluid under static condition, there are no shear stresses at all. So 𝑇𝑛𝑆 , 𝑇𝑛𝑆 are not there. So,
1 2
this normal direction and the stress vector or at angle to each other because of the presence of
shear stress components; because this stress vector has three components 2 shear stress and 1
normal stress component, it is at an angle to the normal vector.
Now, suppose if this shear stresses are absent which is the present case; then what will
happen, the stress vector will be parallel to the normal vector. There are no shear stress
components at all, only one component and that will be parallel to the n vector. That is what
we are going to state now, stress vector is parallel to the normal vector. And then when a
vector is parallel to another vector how do we write, the stress vector in this case is parallel to
the normal vector just a scalar multiple of the other vector.
𝑡𝑛 = λ𝑛 = λ𝑛𝑥𝑖 + λ𝑛𝑦𝑗 + λ𝑛𝑧𝑘
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So, if a vector is parallel to another vector, we express that as scalar multiple. So, this is our
expression for stress vector using the second method. Like to summarize this slide again, we
made a physical observation based on experimental observation; experimental observation
tells you that a fluid under static condition there are no shear stresses. Experimental
observation is same that we are used in two different ways; the first implication of the
absence of shear stress is that, the stress tensor is diagonal, because of that we got the first
expression for stress vector.
Once again going back to the same experimental observation, that there are no shear stresses
in a static fluid; we infer that the stress vector normal should be parallel to each other and
hence write the second expression for stress vector; same physical observation, experimental
observation resulting in two different expressions, two equivalent expressions for stress
vector, both should be same we will equate it.
That is what we going to see here, the first expression is,
𝑡𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥𝑇𝑥𝑥𝑖 + 𝑛𝑦𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑗 + 𝑛𝑧𝑇𝑧𝑧𝑘
The first equation is based on the fact that the stress tensor becomes diagonal; second is based
on the fact that the stress vector becomes parallel to the normal vector. Now component wise
they should be equal to each other, what does it mean,
544
λ𝑛𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥𝑇𝑥𝑥→ λ = 𝑇𝑥𝑥
Similarly,
λ𝑛𝑦 = 𝑛𝑦𝑇𝑦𝑦→ λ = 𝑇𝑦𝑦
λ𝑛𝑧 = 𝑛𝑧𝑇𝑧𝑧→ λ = 𝑇𝑧𝑧
Now, comparing the components of the stress vector, stress vector is same two different ways
of expressing.
𝑇𝑥𝑥 = 𝑇𝑦𝑦 = 𝑇𝑧𝑧 = λ
What is a physical equivalence of this statement? If you have a static fluid; first observation
is that there are only normal stresses. If there are only normal stresses, all the normal stresses
should be equal to each other that is a conclusion and that whatever number or scalar we
calling it as λ. I will repeat in a fluid under static condition there are only normal stresses, if
there are only normal stresses all of them should be same we are calling it as λ.
Now, of course, other way of putting it is all diagonal components are equal, so now, our
stress tensor becomes diagonal.
𝑇 = [λ 0 0 0 λ 0 0 0 λ ]
So, if you have only normal stresses, only if all of them are equal then it will be under
equilibrium and force balance will be valid, that is other way of interpreting this.
Now, the normal stress in a fluid at rest is the pressure and so,
𝑇𝑥𝑥 = 𝑇𝑦𝑦 = 𝑇𝑧𝑧 = λ =− 𝑝
Then this p is the thermodynamic pressure, exactly what you have come across in
thermodynamic course, no difference at all. We have seen pressure is compressive and so, it
is a negative p.
So now, we said that all the normal stresses are equal; in a fluid under static condition,
normal stress is pressure, because pressure is compressive it is a negative p. p is the
thermodynamics pressure, which we come across in thermodynamic course. All the diagonal
545
components are same and they are negative of pressure. So, if you write the total stress tensor
in terms of pressure, it becomes
𝑇 = [− 𝑝 0 0 0 − 𝑝 0 0 0 − 𝑝 ]
Now let us look at the stress element; how do you represent stress element? We have seen a
more general representation of stress element, here the components are only the normal
stresses. So, if you want to represent this as stress element, if you take the right hand side
face remember it is negative p; which means that on a positive face your force should be
along the negative x axis. And then on a negative face because it is minus p your force should
be along positive x axis; similarly along y axis and then similarly along z axis.
On all the positive faces, the force should be along the negative axis direction. So, the
summary of this slide is, the stress tensor is diagonal for fluids at rest and diagonal elements
are negative of pressure.
Now, let us proceed further, look at one more characteristic; the stress vector was along the
normal. So, we represented as
This expression we have seen already now, let us find out, the magnitude of the stress vector
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|𝑡𝑛| = (λ𝑛𝑥)2 + (λ𝑛𝑦)2 + (λ𝑛𝑧)2 = λ =− 𝑝
So, the magnitude of the stress vector is the pressure of course, with the negative sign; but
what is observation? we are saying that imagine this to be a fluid object have a surface in the
fluid, what we are saying, the stress under rest condition. We are saying that, there were stress
vector acting and then the magnitude of the stress vector is the pressure of course, the
negative sign.
But what is more important observation is that, right hand side does not depend on n, does
not depend on the components nx, ny, nz. What is it mean? whatever be the angle of the
surface, their magnitude of the stress vector is the pressure which is same and is independent
of the orientation of this surface. So, the pressure acting is same for every plane passing
through a given point.
That is what we said, the n represents the direction of the plane. So, every plane the or if you
take a plane like this whatever be the orientation of the plane at the same point; of course,
imagine a very small plane, the pressure is same.
Now, that statement is the Pascal’s law. At the point pressure is same in all directions, that is
what we have stated there; the magnitude of stress vector is a pressure and that is independent
of the plane,. So, pressure is independent of direction and that is the Pascal’s law. And that is
why, pressure is a scalar. of course we know that any quantity is independent of direction is a
scalar; like density, temperature etcetera. Only difficulty is, little bit difficult to understand
pressure is a scalar; reason is very simple why, that I will explain now.
Pressure is force per area, stress vector is force per area, stress tensor is force per area; so if
you go by units, looks little confusing. But now pressure is a scalar; why?, as we have seen
now, we have proved that pressure at a point is independent of direction. Any quantity, so
independent of direction only which is can be characterized by magnitude alone it is a scalar,
that is why pressure scalar though the units are force per area.
Let us go to the stress vector, the force acting on a given plane, because of plane it is
specified and it is a force, it is a vector. There is a direction, because the direction of the area
is given, you need only the direction of the force which is direction of the stress vector and
because you require only one direction of course, magnitude is there, it is a vector.
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Now, go to stress tensor; what does it say, at the same point you can have any number of
planes, stress tensor will give you information about stress vector acting on all the planes. So,
we are not specifying any plane at all there, that is why it is a stress tensor.
So, we are not specifying any direction at all for the plane that is why you have direction
for force, direction for the plane as well resulting in a stress tensor. This could be τ or in our
case it could be the T total stress tensor also; just want to illustrate that though the units are
same it could be a scalar as pressure, vector as stress vector could be a tensor as τ or T.
Just want to compare the way in which Pascal’s law is discussed in fluid mechanics book and
then what we have discussed. It may so appear that, what we have discussed is different from
what in the books, just want to show that both are same. We have taken this picture from this
book Cengel, what they show is a wedge shaped element and they show pressure acting on
the phases and then look at the any surface incline at an angle and they show the pressure
acting on that phase. To begin with nomenclature P1, P2, P3 etcetera has given.
This is what is this wedge shaped element is nothing, but our 2D version of our tetrahedron;
because we discuss under 3D condition we took tetrahedron. Look at one projection of that
and then another plane attached to that, this is a plane at an angle θ with the horizontal. We
also said, we have a plane at any angle, so both are equivalent that is done for 2D, 2
dimensional case we have done 3 dimensional case. What are the other differences? Pascal’s
laws derived in your let us say second chapter fluid mechanics book and a fluid mechanics
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book slowly gradually develops from fluid under rest condition, then without viscous forces,
with viscous forces etcetera.
So, because it is considering fluid under static condition, they do not talk about a general
stress; they talk about only pressure as the only normal stress. Because we talked about a
general stress, we said more physically, fluid under static condition has only pressure as the
normal stress. So, in more specific and then discuss about only pressure to, we are more
general saying as 𝑇𝑥𝑥, 𝑇𝑦𝑦, 𝑇𝑧𝑧; but finally, of course, we have also came down to pressure
only. Then what they do here is write a force balance in the x direction, here in this case x
direction x direction, etcetera; that is what we also did, what is our Cauchy’s law, a force
balance in the respective direction.
Of course, so both are analogous, I was little more general than what is given there. That is
the scope of that chapter at that level of entry into fluid mechanics book, it is an simpler way.
But because we are discussing and then taking concepts from solid mechanics we are more
general discussion, conceptually both are same. They also finally prove that
𝑝1 = 𝑝2
Similarly, we also proved
𝑇𝑥 = 𝑇𝑦
Finally, they prove that p3 is same, we also proved that the magnitude of stress vector is
pressure. So, eventually it is all equivalent to each other.
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Then now, we are in a position to express total stress tensor for fluids. We have first
introduced total stress tensor and I just made a statement that; a fluid under static condition
has some stress, when it is flowing it has some additional stress. Fluid under static condition
whatever stress it has what we have discussed now, we have to just add the additional stress.
Total stress tensor has fluid static and fluid dynamic contributions. Now, you are in a better
position to understand this statement and then should reduce correctly under static condition.
We have two components; so one should vanish when the fluid is not moving and only the
static component should remain, that should be taken into consideration.
So, the how do we represent the total stress tensor
𝑇 =− 𝑝𝐼 + τ
Total stress = Hydrostatic (pressure) stress + Viscous stress
The total stress in a moving fluid has two components; one the component because of the
static condition which we call as hydrostatic stress, other additional stresses developed
because of fluid in motion which are called as viscous stresses; why viscous stress, you will
understand later; right now we will coin a name called viscous stress.
So, the total stress in a fluid has two components, just under static condition it has some
stress; we have seen that at is purely due to pressure. That is why I have written as
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hydrostatic stress in bracket I have written pressure. Now, when it starts moving additional
stresses develop which are the viscous stresses; the τ for fluids and the τ in solids are exactly
analogous.
Only the T was different, now we understand why we introduced T when we came to fluids;
T has two components, hydrostatic and viscous. The τ in fluids and the τ in solids analogues I
mean how is it, you will understand as we go along; but that is why same nomenclature is
used, physical significance everything is same. But T has one extra additional component;
that is why, moment we enter fluids first line I said let us introduced total stress in fluids.
𝑇 =− 𝑝𝐼 + τ
[𝑇𝑥𝑥 𝑇𝑥𝑦 𝑇𝑧𝑥 𝑇𝑥𝑦 𝑇𝑦𝑦 𝑇𝑦𝑧 𝑇𝑧𝑥 𝑇𝑦𝑧 𝑇𝑧𝑧 ] =− 𝑝[1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 ] + [τ𝑥𝑥 τ𝑥𝑦 τ𝑧𝑥 τ𝑥𝑦 τ𝑦𝑦 τ𝑦𝑧 τ𝑧𝑥 τ𝑦𝑧 τ𝑧𝑧 ]
And if you sum up term by term.
[𝑇𝑥𝑥 𝑇𝑥𝑦 𝑇𝑧𝑥 𝑇𝑥𝑦 𝑇𝑦𝑦 𝑇𝑦𝑧 𝑇𝑧𝑥 𝑇𝑦𝑧 𝑇𝑧𝑧 ] = [− 𝑝 + τ𝑥𝑥 τ𝑥𝑦 τ𝑧𝑥 τ𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝 + τ𝑦𝑦 τ𝑦𝑧 τ𝑧𝑥 τ𝑦𝑧 − 𝑝 + τ𝑧𝑧 ]
So, the off diagonal elements there is no change, only along the diagonal elements; we have
seen that under static condition the stress tensor becomes diagonal. So, to the diagonal
elements minus p gets added. So to, just in one line if you want to summarize whatever we
discussed now, this stress tensor is analogous to solids number 1; number 2 to the diagonal
elements minus p gets added, if you want to just mathematically say; we all discuss the
physics very in detail. Bottom line take one point from this is that slide is that, 2 components,
some stress acts when the fluid is under rest, when it flows some additional stresses are there.
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So, now, we can understand that highlighted portion. We were in third box, having derived
the left hand side of differential linear momentum balance, body force in the right hand side.
And then for surface forces on the right hand side we took a diversion to solid mechanics;
discussed about stress vector, stress tensor.
Now, whatever highlight becomes very clear to you now, based on the discussion we are so
far. We came to back to fluids, first discussed fluid at rest. And then now look at the term
here it says, total stress tensor in terms of pressure and then stress tensor that is the summary
of what I discussed under fluids. Now we have to go back to our right hand side of linear
momentum balance and complete it.
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So, just before that let us summarize what I discussed so far; total stress tensor was
introduced for case of fluids, same results of solid mechanics are applicable; we discuss the
difference between solids versus fluids, specifically in terms of response to shear stress. And
the most important difference is that, no shear stress in a fluid under rest condition which
leads to that total stress tensor is diagonal, also leads to that the stress vector is parallel to the
normal vector and only normal stresses are present and they are nothing but the
thermodynamic pressure, negative because they are compressive, pressure is compressive.
So, based on that, we are able to write expression for total stress and fluids. Here we just
introduce, here only we are able to express that. Total stress has two components, hydrostatic
stress plus viscous stress and one stress acts when the fluid is in rest condition; additional
stress acts when the fluid is flowing.
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Lecture - 47
Differential linear momentum balance: Surface force terms
Let us get started with this slide which show journey to the Navier strokes. We started with
the Newton’s second law of motion then applied the Reynolds transport theorem and then got
the integral form the linear momentum balance and then applied this integral a linear
momentum balance for a small control volume. Obtained the differential form the of linear
momentum balance, in that we complete the left hand side in the right hand side we discussed
the gravity force alone.
And then we said to understand surface processes will take a diversion to the solid mechanics
and then we discussed about stress vector, stress tensor and the relationship between them.
Then we carried over all the concepts to fluids and, in that first we discussed fluids at rest,
discussed hydrostatic stress and then we said in the case of fluids there is a stress under
stationary condition and rest condition when it flows additional stresses are there.
So, introduced total stress tensor as sum of contribution from pressure and contribution from
viscous stresses. Now, we are in a position to complete the linear momentum balance which
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means that we are ready to include the surface force in the right hand side and that is what we
will do, and then we will understand what this block means.
In terms of outline which are looking at right now, we have discussed the total stress tensor
for fluids, discussed the difference between solids and fluids and then wrote an expression for
the total stress in fluids. Now, we are going to discuss the two bullets namely completing the
differential linear momentum balance which means we are going to include the surface forces
on the right hand side and also discuss a new problem which will arise namely the closure
problem.
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Now, we have derived the differential linear momentum balance equation in the left hand side
and the gravity on the right hand side a few lectures ago, to just to revise we will quickly run
through those two slides again now. So, these two are recall sides there is nothing new here.
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
( )
∫ ρ𝑣𝑥𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ∑ 𝐹𝑥
𝐶𝑉
Now, we consider a fixed control volume. So, we can bring in the time derivative inside the
integral sign
∫
𝐶𝑉
∂
∂𝑡
𝐶𝑆
( )
ρ𝑣𝑥𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ∑ 𝐹𝑥
𝐶𝑉
So, first we started with the integral momentum balance and then we applied this integral
momentum balance for the small control volume. So, when I say small control volume and
control volume like this of course, very small inside the domain and then we expressed the
rate of change of momentum term. And then the second the net rate of flow of momentum
through the control surface out of the control volume and we have written this for a x
momentum.
∂(ρ𝑣𝑥)
∂𝑡 (
∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 + ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥 | ) 𝑥+∆𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧 − (ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥)|𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧 + (ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥)|𝑦+∆𝑦 ∆𝑥∆𝑧 − (ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥)|𝑦 ∆𝑥∆𝑧 + (ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣
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We also discussed that that different terms arise from the mass flow in the different
directions. So, the first two terms are the x momentum associated with flow along the x
direction that is why we have ρ𝑣𝑥 here and then because it is x momentum the second
velocity component is 𝑣𝑥. So, this accounts for net rate of x momentum because of mass flow
in the x direction. Similarly, for the y direction and then similarly the z direction. In the right
hand side we have some of forces acting. And we divided by ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 and then got
∂(ρ𝑣𝑥) (ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥)|𝑥+∆𝑥−(ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥)|𝑥 (ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥)|𝑦+∆𝑦−(ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥)|𝑦 (ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑥)|𝑧+∆𝑧−(ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑥)|𝑧

∂𝑡
+ ∆𝑥
+ ∆𝑦
+ ∆𝑧
Then we shrink the control volume to a point (limit ∆𝑥→0 , ∆𝑦→0 , ∆𝑧→0) because we want
to derive expressions valid at every point. And these expressions are related for average
values of density, velocity etcetera. Once we shrink they become point values local values
and we get
∂(ρ𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑥)

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
This is the differential expression for the left hand side of the linear momentum balance. So,
this we have discussed already. So, left hand side is ready with us.
Now, in the right hand side we discussed only the body force,
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( ) ( ) ( )
∑ 𝐹𝑥
𝐶𝑉
= ∑ 𝐹𝑥
𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
The right hand side are the sum of forces acting on the fluid and they are body force and
surface forces, we discussed the body force. We also discussed that the body force can have
all the x, y, z components and we wrote the expression for the body force
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑥𝑖 + 𝑔𝑦𝑗 + 𝑔𝑧𝑘
ρ𝑔∆x∆y∆z
And divided by ∆x, ∆y, ∆z just like the left hand side and shrink the volume to a point and we
got the body force per unit volume in the right hand side.
𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ρg
So, this summary of a quick recap what we have done earlier. Of course, every lecture we
have been telling left hand side, right hand side. So, I thought it is good to review what we
have done a few classes earlier so, good to review this.
So, now, what a going to discuss are new to the linear momentum balance, we are going to
complete the right hand side or find expressions to the right hand side and complete the linear
momentum balance. Now, the surface forces on the right hand side for the case of fluids are
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due to pressure and due to viscous stresses. First we will explain the surface forces due to
pressure because it is little simpler to understand. First observation from the slide is the most
important observation is that the left hand side shows stress element, the right hand side
figure shows a control volume.
How do you usually distinguish and what are the differences?, we have discussed stress
element in previous classes more with solids and of course, with fluids as well we discussed
control volume several times. How do you distinguish? Stress element as I told you it is just a
representation of the state of stress. In this particular case it just tells about the pressure forces
acting alone and then, though it is shown as a cube we have a right hand side phase and then
the left hand side phase is not physically away, it is just opposite side of the same phase. So,
stress element is a pictorial representation of state of stress. So, right hand side you have a
phase which is whose normal is along the positive x axis, we have a negative phase whose
normal is along negative x axis, but that phase is just opposite side of the same phase it is not
physically separate though it is shown.
[− 𝑝 0 0 0 − 𝑝 0 0 0 − 𝑝 ]
We also discussed that for in this case we are representing the case of hydrostatic stress. We
have discussed that for a hydrostatic condition the stress tensor is diagonal and we have only
the diagonal elements and those diagonal elements are the pressure and because it is pressure
it is negative. So, we have all the elements as −p, −p and −p.
Our stress element should represent this hydrostatic stress tensor, let us see how do we do
that. Now, we will use our usual sign convention if it is positive then on a phase whose
normally is along the positive x axis force should be along positive x axis, but now what we
have is because pressure is compressive we have −p. So, on a positive phase I have shown
arrow towards the negative x axis and then on the left side phase whose normal is along
negative x axis I have shown pressure towards positive x axis because we are representing −
p.
Once again I want to emphasize that both this p on the right hand side and p on the left hand
side are representing the same information and we already proved that if you have interface a
normal stress acting on opposite side of the phase are equal and opposite. That is why we are
representing p in the same way but in opposite direction. So, it is not a physical volume just
representation. So, analogously we can extend for other directions.
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Now, let us come to the control volume (right hand side figure). Look at the way down the
control volume, it is also a cuboid like this. But now I show physical dimensions here
physical dimensions are shown as ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦 and then ∆𝑧, that quickly helps you distinguish
between a stress element and a control volume.
So, the left hand side we said they are opposite sides of the same phase, but now they are
physically separated, we have x and 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 . So, there is a physical volume inside let us say
something imagine a small control volume inside your equipment, that is what is represent on
the right hand side.
Now, we will have to carry whatever we discuss was stress element to the control volume,
taking in account spatial variation that is all you are going to do. And now because we are
writing the momentum balance for the x direction and the right hand side the control volume
I have shown only forces due to pressure acting along the x-phases.
Now, let us take the right side phase and the direction of force is along the negative x axis as
we have discussed was stress element and on the left phase the direction of force is along the
positive x-axis. But what is the difference? Here it is represented along with the spatial
location we know that the left phase is at x the right hand side phase is at 𝑥 + ∆𝑥. So, when I
write this expression it is pressure evaluated at 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 of course, multiply by area which is
∆𝑦∆𝑧, 𝑝|𝑥+∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧.
On the left hand side it is pressure evaluated with x multiplied by the area ∆𝑦∆𝑧, 𝑝|𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧.
So, we clearly distinguished how do we represent stress element, we are representing in both
phase using p, but on the right hand side in the control volume we account for the difference
in the spatial location one is at x one is at 𝑥 + ∆𝑥. And so we have same sign convention
remember the same sign convention is used, but taking it account the variation of pressure
with spatial location that is the difference. Now, if you understood this become easier to
under the next slide for forces due to viscous stresses.
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Now, I like to recall these stress elements which we have come across at different parts of the
earlier lectures; first all these are stress elements. We have come across two times earlier we
are going to come across third time now in the next slide in detail. Now, the first time when
we came across we represented the stress in a solid. So, the left hand side image represent
state of stress inside a solid body and we represented the 9 components and similarly another
9 components of the stress tensor in a solid.
Now, later on when you came to fluids we once again represent the stress element, the middle
image represent state of stress in a flowing fluid and hence we used this represent the total
stress that is why our nomenclature became 𝑇𝑥𝑥, 𝑇𝑦𝑦, 𝑇𝑧𝑧 etcetera.
Left hand side stress element is for a solids representing the stress τ , the middle figure
represents total stress tensor in a fluid and hence we represented using T as a nomenclature.
Now, we have discussed that the total stress tensor has two components, the hydrostatic
component and the viscous stress component. We already represented the hydrostatic
component in terms of a stress element in the previous slide.
Now, in next slide we are going to discuss about the viscous stress alone. So, the right side
figure now has only τ𝑥𝑥, τ𝑥𝑦, τ𝑦𝑦. Now, these τ𝑥𝑥 etcetera represent viscous stress components
in a fluid. So, this stress element represents the 9 components of the viscous stress tensor.
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The left hand side stress element represents the 9 components of the stress tensor in a solid.
So, you have moved from the stress tensor in a solid to total stress tensor in a fluid because
we have already discussed the hydrostatic stress in the previous slide, we are going to discuss
only the viscous stress tensor in the next slide. So, in the next slide you will see only this
figure you should not confuse this with what we have discussed earlier for solids and also for
fluids.
So, let us proceed further taking the right hand side figure as stress element we should know
that the 9 components represented shown there represent the elements of the viscous tensor
stress tensor for the case of fluids which represent the stress because of the flow. This
represents the stress under static condition, let us proceed further.
Just like we have discussed for pressure this slide also shows you a stress element on the left
hand side and a control volume on the right hand side of course, this looks little complicated
that is why we have discussed first for the case of pressure.
Now, the left hand side is as usual a stress element no physical dimensions are there, there are
just three phases, let us say the right side and then the top phase and then the front phase. And
what is shown on the left hand side is the bottom side and the rear side or just opposite side of
the same phases, they are not physically separated.
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And we have used the usual sign convention on a positive phase forces along positive
direction and a negative phase forces along negative direction. That is why for example, τ𝑥𝑦
on the phase is along the positive y axis and along positive z axis, but on the left hand side
phase τ𝑥𝑦 is along the negative y axis τ𝑥𝑧 is where is along negative z axis, ok. So, similarly
other components and so this represents the viscous stress tensor in a fluid.
Now, let us come to the right hand side it is a control volume and imagine a very small
control volume inside a equipment that is a imagination for visualization for this. Now, there
are 9 components of the viscous stress tensor what is that is represented on the right hand
side. Because the writing deriving the linear momentum balance in x-direction on the right
hand side only the forces acting along x direction because of viscous stress are represented.
Now, let us take an example on the right hand side phase we have the normal viscous stress
and the left hand side also we have the normal viscous stress. Now, because it is a control
volume you also take into account the spatial location the left hand side phase is at x the right
hand side phase is at 𝑥 + ∆𝑥. So, this normal viscous stress evaluated 𝑥 + ∆𝑥. multiplied by
the area which is ∆𝑦∆𝑧, the left hand side same expression, but τ𝑥𝑥 evaluated at x.
So, now, if you compare the stress element on the left hand side and the control volume in the
right hand side, first of all sign same sign convention has been used force along positive x
axis on the right phase, force along negative x axis on the left hand side phase. What is the
difference? As we have done for pressure we have taken into account the spatial variation of
the normal stress.
Now, let us go to the top and bottom phase. For the top phase we are considering the viscous
shear stress acting in the x direction. So, what is that we have considered? we have a stress
vector here viscous stress vector three components are there, we are considering the shear
stress component and on the negative y phase we are considering the shear stress component.
Now, that is what is shown here on the top phase we have τ𝑦𝑥 and because it is a positive
phase force is along positive x axis and in the negative y phase because it is negative y phase
force is shown along the negative x axis. Now, what is the difference? In this case they
represent thus because it is stress element both are shown as τ𝑦𝑥. So, the imagination is that if
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I take the same plane top and bottom they are not physically separated opposite sides of the
same phase.
So, we have seen that on a phase opposite side of the same phase the shear stresses are equal
and opposite that is what this represents and the right hand side is a physical control volume.
So, they are separated on this phase and this phase they are physically separated and that is
why we have 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 and 𝑦 here of course, we are multiplying with the area which is ∆𝑧∆𝑥.
Similarly, we can discuss the z phase as well and what are the components to be taken here
we will have to take τ𝑧𝑥 and on the front phase because it is a positive phase the force is along
the positive x axis. On the rear phase, it is a negative z phase; so, force is along the negative x
axis and that is why you have force along the negative x axis.
And as we have discussed for other directions they are spatially separated the left hand side
figure where opposites of the same phase right hand side where z and then 𝑧 + ∆𝑧 and that is
why we have 𝑧 + ∆𝑧 for the front phase and z for the rear phase. Like to also mentioned that
when you look at books you should be able to distinguish between a stress element and a
control volume.
Most of the books show straight away control volume and few books discuss about stress
element. Because we have discussed more rigorously we went to solid mechanics understood
how to represent stress came to fluid mechanics understood how to represent stress. We are
clearly distinguishing between stress element how to carry over that information from stress
element to the control volume accounting for spatial variation, that way we can clearly
understand why this arrow marks are drawn in a particular direction. For example, a normal
stress, shear stress etcetera.
So, of course, τ𝑥𝑥 represent the normal stresses with spatial variation and τ𝑦𝑥 represents the
one shear stress and τ𝑧𝑥 represents the other shear stress. So, all forces are shown acting along
the x-axis and on three different planes.
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So, let us put together what I discussed in the previous two slides. Now, both are control
volumes; the left hand side figure represents the surface forces due to pressure and the right
hand side figure represents surface forces due to viscous stresses. So, there is nothing new in
this slide whatever we discussed in the previous slides have been just put together because we
have to account for the surface forces on the right hand side due to pressure and viscous
stresses.
565
Now, we are ready to complete the linear momentum balance let us do that. First we will
write the right hand side we know the forces as split in the body forces and surface forces on
the right hand side.
( ) ( ) ( )
∑ 𝐹𝑥
𝐶𝑉
= ∑ 𝐹𝑥
𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥
Surface forces are due to pressure and due to viscous stresses and now let us write down
expression. Net surface force in the x direction due to pressure is
𝑝|𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 − 𝑝|𝑥+∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧
Now, let us write down expression for the net surface force once again in x direction due to
viscous stresses the normal and shear stresses. Now, let us write down first for the normal
stress
τ𝑥𝑥|𝑥+∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 − τ𝑥𝑥|𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧
So, this accounts for the net surface force in x direction due to normal stresses alone.
Now, let us do it for the shear stresses also; so, you take the top phase and bottom phase. On
the top phase shear stress is acting along the positive x axis and the bottom phase the shear
stress is acting along the negative x axis
τ𝑦𝑥|𝑦+∆𝑦∆𝑥∆𝑧 − τ𝑦𝑥|𝑦∆𝑥∆𝑧
So, if you take the front phase
τ𝑧𝑥|𝑧+∆𝑧∆𝑥∆𝑦 − τ𝑧𝑥|𝑧∆𝑥∆𝑦
So, you should note clearly here is that these expressions, for example, if you take the normal
stress it is at 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑥, because on the phase; on the positive x phase it was along the
positive x axis, negative x phase plus along the negative x axis. If you look at pressure
because it is compressive and because it is on the positive phase along acting along in the
negative direction we have minus sign associated with the pressure at 𝑥 + ∆𝑥. So, its
opposite to what we have here and of course, pressure at the x phase is along the positive axis
and that is why we have p evaluated at x and that has a positive sign associated with that.
566
So, now, we have written down expression in one way we can say that all this several lectures
can be summarized in this one slide, to write down these expressions only we went to solid
mechanics, discussed about surface forces, stress vector, stress tensor and came to fluid
mechanic etcetera. So, that we can write these expressions clearly for the surface force on the
right hand side due to pressure and viscous stresses.
567
Lecture - 48
Differential linear momentum balance: All terms
(Refer Slide Time: 00:14
Now, let us put together all of them. We are seeing four control volumes, small control
volumes in terms of scale. The first control volume which takes care of the convective
momentum, the second control volume to account for the body force and then some books
show the these two control volumes together we have shown very clearly separately the third
control volume to represent pressure, surface force due to pressure the fourth control volume
to represent surface force due to the viscous stresses.
So, now it is going to be a summary of what we have discussed earlier, putting them
altogether and deriving the differential complete differential form of linear momentum
balance equation.
∫
CV
∂
∂t
ρv x dV + ∫
CS
ρv x v.n dA = ( )
∑Fx
CV
So, this step is known to us the integral momentum balance and then the right hand side we
express in terms of the body force and surface forces.
568
CV
∫ ∂
∂t
ρv x dV +
CS
∫ ρv x v.n dA = ( ) ( )
∑Fx
body
+ ∑Fx
surf ace
And now let us down write down expressions for all the terms
∂(ρv x )
∂t ∆x∆y∆z + (ρv x v x ) |x+∆x ∆y∆z − (ρv x v x ) |x ∆y∆z + (ρv y v x ) |y+∆y ∆x∆z − (ρv y v x ) |y ∆x∆z + (ρv z v x ) |z+∆z ∆x∆y
So, the first two terms are due to flow in x direction, second two terms because of flow in y
direction, the last two terms are because of flow in z direction but remember the second
velocity is always x we are writing momentum balance along the x direction.
Now right hand side we have the body force. So, till this we have done already. Now
whatever we have discussed in the previous slide we will rewrite here. So, first two terms are
normal stresses, the other four terms for the shear stresses.
Now as we have done earlier we will divide by ∆x∆y∆z and we get
∂(ρv x ) (ρv x v x )|x+∆x −(ρv x v x )|x (ρv y v x )|y+∆y −(ρv y v x )|y (ρv z v x )|z+∆z −(ρv z v x )|z p|x −p|x+∆x τ xx |x+∆x −τ xx |x τ yx |y+∆y −τ yx |y τ zx |z+∆z −τ
∂t
+ ∆x
+ ∆y
+ ∆z
= ρg + ∆x
+ ∆x
+ ∆y
+ ∆z
So, until this point all the variables density, velocity and pressure the normal stresses, shear
stresses were all average values though we did not specifically mentioned. Moment you
shrink the control volume at a point they become point values.
569
So, when we discussed about the control volume with pressure then p evaluate at x represents
the average value over that phase. Similarly all these stresses are all average values over the
respective phases.
Moment we shrink the control volume to a point making ∆x→0 , ∆y→0 , ∆z→0 all of
them become point values. So, imagine this control volume became a small point a very
small volume becomes a point, then all this becomes differentials
∂(ρv x ) ∂(ρv x v x ) ∂(ρv y v x ) ∂(ρv z v x ) ∂p ∂τ xx ∂τ yx ∂τ zx

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
= ρg x − ∂x
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
Also like to mention that remember when we discussed about this convective momentum,
you were very particular about the order in which we wrote the velocity components. We said
the second component should be the component of velocity along the direction in which we
write in the momentum balance.
So, that is why the second component is or the second velocity component what we have
written there is v x etcetera immediately tells you that we are talking about the x momentum
balance.
The first velocity is changes depends on the direction. So, we have contribution from flow
along x direction, contribution from flow along y direction and z direction. So, if you look at
the linear momentum balance moment you look at the second velocity components and here
the second subscript tells you that this momentum balance along x direction; that is why we
stress to that on the left hand side we write as ρv y v x not as ρv x v y , just to be consistent with
that. On the right hand side the second term tells you the direction along which you are
writing the momentum balance and similarly we know that the second subscript represents
the direction of the force. So, both are in line with each other right.
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Now, we know the significance of each term but let us put them very precisely so, that we
will be able to understand and remember as well. Just writing down the linear momentum
balance which we have derived;

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
= ρg x − ∂x
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
We know that of course, if you want to formally saying, you will say the first term is rate of
accumulation momentum and the second term is convective momentum and right hand side
gravity force, pressure, viscous stresses. Let us put them very formally I would say
Left hand sire,
T ime rate of change of momentum per unit volume + N et rate of f low of momentum out by convection =
Second term represents net rate because we have flow out minus in net rate flow of
momentum out by convection per unit volume.
Right hand side,
B ody f orce on the f luid per unit volume + N et pressure f orce on the f luid per unit volume + N et viscous f o
So, this is a very precise way of writing the significance of each term in the linear momentum
balance, all are per unit volume and rate of change of momentum term time rate of change of
momentum.
571
They have been very specific and even writing time rate of change of momentum and so, that
you do not confuse between momentum flow and rate of change of momentum and second
term on the left hand is the convective momentum net rate of flow of momentum out by
convection once again per unit volume and right hand side all the forces per unit volume
body force on fluid, net pressure force on fluid, net viscous force on fluid.
And of course, we can extend all this to all the three directions and that is what we will just
write down here. All these three equations is going to come up along x, y and z directions
together constitute the differential linear momentum balance equation though we are done for
x direction, we can extend that to other three directions as well. So, let us complete.

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
= ρg x − ∂x
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
Similarly,
∂(ρv y ) ∂(ρv x v y ) ∂(ρv y v y ) ∂(ρv z v y ) ∂p ∂τ xy ∂τ yy ∂τ zy

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
= ρg y − ∂y
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
∂(ρv z ) ∂(ρv x v z ) ∂(ρv y v z ) ∂(ρv z v z ) ∂p ∂τ xz ∂τ yz ∂τ zz

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
= ρg z − ∂z
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
Remember we said the second velocity or the second subscript represents a direction so, we
should take the equation on the left hand side and replace v x with v y and v z for y and z
momentum balance.
572
So, replace x with y, and we should replace the second subscript with y, second subscript
represent the direction of the force that is why this x replace with y. So, once we have derived
one equation should be able to correctly replace and write the other direction equations
analogously for the z direction equation.
The direction of the phases, 3 phases are considered that is why first represents, the direction
of the normal to the phase that is why we have x, y and z second represents the direction of
the force that is why it remains same.
Just to compare the differential total mass balance and the linear momentum balance we will
see how do they compare. So, that you know the similarity between the conservation
equations that is the differential form of the total mass balance equation
∂(ρ) ∂(ρv x ) ∂(ρv y ) ∂(ρv z )

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
Then the differential form of the linear momentum balance equation written along the x
direction, goes this way.
∂(ρv x )
∂t
+ ∂(ρv x v x )
∂x
+
∂(ρv y v x )
∂y
+ ∂(ρv z v x )
∂z
= ( ∂τ xx
∂x
+
∂τ yx
∂y
+ ∂τ zx
∂z )− ∂p
∂x
+ ρg x
∂(ρ)
So, now, if you look at the left hand side here you have ∂t that was representing the rate of
∂(ρv x )
change of mass per unit volume; and for momentum balance you have ∂t
as the x
momentum.
573
If you take all the convective terms all these represented the net rate of mass flow and that at
contribution of x direction, y direction, z direction now what we are considering x
momentum. So, multiply all the mass flow the components along the x, y, z directions with
the x velocity. So, that you get the momentum associated with mass flow in x direction, mass
flow in y direction, mass flow in z direction.
Right hand side of course, for the mass balance it is 0 because our law of physics stated that
rate of change of mass for a system is 0 but for momentum balance, the rate of change of
momentum for a system is equal to sum of forces that is why the right hand side is not 0.
Of course, I have written this viscous force per unit volume and the surface force due to
pressure and the body force of course, if you look at the sequence here written. In this viscous
forces to begin with that is the first term you written; then comes the pressure force and then
the body force; you will understand the reason later why the viscous forces are written to as a
first term on the right hand side.
574
Lecture - 49
Convective momentum flux tensor
Let us continue our discussion on the Differential Linear Momentum Balance. Few classes
back we had introduction to tensor and we said tensor represents the physical quantity which
require to be represented using a magnitude in two directions. Then, we saw the stress tensor
as an example for a tensor because 9 components were there, 9 pairs of directions were there.
Objective of this next few slides is that we are going to discuss one more tensor which also
appears in the linear momentum balance equation that is the objective of the next few slides.
So, just to recall this slide is a recall slide same as what we discussed earlier, tensor
represents physical variables which have a magnitude and two directions; vectors are for
physical variables with a magnitude in one direction. Now, we represent tensor in terms of it
is components form using the equation
τ = τ𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + τ𝑥𝑦𝑖𝑗 + τ𝑥𝑧𝑖𝑘 + τ𝑦𝑥𝑗𝑖 + τ𝑦𝑦𝑗𝑗 + τ𝑦𝑧𝑗𝑘 + τ𝑧𝑥𝑘𝑖 + τ𝑧𝑦𝑘𝑗 + τ𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘
There are 9 components in a tensor and each component is associated with the pair of
directions and that is what these diagrams tell you.
575
And, we also discussed that the components change with coordinate system. Tensor as such
does not change with coordinate system. We also have that some of diagonal elements is
independent of coordinate system that is a review of tensors.
Now, the two tensors which I am going to discuss are the viscous stress tensor which is kind
of known to us, the new tensor which I am going to discuss is a convective momentum flux
tensor.
So, let us write down the 3 linear momentum balance equations only then we can discuss the
two tensors.
∂(ρ𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑥) ∂𝑝 ∂τ𝑥𝑥 ∂τ𝑦𝑥 ∂τ𝑧𝑥

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
= ρ𝑔𝑥 − ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
∂(ρ𝑣𝑦) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑦) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑦) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑦) ∂𝑝 ∂τ𝑥𝑦 ∂τ𝑦𝑦 ∂τ𝑧𝑦

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
= ρ𝑔𝑦 − ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
∂(ρ𝑣𝑧) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑧) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑧) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑧) ∂𝑝 ∂τ𝑥𝑧 ∂τ𝑦𝑧 ∂τ𝑧𝑧

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
= ρ𝑔𝑧 − ∂𝑧
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
So, we written down the linear momentum balance along x direction, y direction, z direction.
Now, from this we will identify the two tensors. Let us start with something known to us.
Right hand side we have the viscous, earlier we have discussed this as stress tensor for solids
now we are discussing this as viscous stress tensor for fluids.
576
[
τ = τ𝑥𝑥 τ𝑥𝑦 τ𝑥𝑧 τ𝑦𝑥 τ𝑦𝑦 τ𝑦𝑧 τ𝑧𝑥 τ𝑧𝑦 τ𝑧𝑧 ]
Now, this component components of the stress tensor are known to you. Let us look at the
stress tensor and the right hand side. Now, we know that one row in a tensor represents the
components of stress vector acting on a particular phase. So, the first row represents the
components of stress vector acting on the x phase. Now, if you look that is a way you
represent each row; if you understand the column they represent the components of three
different stress vectors, all the components are acting along x direction.
So, if you look at column wise they represent the components of three different stress vectors
because the plane on which they are acting is different this represent with a subscript, but all
the forces are acting along the x direction.
Now, we know that in a momentum balance the right hand side, you should represent forces
along one direction that is why, the first column’s three stress tensor components, τ𝑥𝑥, τ𝑦𝑥, τ𝑧𝑥
are appearing in the first 3 equation, meaning that the equation in the x direction and the
second column’s three stress tensor components, τ𝑥𝑦, τ𝑦𝑦, τ𝑧𝑦 are appearing in the y
momentum balance equation and the third column’s three stress tensor components, τ𝑥𝑧, τ𝑦𝑧,
τ𝑧𝑧 are appearing in the z momentum balance equation.
So, the significance of each row is there they are components of stress vector acting on a
particular plane, but what we need is components of three different stress vectors acting on
three different planes, but all the components should be directed on x-axis. They are all
appearing in the first column and that is why, the stress tensor components appearing in the
first column are appearing in the x direction momentum balance; similarly y direction,
similarly z direction.
So, understand that if you look at the first row and the first subscript is same because of phase
is same the plane is same; second subscript is different because the directions are different
normal stresses and shear stresses x, y, z. If you look at column wise the second subscript is
same because they are all representing forces acting along x direction; first component is
different because they represent components of stress vector acting on three different phases.
Now, let us look at another tensor that is called a convective momentum flux tensor which is
on the left hand side of these set of differential equations.
577
[
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟, ρ𝑣𝑣 = ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥 ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑦 ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑧 ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥 ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑦 ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑧 ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑥 ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑦 ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑧 ]
We are having two vectors side by side, for me it is called the diode. So, that forms a
convective momentum flux tensor. We will not discuss diode more formulae here, but what
we will discuss is the physical significance of these 9 components of the convective
momentum flux tensor but first question is why convective, that is very clear that all these
terms are coming from that convective components on the left hand side of the linear
momentum balance. So, that is very clear. Why is it momentum flux? That is the next
question
ρ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ρ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
I have written here is a general expression and of course, different directions are there. Now,
we will take the first velocity and understand the first velocity and that becomes the
volumetric flux; we have seen that velocity can be interpreted as volumetric flux multiplied
by density you get the mass flux and that is what is written here.
Now, mass flux into the second velocity is momentum flux, you know mass into velocity is
momentum so, mass flux into velocity gives you momentum flux along the direction of the
second velocity though I have not written here. So, I will repeat it each term is rho into
velocity into velocity, the first velocity we will interpret as volumetric flux.
Why do you interpret the first velocity? Remember, ρ 𝑣𝑥 is associated with the mass flow in a
particular direction that is why I interpret the first velocity as volumetric flux not the second
velocity and of course, multiply by the ρ with the first velocity meaning volumetric flux gives
you mass flux multiplied by the second velocity gives you momentum flux along the second
velocity direction.
Now, next why is it a tensor? Obviously, we can see that each term is associated with the pair
of directions we have 𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥, 𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑦, 𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑧 and that is what we discussed in the next slide ah. We
know that the stress tensor is a tensor because it has two directions. We will compare these
two tensors in the next slide we will also understand why this matrix is a tensor.
578
Viscous stress tensor as we have written earlier is represented by this 9 components same as
what I had done in the seen in the previous slide
[
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟, τ = τ𝑥𝑥 τ𝑥𝑦 τ𝑥𝑧 τ𝑦𝑥 τ𝑦𝑦 τ𝑦𝑧 τ𝑧𝑥 τ𝑧𝑦 τ𝑧𝑧 ]
And then the convictive momentum flux tensor is given by these 9 components.
[
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟, ρ𝑣𝑣 = ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥 ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑦 ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑧 ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥 ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑦 ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑧 ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑥 ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑦 ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑧 ]
We will compare these two tensors now. We will also understand that why this matrix
represents convictive momentum flux tensor.
How do you interpret for example, I am going to take τ𝑦𝑥 and I am going to take ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥 for
case of illustration. The stress element is shown here how do we interpret τ𝑦𝑥 because it is
positive. It is viscous stress acting along x-axis second subscript is the direction so, acting
along x-axis on a positive y plane.
If you look at the top diagram this is the of course, positive y plane so, we should consider
the positive y plane here and force acting along positive x axis and τ𝑦𝑥represents the
component of course, a stress vector acting on the positive y plane force is acting along the
positive x axis.
579
Now, let us interpret this ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥 then you will immediately understand why we have
momentum flux tensor? ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥, to understand that we will use the control volume.
ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥|𝑦+∆𝑦∆𝑧∆𝑥 − ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥|𝑦∆𝑧∆𝑥
To recall back we said we will represent velocity as volumetric flux just like we have done
the previous slide, then with ρ𝑣𝑦 you get mass flux, multiply this with the area, ρ𝑣𝑦|𝑦+∆𝑦∆𝑧∆𝑥
you get the mass flow rate, multiplied by velocity 𝑣𝑥, ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥|𝑦+∆𝑦∆𝑧∆𝑥 you get the
momentum in the x direction.
Of course, ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥|𝑦+∆𝑦∆𝑧∆𝑥 represents whatever is leaving and ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥|𝑦∆𝑧∆𝑥 represents
whatever is entering but what is it we should take forward is that we are having a velocity in
the y direction and that is a volumetric flux and multiply by ρ gives mass flux multiply by
area gives mass flow rate into velocity gives you momentum in the x direction.
So, ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥 represents convictive flux of x momentum across y plane, why is it across y plane?
The mass flow associated with that is in the y direction. So, there is flow in the y direction
but momentum is in the x direction that is why I cannot just like that give one direction and
represent or discuss momentum flux, I should say what is the direction of momentum, I
should say what is the direction of the mass flow which is carrying that x momentum.
Moment I say convective flux of momentum I should include two directions; direction of the
momentum which is x in this case and the direction of the mass flow which is carrying that
momentum in this case which is the y direction. So, two directions are associated to explain
each component of the momentum flux tensor and that is why it is a tensor. In the viscous
stress tensor the two directions are one is a direction of the force direction of the force and
other is the direction of the plane. In the convective momentum flux tensor also the first
subscript represent the direction of the plane because there is a flow along the direction;
second subscript represents the direction of the momentum. So, both the tensors have two
directions, first represents the direction to the plane in both the cases; second one represent
the direction of the force in one case, second case represent the direction of the momentum
that is why we call the tensors as one is viscous stress tensor other is momentum flux tensor.
580
So these are shown in a more little magnified scale, not much new concepts here. The viscous
stress tensor has shown more magnified way as a 3D stress element. This slide of course,
emphasizes on the direction. We said two directions are there; direction of the normal to the
plane and then direction of the components of the stress vector or the direction of the force.
So, three directions are possible. Three directions of normal, three directions of force, gives
you nine components of the viscous stress tensor written as a tensor here or matrix.
581
Now, if you look at the convictive momentum flux. In the previous case, we had direction of
normal to the plane. Here also in the direction of normal to the plane, but for physical
understanding I have written as direction of fluid flow, direction of fluid flow direction of
normal to plane both are same. What is the other direction; direction of the momentum which
is determined by the second velocity. So, direction of fluid flow can have three directions
direction of momentum can have three directions and that is why we have nine components
of the convictive momentum flux tensor.
So, this clearly explains how there are two tensors one on the right hand side representing the
viscous stresses, one on the left hand side representing the convictive momentum flux; and,
that is why when we discussed earlier we are specific about the the velocity that should come
second, and the velocity that should come first. When we wrote the rate of momentum
entering and leaving we are very particular to write ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥 leaving and then entering.
Of course, that point of time it will tell you that we discussed this later why are we so specific
about the order of 𝑣𝑦, of course, magnitude wise there is no change at all, but for
understanding wise this way of ordering becomes very helpful for us.
Just an example, to understand the convictive momentum flux tensor; the components of the
convictive momentum flux tensor. Take an example which I discussed earlier, this we
discussed when we discussed applications of differential mass balance. The geometry of this
582
example is that you have two plates, you have a closely spaced parallel plates and then the
bottom plate is porous and you have air entering this and it is goes radially that is what is
shown, it is a radial flow but we analyze the problem in using Cartesian coordinates. So, you
have two plates and flow entering in this direction and flowing in these two directions that is
what I shown here.
Quickly let us read, air flows into the narrow gap, of height h, between closely spaced
parallel plates through a porous surface as shown. This example gives both the integral
balance and the differential mass balance, in fact. Use a control volume, with outer surface
locate at portion x.. To show that the uniform velocity in the x direction is
𝑥
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0 ℎ
So, we use integral balance to find this and that expression is given here. Then we use a
differential balance to find expression for the velocity component in the y direction.
(
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0 1 −
𝑦
ℎ )
So, this was determined by using a differential mass balance, till this point it is same as the
earlier problem. Only additional part which you have to find out this find the components of
the convective momentum flux tensor, that alone is new; the geometry, description, the
velocity components are all same as we have discussed earlier.
So, now remember the reason for choosing the example is that, we have both the velocity
components, so that you can have better understanding. Since, we have nine components we
will have four components at least, otherwise we will end up in only one component and so
on. So, and of course, 𝑣𝑥 depends on x, and 𝑣𝑦 depends on y.
583
So, now convective momentum flux tensor, we have seen this earlier, what I have shown here
are only 4 components of the 9 components because there are only two directions here. Two
directions for fluid flow and two directions for the momentum, now as we have see in the
previous slides the 4 components are
Direction of fluid flow Direction of convective momentum
x Y
x ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥 = ρ𝑣0
2 𝑥 2
( )
ℎ
ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑦 = ρ𝑣0 ( )(1 − )
2 𝑥
ℎ
𝑦
ℎ
y
ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥 = ρ𝑣0 ( )(1 − )
2 𝑥
ℎ
𝑦
ℎ
2
ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑦 = ρ𝑣0 1 −( 𝑦 2
ℎ)
We are given the x component of velocity, we are given the y component of velocity just
simple substitution will give us these expressions for the momentum flux tensor.
How do you interpret this; if you look at the control volume, just ignore the z direction
because we have variation along x and y direction here. We said ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥 multiply by area
represents the rate of flow of momentum entering and then leaving along x direction;
similarly, rate of momentum entering and leaving along y direction.
584
But, we had a control volume in one phase here one phase we have talked about entering and
leaving. Now, we have reduced to a point and reduced this control volume at a small control
volume they have become a point. So, this ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥 represents momentum flux at a point. So,
the way in which you should imagine is you have a small region and you have at every point
there is inflow and outflow and because these two phase have come together there is no
question of writing 𝑥 and 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 they just become a point value that is why we write as
ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥.
Now, for the x component of the linear momentum balance we have ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥, and ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥.
Remember the second component is 𝑣𝑥 and the flow is both in the x direction and y direction
second component is along the x direction. So, what are the corresponding terms here; this
term of course, there is we do not discuss about out and in flow only at a particular point and
then these two.
What we have discussed is ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥 and ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥, if you write the y momentum balance then these
two terms will appear. So, these two terms will appear in the x momentum balance, if you
write the y momentum balance then these two terms will appear and there because of mass
flow in x direction, mass flow in the y direction and of course, these experiments are simple
to write just simple multiplication.
585
Now, just to show you where these terms appear in the linear momentum balance equation.
So, we will write down the linear momentum balance equation and identify.

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
∂(ρ𝑣𝑦) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑦) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑦) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑦) ∂𝑝 ∂τ𝑥𝑦 ∂τ𝑦𝑦 ∂τ𝑧𝑦

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
= ρ𝑔𝑦 − ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
∂(ρ𝑣𝑧) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑧) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑧) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑧) ∂𝑝 ∂τ𝑥𝑧 ∂τ𝑦𝑧 ∂τ𝑧𝑧

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
= ρ𝑔𝑧 − ∂𝑧
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
586
Lecture - 50
Differential linear momentum balance: Closure problem
So far the linear momentum balance was viewed from a control volume point of view, what
does that mean; you derive the balance equation taking a small control volume then we shrink
it to a point and then we were discussing in terms of rate of change of momentum of course,
all per unit volume, rate of change of momentum in that small volume and whatever is
whatever momentum flowing in flowing out and then right hand side we have sum up all the
forces.
Now, we are going to take a different look at the left hand side right hand side is going to still
remain same and that is why the title says linear momentum balance from a material particle
view point. Let us go through that and then you will understand the title clearly. One other
importance of this slide is that we are going to do this series of step later on also few other
place in the course. So, we will repeat this later on as well.
So, the idea of this discussion is that we have derived the linear momentum balance and
interpreted the left hand side in terms of what is happening over a small region, rate of
change of momentum in that region and whatever momentum flow enter and leaving in that
587
region. We are going to have a different view point for the left hand side let us see how do we
do that.

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
= ρg x − ∂x
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
Now, I will use the product rule and expand the derivatives on the left hand side. Now,
∂(ρv y )
ρ ∂(v∂tx ) + v x ∂(ρ)
∂t
+ ρv x ∂(v
∂x
x)
+ v x ∂(ρv
∂x
x)
+ ρv y ∂(v
∂y
x)
+ vx ∂y
+ ρv z ∂(v
∂z
x)
+ v x ∂(ρv
∂z
z)
What is that we have done take in the left hand side, applied product rule for all the terms
first term is very straight forward. The second third and fourth term we have clubbed ρv x
together and v x separately. The significance of ρv x is the mass flux and we will see why do
we do that in next step as well.
So now I will combine all the terms
ρ [ ∂(v x )
∂t
+ v x ∂(v
∂x
x)
+ v y ∂(v
∂y
x)
+ v z ∂(v
∂z
x)
+ vx ] [ ∂(ρ)
∂t
+ ∂(ρv x )
∂x
+
∂(ρv y )
∂y
+ ∂(ρv z )
∂z ]
Now, terms in the second bracket is a equation of continuity we know that goes to 0; both for
compressible flow and incompressible flow
∂(ρ) ∂(ρv x ) ∂(ρv y ) ∂(ρv z )

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
So, and second term just vanishes this terms inside the square bracket is nothing, but the
continuity equation or the differential mass balance is equal to 0. Now, left hand side if you
look at that
ρ ( ∂t∂ + v .∇) v x = ρ Dv
Dt
x
Of course, we discussed the substantial derivative many classes earlier and we also
mentioned that we will come across later in the course this is the point where we are coming
across the substantial derivative.
If you look at the terms in the within the first square brackets they are nothing, but
( ∂t∂ + v.∇) vx . So, the left hand side can be written as ρ Dv
Dt
x
; ρ is the density and Dv x
Dt
is the
substantial derivative of velocity of course, in the x direction.
So, what is that we have done, we have taken the left hand side and did some simple
mathematical steps used the equation of continuity and then we have proved that the left hand
588
Dv x
side can be written as ρ Dt
, as I told you we will come across similar steps later on energy
balance also.
Now, let us rewrite the linear momentum balance expressing the left hand side in terms of
this substantial derivative.
Dv x ∂p ∂τ xx ∂τ yx ∂τ zx
ρ Dt
= ρg x − ∂x
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
So, now left hand side, I would say easier to remember also compared to the earlier linear
momentum balance this equation is easier to remember and starting point for many problems
as well. So, many application start this start with this form of the linear momentum balance
equation and easy to remember.
Now, how does the significance change how or how do we interpret this equation? The left
hand side if you read it, first you have density which is mass per unit volume and then that is
Dv x
multiplied by Dt
of course, we know acceleration of a material particle. Remember, what all
significance of substance derivative the derivative following a fluid particle fluid particle.
Dv x
So, Dt
represents acceleration of a material particle of course, material fluid particle what is
there in the right hand side forces acting on the fluid particle. What is this nothing, but
Newton’s second law, but for a continuum fluid particle of course. So, the left hand side
interpretation when we wrote the first time was, we have a small volume there is some rate of
change of momentum or momentum entering and leaving etcetera. Now, the left hand side
interpretation is different you are following a fluid particle and it represents mass into
acceleration of that fluid particle of course, divided by volume density into acceleration of a
fluid particle.
So, left hand side has changed from a Eulerian view point to a Lagrangian view point earlier
it was for a fixed volume what is happening in the small region. Now, if you follow a fluid
particle how does it is density into acceleration change and that is nothing, but governed by
the forces acting on the fluid particle. Now, remember all this started from our Newton
second law of motion for a system what happens when you make the size of a system go to 0;
you get a fluid particle. Why? We said a system is made up of several fluid particles.
So, if you take a system of finite size and shrink it and shrink it you will get a fluid particle
that is what you have got now because remember the derivation we shrank to a particular
589
point. So, we started with Newton second law of motion for a system, now this equation is
also is for a fluid particle how do you relate when you shrink a size of a system it becomes a
fluid particle as you goes to zero size and that is why the left hand side now represents the
density into acceleration of a fluid particle.
And, one more observation is that the left hand side are all called as the inertial terms. Now,
independent of how do you view the inertial terms? How did we view the inertial terms for
the first instance? It is based on a fixed control volume. Second time, we interpreted the
inertial terms in terms of a moving fluid particle or a material particle. Independent of that the
right hand side is same there was no change in the right hand side.
So, whether you use a inertial terms in terms of it is control volume as in terms of change of
momentum, momentum entering and leaving either you take that view point or you take the
view point of a moving fluid particle, what is that? Density into its acceleration, the right
hand side is independent of that; independent of these two viewpoints.
Now, you look at the title linear momentum balance from a material particle view point. So,
two different ways of writing the linear momentum balance equation. We have discussed at
length the first viewpoint; second view point just requires a rearrangement of the left hand
side including the continuity equation and you get this viewpoint. See, just rearrangement
gives a different completely different viewpoint for the left hand side of course, right hand
side is some of forces acting.
590
We will proceed to the next topic we said closure problem. To understand closure problem
we should understand the terminology degree of freedom analysis. It is a very common
terminology which we come across frequently in mass energy balance calculation in a
process calculation course.
Just as a quick revision we will have a simple example which explain what degree of freedom
analysis means ok. First of all, the degree of freedom analysis helps to determine whether a
system of equations can be solved or not. In terms of a mass energy balance calculation
suppose if you are given a problem should your degree of freedom analysis you can find out
whether enough information is given to you so that you can solve for the rest of the unknown
variable.
Usually you will your flow sheet will have some known variables unknowns variables, you
do a degree of freedom analysis and find out whether enough information is available to you
so that you can solve for rest of the unknown variables.
In fact, the Gibbs' phase rule which all of us are familiar with is f = c − p + 2 , number of
components number of phases that is also an application of degree of freedom analysis and of
course, that is in terms of intensive variables.
Degree of freedom is defined as,
DOF = N umber of variables − N umber of equations
More formally, number of unknown variables and number of independent equations.

Equations which account for should be independent of each other which means you should
not be able to get one equation by a linear combination of other equations.
For our purpose any all of the equations are independent and number of variables are
unknown variables. Let us take a simple example let us say I have a system of algebraic
equations
x+y =0
x + zy = 3
Now, I want to find out whether this system of equations can be solved. So, I can do a degree
of freedom analysis.
591
The number of variables = 2, x and y
The number of equations =2
So, DOF = 2 − 2 = 0
Zero degrees of freedom tells you that we can solve this set of equation.
Now, let us take another example. This can be solved now let us take another example
x+y =0
x + 2y + z = 3
Now, if you do a degree of freedom analysis
The number of variables = 3, x, y and z
The number of equations =2
So, DOF = 3 − 2 = 1
Which means that I cannot solve the system of equations unless you specify z. Now, if you
specify z = f (xy) . If you replace x as some function of let us say x + y or xy , some
equation then you have 2 equations and 2 unknowns then you can solve this system of
equations.
And, we have illustrated for the case of algebraic equations need not be algebraic. It could be
equations, partial differential equation. We are going to see an application for partial
differential equations because our conservation equations are partial differential equation ok.
So, degree of freedom analysis tells you whether system of equations can be solved or not, it
is defined as number of variables minus number of equations.
We have seen two examples where one diff degree of freedom is 0, the second one this
degree of freedom is 1 but if you express z = f (xy) it can be solved and that is the point
you should note we will carry out this understand this, it becomes very easy to understand
what we are going to discuss now next.
592
The topic which I am going to discuss now is formally called a closure problem, we will
understand why is it so, as we go along. So, let us write down all the equations which I have
derived so far.
The total mass balance of course, a differential form
∂(ρ) ∂(ρv x ) ∂(ρv y ) ∂(ρv z )

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
Then we will write the linear momentum balance, we have to write all the three components,
the x component, the y component and the z component

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
= ρg x − ∂x
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
∂(ρv y ) ∂(ρv x v y ) ∂(ρv y v y ) ∂(ρv z v y ) ∂p ∂τ xy ∂τ yy ∂τ zy

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
= ρg y − ∂y
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
∂(ρv z ) ∂(ρv x v z ) ∂(ρv y v z ) ∂(ρv z v z ) ∂p ∂τ xz ∂τ yz ∂τ zz

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
= ρg z − ∂z
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
Then remember this rho is the density so, we need a equation of state we will have to include
that as well which comes from a thermodynamic course that equation of state could be an
ideal gas equation or non-ideal gas equation for simplicity for example, we take a ideal gas
equation of state.
pM
ρ = ρ (p, T ) e.g ideal gas of equation ρ = RT
593
Now, let us do a degree of freedom analysis for these set of equations. We have the total mass
balance, the linear momentum balance and the equation of state. Just want to repeat the
equation of state is required because we have density and we said that then the density is
related to pressure and temperature and that relationship should come from a equation of
state.
The equations are repeated here, we will do a degree of freedom analysis now for these set of
partial differential equations. So, now, let us account for the number of variables number of
equations; when I say variables I mean the dependent variables not the independent variables
like time, x, y, z coordinates.
The number of independent variables we have are
● ρ (1 count),
● Velocity (Velocity is a vector so 3 components)
● Pressure (1 variable) and then
● 9 components of the viscous stress tensor, but we proved that the cross shear
components are same leaving as only with 6 independent viscous stress tensor
components and that is what is written here
So, totally independent variables = 1 + 3 + 1 + 6 = 11 ,
594
Number of equations = 1(mass balance) + 3 (linear momentum balance) + 1 (equation of
state) =5
So, find the degree of freedom as
DOF = Number of independent variables – Number of equations = 11 – 5 = 6
We have seen the previous example that the degree of freedom should be 0 for systemic
equation to be solved. We have 6 DOF so which means that you cannot solve.
And, what are the 6 unknowns? They are very clear because the 6 independent components of
viscous stress tensor are the unknowns. If you express that in terms of the usually existing
variables, if you express that in terms of the already existing variables just like we did in the
last example what did we do z in terms of x and y.
Similarly, here if you express this τ the components of tau let us say τ xx , τ yx etcetera in
terms of velocity then this degree of freedom will become 0. Not exactly velocity, you will
see later on that we are going to express in terms of velocity gradients.
And, we take a diversion 2 to solid mechanics to understand what velocity gradients are
understand velocity gradients and understand what displacement gradients are and that is why
we take a diversion 2. So, as usual any difficulty we run to solids. So, we will take a refuge in
solids again.
595
And, let me explain that with this journey to the Navier Stokes and where are we now and
where are we proceeding. To begin with we started with Newton’s second law of motion for
system, applied the Reynolds transport theorem, derived the integral form of linear
momentum balance, applied this for a small control volume, derived the differential form in
the left hand side and the gravity on the right hand side.
To understand surface forces we went to solid mechanics, understood stress factor and stress
tensor, applied that to fluids, discussed fluids under rest to discuss hydrostatic stress,
discussed about total stress tensor in terms of hydrostatic stress and the viscous stress tensor
for fluids. With all this the previous lecture we applied the we completed the right hand side
of the linear momentum balance, now we are ready to understand this the differential form of
linear momentum balance, what does it include? Of course, the left hand side is there and the
right hand side we have gravity, we have pressure and viscous stress. So, anyway going to
solve for pressure, the viscous stresses are unknown.
You want to relate this viscous stress to velocity actually velocity gradients, understand
velocity gradients which understand what displacement gradients are and that is why we take
a second diversion here, go to solid mechanics understand displacement gradient and then we
can understand velocity gradients and that is that is where we are looks like almost we are
there but we need to understand furthermore ok and this problem is called the closure
problem, that is, closure meanings meaning that expressing the components of the viscous
stress tensor in terms of velocity gradients you close the system of equations.
596
To summarize this part we completed the differential linear momentum balance in the right
hand side, including the surface force in the right hand side, and we included the surface
force due to pressure and due to viscous stresses and we also discussed the viscous stress
tensor and the convective momentum flux tensor as well. Viscous stress tensor is kind of
known to us because analogous to tau for solids, the conductive momentum flux tensor was is
new to us.
We also discussed the closure problem which means that the components of viscous stress
tensor are unknowns, they need to be expressed in terms of velocity or more precisely
velocity gradients and to understand displacement gradients we take a diversion to solid
mechanics.
597
Lecture - 51
Normal Strain and Shear Strain- Part 1
So, we are in the process of deriving the linear momentum balance, we have derived that in
the last lecture. But then, we found that the components of the viscous tensor are unknowns.
Why are they unknowns? We are proceeding towards to get an equation which is in terms of
velocities, we want to get the velocity profile. So, they are unknowns. And we need to
express that in terms of the viscous stress tensor components in terms of velocity; velocity
gradients to be precise.
And then to understand velocity gradients we need to understand displacement gradients in

solid mechanics. So now, we are taking a diversion to solid mechanics. So, in terms of this
course overview we are taking a diversion from fluid mechanics solid mechanics and the
topic of discussion is termed as strain. What this means will understand as we go along.
598
In terms of our journey to the Navier stokes, we started with the Newton’s Law and obtain
the integral form of linear momentum balance, then obtain the differential form of linear
momentum balance the left hand side and the gravity on the right hand side. Understand the
surface forces on the right hand side. We took a diversion to solid mechanics understood
stress came to fluids understood total stress in terms of pressure and viscous stress in
corporate that on the right hand side and derived the differential form of linear momentum
balance the complete form. We had gravity, pressure, viscous stress on the right hand side,
but we are going to use this differential form of linear momentum balance to get velocity
profiles.
So, our unknowns in the equation or the variables in the equation should be of course density,
pressure, velocity; we cannot have other unknowns. So, the viscous stress tensor components
are unknown. Now, we need to express this viscous stress tensor, the components of that in
terms of velocity, really in terms of velocity gradients. Understand this velocity gradients to
have better understanding we will understand first displacement gradient, so we take a
diversion to solid mechanics and this number 2 indicates that it is our second visit all the
solid mechanics.
And then, the two orange blocks or solid mechanics. After discussing that, we will discuss
analogously these two blocks in blue fluid mechanics. In that first we are discussing the block
2 on solid mechanics. You look at terms like normal strain, shear strain, displacement
gradient, and this is what we are going to discuss the this lecture and next lecture as well. So,
let us get started of course after we finish will understand these terms very clearly.
599
So, just like we had outlined earlier for solid mechanics, the three titles shown here are the
titles for the first, second and third visit. We are discussed internal forces and stress, now the
second visit the title says deformation and strain, of course third title says Hooke’s law. You
are going to discuss about the second title which is deformation and strain.
Now, what is a outline for deformation and strain? We are in second diversion to solid
mechanics in that this outline is for the second visit we will discuss slowly as we go along, it
is a little bit each bullet by bullet. So, what are the points or concepts are going to discuss.
600
● Going to start with types of deformation and definition of strains. There are lot of
terminology is here I am not going to explain them right now, you will understand as
we go along. So, let us just read them.
● Second concept is on displacement field and displacement gradient.
● Then we relate strains and displacement field
● Then we look at components of displacement.
● And then finally we split the displacement gradient tensor as sum of strain tensor and
rotation tensor. Lot of terminologies will understand very clearly as we go along.
Let us start with types of deformation. How do you understand this visualizes? We take a
plate and then let us says this is subjected to some force and because of the action of the force
there is change in the dimension along x direction, change in the dimension along y direction.
And so, the first type of deformation which can happen is change in length.
So for example, let us say about 3 centimetres becomes 3.5 centimetre, let us say it is 5
centimetre, becomes 5.5 centimetre; so there is increase in length and that can be decrease in
length as well. But, the first type of deformation is change in length. Now, that is what is
shown in the left side figure. You have a plate of ∆x and ∆y length and width and that
becomes ∆x* and ∆y * .
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Most of the times in terms of our figure the continuous line represents the dimension of the
solid before you apply the force and the dotted line or dashed line represents after you apply
the force. Remember we discussed when we discuss about difference between solid and fluid
mechanics, the case of solid it goes from one equilibrium state to another equilibrium state. I
have a solid and different names are given for the solid or state before applying the force. We
can called as initial state or undeformed configuration. And you apply a force it undergoes
deformation. What does it deformation mean; for example, right now change in length.
So, this is the continuous line that represents the plate in the initial state or in the undeformed
state and this dashed line represents the same plate after you apply the force it has undergone
some deformation, this case change in length and then it has come to another equilibrium
state. Remember, for solid mechanics we said solids go from one equilibrium state to another
equilibrium state. You continue to apply the force and it changes from one length to some
other length in terms of area of course there is change as well. So, and this dotted line
represents the deformed configuration.
Now, instead of change in length there could be change in angle as well; you have to take the
plate unless you apply a shearing stress shearing force like this. So what happens? The in this
particular case this length almost reminds same the length of PA and PA* are almost same
similarly PB and PB* almost same, so there is no change in length. But if you look at the
angle, the angle between PA and PB was 90 degrees. Now, that angles is reduced and it has
become acute angle. So, this also called as deformation, the second type of deformation
namely change in angle.
So, whenever we discuss deformation whenever we say deformation; deformation is a very

well known word used even day day-to-day activities, but now we have to attach a very
specific meaning when we discuss solid and fluid mechanics. So, when we say deformation
we say it means that change in length and or change in angle both can happen. That is what is
shown in the figure at the bottom, where you have change in length and change in angle. This
rectangle represents the state before applying the force initial state or undeformed
configuration. Now, this has become almost kind of parallelogram. Now if you see the length
PA has increased to P* A*, similarly length PB has increased to P*B*. So, there is increased
in length and then look at the angle there is a change in angle as well. This 90 degrees has
now reduced. So, this is the example where you have both change in length and change in
angle. So, in general you will have both change in angle and change in length as well.
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There is one more thing shown here, the plate has moved. If you see here the original plate is
here it has moved here and we will discuss about that later, right now we just focus on change
in length change in angle and both can happen together. And this we call as deformation ok.
Now, we have described it this in words, now we will have to quantify it and that is what we
are going to do now. How do you quantify? Change in length change in angle.
Now, which says two measures of deformation one for change in length and one for change
in angle.
● Change in length of line element is quantified in terms of normal strain.
● Change in angle momentum is a angle you need to line elements be quantified in

terms of shear strain.
So, let us see how do we do that. What is shown in the bottom figure is a solid object, in that
you mark two points P and Q. You mark two points P and Q either you call them as points
later on I will call them as particles or solid particles so that you can easily extend to fluid it.
Remember you always have to take this two fluids, so we can easily say fluid particles or
solid particles. So, we identified two points.
And PQ is a line joining the two points P Q or the two particles PQ and ∆ S is the length of
the line joining P and Q. Now, I shown one vector n; n represents the direction of the line PQ.
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So, what is it we have to done? Taken a plate it is in the initial state, look at the terminology
it looks like same as thermodynamics we say know a gas goes from initial state to final state.
So, similarly for solid also we said it goes from one equilibrium state to another equilibrium
state. That is why our terminology is also initial state or undeformed configuration which
means no forces applied.
So, you mark two points P and Q along a direction n, the length of that line is ∆ S. Now you
apply a force on this. Now, the points you mark or particles identify they get displaced. That
is what is shown here. P has moved here to P*, and Q has moved to Q* and this U P
represents displacement of point P, U Q represents displacement of Q we will discuss this
later. Now, focus on the line PQ has become the line P*Q* and the length has become from
∆ S to ∆ S*.
Now the word strain is not new to you. You would have usually discuss strain for a
something like a rod like this and you are defined strain as change in length by original
length. Same meaning here as well, but of the small difference that is what we are going to
discuss or you would discuss a thread and then change in length by original length ok. Let us
do that now.
∆S * −∆S
εn (P ) = ∆S
εn > 0 : increase in length;
εn < 0 : decrease in length;
Let us define normal strain in this way I will explain what is the meaning of this definition of
the shear strain, will come to that shortly. Now, these are the conditions, we will discuss that
as well. Now, we are defined the normal strain which is represented by ε and then we have
subscript n, why is a subscript n, this line element means that the line joining the points PQ.
Now, we said the line PQ is along direction n that is why we used subscripts n here, I will
come to the P within bracket shortly.
Now, we defined normal strain as change in length by original length same definition. So,
∆S * is the let us say that final length, ∆S is the initial length divided by ∆S , initial length.
Now, what is the difference between what you already know and this definition? What you
have usually know; you took this original length and then the final length took the difference
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divided by the original length this gives you normal strain for averaged over the entire length
of the rod or thread.
But remember, we are going to go back to our linear momentum balance all of them are
valued at every point. So, we need a point form of strain is that; what you know is the
definition of average strain, if there is variation of strain along the length of the rod, then we
need a definition of normal strain which is valid every point; what do we do here we took P
and Q slightly separated make Q → P and that is what this means. Limit of Q → P what
will happen ∆S →0 . Same definition in the limit of; what does it mean you have just P Q
very near to each other then this becomes the definition of normal strain. And that is why
here within bracket have written at P.
So, what does the definition tell you? Normal strain at P and of course, you require little more
imagination if you imagine at a point but a small line along n it is not one point then you are
at a point and imagine a small line along direction n. And what is the change in length for that
line, of course divided by the original length gives you the definition of the local normal
strain.
Significance is known to you change in length by original length, only difference are of
course that is it required for this our scope of this course is that we have defined normal strain
locally, we will see an example in fact. Using this we can find the normal strain at every point
along the rod or along the length of the thread. And that is why we are taken Q → P and
∆S →0 .
So, several aspects to be looked to be focused on in this definition. First is εn is normal

strain; n does not represent normal strain, n is used represent the direction of the element for
which you are defining the normal strain. Please keep that in mind. And on the right hand
side change in length by original length in the limit of Q → P and ∆S →0 .
π
γ nt (P ) = 2 −< R* P * Q*
γ nt > 0 : decrease in angle;
γ nt < 0 : increase in angle;
Now, let us move on to shear strain. Shear strain is used to quantify change in angle. Moment
I say change in angle I need two line segments which means I need three points, that is what
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is shown in the right bottom figure. In the undeformed configuration initial state I have points
P, R and then Q. So, I take a plate and then mark points P R Q, and then I marked such that
the angle between them is 90 degrees.
Now, P R can have one direction, P Q and can have one direction; that is why we have two
directions n and t. For the case of normal strain it has only one line element, so only one
direction is enough that is why we denoted as by εn . But when we come to shear strain you
are talking about angle between two line elements which means that two directions are
required. That is why we have two directions n and t.
So, what is that we have done? We have taken line elements P R and then P Q there along
directions n and t and the angle between them is 90 degrees. Now, we apply a force, the body
gets deformed, goes to another equilibrium state and then stops deformation. In the deformed
state, in the final state R has got displaced to R* and then P has got displaced to P *, and Q
has got displaced to Q*.
Now there is a change in the angle between the two line elements the angle between RPQ is
90 degrees, the angle between R*P*Q* is in this case lower than 90 degrees; of course can be
more than that. This difference change in angle is quantified as shear strain.
Now, let us look at the definition. The shear strain is represented by the letter γ and two
subscripts are require subscripts are n and t, and I will come to that point P as we discussed
π
earlier. It tells about change in angle, the initial angle is 2 , the final angel is R*P*Q*. As we
have discussed the case of normal strain I need definition of shear strain at a point. So, what
should happen? This Q should become as close as possible to P, R should become as close as
possible to P and this change in limit of Q → P , R → P is your definition of shear strain.
Now, how do you imagine once again? You imagine at a point, two small line segments and
though which are at 90 degrees to each other. Why small? We are saying Q → P , R → P ,
but still at a point you are imagining too small line segments perpendicular to each other. Of
course, a little difficult to imagine we are seeing point, but is telling two lines etcetera as you
will go along will get practice to that. The case of normal strain at a point imagine a small
line, the case of shear strain at a point imagine two small line segments perpendicular to each
other.
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And what happens to their angle, why this small point because we need definition of local
normal strain, definition of local shear strain. We want to describe what happens to that
length change in length change in angle at every point in the body that need not be same. In
the case of a simple rod it may be same throughout the rod or throughout the thread, but in
the general body when subjected to force this normal and shear strain can vary or will vary
most of the time throughout the body. And that is it that is why we want a definition of local
normal strain and shear strain.
Coming back to this point P; I said imagine a point at that point we have two line segments.
So, this rep finally it is shear strain at point P only, though we have P Q R etcetera finally the
definition is for shear strain shear strain it point P only. Now, we have define this normal
strain along line element which is along n and shear strain for two elements along n and t.
What we are going to use in our discussion is only line elements along our coordinate axis.
And that is what you are going to see now.
What is the analogy in term in terms of stress discussion? Remember we said any plane and
then we are a stress vector resolved along the particular axis. Then we said we are going to
resolve along x, y, z axis, then we took planes which are parallel to our coordinate planes.
Similarly here, we have a very general definition so we got we took n, t etcetera. But now,
what is it going to use subsequently are line elements which are along x axis, along y axis.
So, just let us write down the normal strain for line segment along x axis.
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Let us write down the definition of normal strain for line segment along x axis.
εx = N ormal strain f or line segment along x axis
What is what do you mean by that? Take a line segment in a object you mark two points
along x axis P Q, earlier it was any direction n now you will be marking along x axis only
and then you will be finding out what is the change in length by original length.
εy = N ormal strain f or line segment along y axis
εz = N ormal strain f or line segment along z axis
Similarly, along y axis and then similarly along z axis. These are specific forms of the earlier
expression and we will be using only these normal strains for line segments along x axis, y
axis, and z axis
Now, for the case of shear strain we had two subscripts but for the case of normal strain we
have only one subscript one subscript is sufficient. But to be uniform we will represent
normal strain using two subscripts namely εxx , εyy , εzz Because there is only one direction
here, but to have uniformity will use two subscripts. So, our nomenclature for normal strain
for line segment along x axis will be εxx accordingly other directions.
Now, we have looked at a definition for shear strain for two line elements along n and t
direction. Instead of that we will take two line elements along x axis and y axis. So, our
nomenclature becomes
γ xy = S hear strain between two line segments along x and y axis
Similarly,
γ yz = S hear strain between two line segments along y and z axis
γ zx = S hear strain between two line segments along z and x axis
Now, shear strain represents the difference in angle between initial state and final state. So,
γ xy = γ yx ; γ yz = γ zy ; γ zx = γ xz
So, we have defined normal strain, shear strain locally that is important. For elements along
any direction n and two elements along n and t we have adapted that or applied that for line
608
elements along x, y, and z axis; for normal strain adapted that for line segments two line
segments along x and y axis, y and z axis, z and x axis.
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Lecture - 52
Normal Strain and Shear Strain - Part 2
When we discussed stress we discussed about sign convention. Similarly, we are going to
discuss about sign convention for normal strain. It looks very obvious, but there is a sertile
point here. The sign convention for strain goes in line with the sign convention for stress. Let
us see how does it reflect here.
Now, if you take a solid object and apply a tensile stress; tensile stress pulling away; and
according to our sign convention tensile stresses are positive, on a positive face along
positive axis so, they represents positive stresses. When you apply a tensile strength then the
length will increase and the normal strain will be positive value and that is what we are
seeing here.
Normal strain was defined as
∆S * −∆S
εn (P ) = ∆S
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Now, as we have seen, if you subject a object to a tensile stress tensile stresses are positive
because on a positive x face the force is along x axis, negative x face force is along negative
x-direction and of course tensile forces are positive and that results in a expansion. So, ∆S *
will be larger than ∆S ; you will result in a positive normal strain.
So, we can conclude that positive normal stress tensile stress produces positive normal strain.
Negative normal stress, what does it mean? Suppose, you apply a compressive stress then the
length will decrease. When length decreases ∆S * will be less than ∆S this will be a negative
value. So, negative normal stress, also called as compressive stress, produces negative normal
strain just like positive normal stress produces positive normal strain.
So, we could have define for example, ∆S − ∆S * , but we are defined as of course, final
length minus initial length which looks more logical anyway, but the sign convention
associated with the strain goes in line with that for the stress as well. Like to mention here we
could have left that change in length alone just like we left that change in angle, but change in
length is not normalized. That is why to normalize, expressed as a fraction we divided by
original length otherwise it could be 2 centimetre, 5 centimetre, it is not normalized.
To normalize we divided by the original length and get a normalized expression of course,
that is not required for the shear strain, it is just a change in angle.
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Now, let us see the sign convention for shear strain. What is shown here is a stress element
with only shear stresses all of them in the positive sense, what does it mean? On a positive x
face force along positive y direction, positive y face force along positive x axis. On a negative
x face the direction of forces along negative y axis; on a negative y face force along negative
x axis. Now, this combination of forces or combination of direction of forces represents all of
them in a positive shear stress. What does it mean?
Take an object your shear stresses are the forces which will act in the opposite directions. It
will make the object to shear in a particular way that is what is shown (in the above figure)
which means the angle which has original 90 degrees will now decrease and we know that
from the definition of a shear strain that the decrease in angle results in a positive shear strain.
So, positive shear stress results in a positive shear strain. I will just repeat it.
We are shown as a 2D stress element with all the shear stresses in the positive sense. When
you represent in positive sense the forces are such a way if you have a cube they act in the
opposite way. So, they make the cube such a way that this angle which was originally 90
degrees will now reduce and that is what is shown here according to our definition of shear
strain,
π
γ nt (P ) = 2 −< R* P * Q*
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The shear strain is 90 degrees minus the final angle and the final angle is reduced so, the
shear strain is positive. So, positive shear stresses result in positive shear strain and that is
what is shown here as well. The stresses are shown in the positive sense and that is what this
indicates, positive shear stress. So, that is the first statement we make here; positive shear
stress produces positive shear strain. Of course, decrease in angle or acute angle.
Now, let us discuss the are the reverse condition and that is what is shown in the right hand
side figure. Now, all the shear stress are negative here because on a positive face the forces
along negative direction, on a negative face the forces along positive direction. So, these the
action of forces according to this direction are all negative shear stresses.
So, you have a cube and they act in this direction. So, now, the angle will increase it will
π
become an obtuse angle. What will happen if you have an obtuse angle? You have 2 and an
obtuse angle. So, you have a negative shear strain. So, in negative shear stress results in
negative shear strain. So, it is that is the statement next statement, negative shear stress
produces negative shear strain increase in angle or obtuse angle.
The important point in these two slides is that the sign convention for stress and strain are
related. The sign convention is such a that such a way that you adopted is that positive
stresses results in positive strain be it normal or shear that is a conclusion from these two
slides.
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Let us take an example of a stretching of a wire. This example is to illustrate the calculation
of local strain. You would have done the same example. You are given a wire, you are given
the initial length, you will be given the final length, you will find difference in length divided
by original length; you would have calculated strain that is that gives the average strain over
the entire length but, now we are going to apply our expression, now our definition of local
normal strain and going to see how can how local strain varies locally along the length of the
wire that is example let us read this.
A wire of finite length L, initially lying in the x-direction. So, initially a wire is along the x
axis is stretched along a rigid track which is a parabola. So, you are stretching it along this
track, it is a parabola. This is given as y = bx2 ; all points of the wire displace the y-direction
only.
All points of the wire displace in the y-direction only. Compute the strain at all points of the
wire that is the difference between what you already known what it discussing now.
So, let us do that. Let us start with the definition of normal strain
∆S * −∆S
εn (P ) = ∆S
Now, we are considering the wire which is lying originally along the x axis. So,
∆S * −∆x
εxx = ∆x
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Now, ∆S * is a final length and initial length is ∆x because along the x axis, similarly initial
length is ∆x and instead of ∆s→0 ; I write as ∆x→0 and instead of εn I write as εxx . We
said for the normal strain of line elements along x axis are denoted as εx , the two subscript
notation they are εxx and that is what is shown here.
Taken a small line element along the wire the original configuration that has become delta s
star in the deformed configuration this is the un-deformed configuration or initial state of
wire. This curve; the parabola is the final configuration of the wire or a deformed
configuration. We are told that every point that displaced only vertically. So, that is why this
vertical line shows.
Now, because we are considering a small segment of the wire you can approximate this ∆s*
be a straight line and the x axis distance is ∆x , let us call the y axis distance is ∆y .
So, ∆x is the length of infinitesimal segment, we are taking a small segment of wire in the
initial position and ∆s* as we have discussed is the deformed length of segment of the wire
when stretched which you called as a final configuration.
So, from this figure (right hand side in above slide image) we can write
2
∆s* = √∆x2 + ∆y 2 =
√ 1+ ( ) ∆x
∆y
∆x
Now, we substitute this expression in this definition of normal strain
∆S * −∆x
εxx = ∆x
εxx = √ ∆y 2
1+( ∆x ) ∆x−∆x
∆x
Now, you can cancel out in ∆x and that leaves us
εxx =
(√ 1+ ( ) ∆y
∆x
2
−1
)
Now, we take limit ∆x→0 which means
εxx =
(√ 1+ ( ) dy
dx
2
−1
)
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Now, let us proceed further we are given the expression for y which is
y (x) = bx2
dy
We will have to just differentiate that to get dx ,
dy
dx
= 2bx
Then, substitute in the expression
εxx = (√1 + 4b x 2 2
−1 )
This expression gives you the local strain that gives you the strain at every point along the
wire that is the difference between what you already learned and extra information from this.
Of course, the strain remember the strain varies along the length of the wire, it is not constant
it is the function of x; and,
at x = 0 ; εxx = 0
So, that if you take a small point at A, there is no change in the length at all it is just there and
maximum strain where does it happen? If you see here this segment CD has become C star D
star.
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So, the maximum strain occurs at x = L and found simplify for example,
If bx≪1 then you can approximate this using the binomial theorem
εxx = (√1 + 4b x
2 2
)
− 1 ≈ (1 + 2b2 x2 ) − 1 = 2b2 x2
So, to a quick approximation the normal strain varies quadratically with the position or with
x, strain is the quadratic function of x. So, only one main concept is example we evaluated
normal strain locally in a wire that is being stretched.
We will take an example for evaluation of the shear strain. Now, the what is shown here is a
plate and you are given the un-deformed configuration you are given the deformed
configuration, initial state and final state. Always remember, in all these cases a force is
applied and it continued to apply and then it is it undergoes deformation.
The original configurations are P, C and then A the original points are P, C and A; point P
has not moved, it is remained at P*. So, P = P*. A has moved A* and C has moved to C*.
Now, the vertical displacement of a this length is given as 0.24L, the dimensions are given in
terms of L; L could be taken as unity as well. So, the length is 3L, the width is 2L and the
vertical displacement of A is 0.24L, the horizontal displacement of C is 0.24L.
Now, let us read the problem. Points A and C of a rectangular plate shown in figure displace
to points A* and C* along the x and y axis respectively, so that the rectangle is deformed to
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parallelogram. If you look at P *C*A* the dashed line is a parallelogram. Lines that are
initially parallel to the axes remain parallel lines. Why this statement is required? Just to
simplify the problem saying that the shear strain is same throughout the plate.
You need not find shear strain at every point in the plane, if you are finding one value of
shear strain the change in angle that is applicable throughout the plate. That is why, line
parallel to the axis they remain parallel in the final configuration as well. So, let us evaluate
the shear strain.
Let us start with the definition of shear strain.
π
γ nt (P ) = 2 −< R* P * Q*
We are considering point P, the two line segments are along x axis and along y axis. So,
π
γ xy = 2 −< C * P * A* =< A* P * A +< C * P * C
The R* P * Q* if you look at the original diagram it represents the angle between the two line
elements in the final configuration. What is the corresponding angle in this diagram? It is
π
C * P * A* is it that is a final angle. So, 2 is the original angle CPA that is angle 90 degrees
minus the final angle is C * P * A* .
618
Now, based on the dimensions given displacement is given we can evaluate γ xy . What is the
angle A* P * A ; it is just ( 0.24
3 ) , L of course cancels out. Now, for the other angle it is
( 0.24
2 ) , L cancels out. Now, if you evaluate
γ xy = ( 0.24
3 )
+ ( 0.24
2 )
= 0.0798 + 0.1194 = 0.1993
This is exact value of the shear strain. Now, if you assume γ xy ≪1 , a small value if you
assume.
Remember we discussed rigid body and then the deformable body. You can quickly
approximate bodies to be rigid but we are discussing deformable bodies that is why we are
discussing about strain etcetera and I told you if you apply mega Pascal of force per area the
change in length will be very small value of millimetre or 10−6 meters will be in terms of
microns.
Similarly, if you apply mega Pascal of let us a shearing a force the angle change will also be
very small that is why we are discussing the assumption of γ xy ≪1 , which means that these
angles will be very small. So, assuming γ xy ≪1 , angles between sides of parallelogram and x
and y directions are small.
And, now we know that for α≪1 , any angle less than less than 1, tan tan (α) = α which
means that α = (α) . let us do that and see what is the value.
0.24 0.24
γ xy = 3
+ 2
= 0.2000
Now, this is an approximate value, because we have not taken but look at the error a very
small rough 0.35 % is introduced. We will be using as we go along only this second value. It
is almost accurate only a small error is introduce and we will be following this second
approach as we go along. Just to illustrate numerically why do we do that you will understand
later on.
So, we have found exact value of shear strain an approximate value but that is very good
approximation for the exact value.
Now, the question mentioned that the all parallel lines remain parallel of deformation. We
have illustrated in the previous slide. So, we have calculated angle changes for the boundary
between the two boundaries of the plate x boundary and y boundary.
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So, applicable at any point inside the plate so, the angle changes are same at all points in the
plate; that is why if this is not given then we cannot come to that conclusion. That is why that
line was mentioned because it is very simple example; angle changes are same at all points in
the plate and which mean that the shear strain is constant throughout the plate; angle changes
are nothing but shear strain.
620
Lecture - 53
Displacement Field and Displacement Gradient – Part 1
We are into the second concept under strain and deformation which says displacement field
and displacement gradient. Now, we saw that the strain is a measure of deformation; we saw
deformation could be change in length change in angle we quantified using strain that is why
the sentence says strain is a measure of deformation. Now, the way in which we discussed
strain either normal strain, shear strain we said we mark some points and then remember we
discuss the how the points move we had a symbol called variable called u which represent
displacement.
So, we mark some points p q or r p q and they got displaced to some other positions. So,
which means that this strain depends on the displacement of points in the body. Now, after
this discussion on displacement field and displacement gradient we are going to relate both of
them. So, before relating we will discuss what is the displacement field, what is displacement
gradient. So, to summarize this slide we first introduced deformation quantified it using
strain, but these depend on the displacement of the points or solid particles and so, we are
discussing now what displacement field and displacement gradient.
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The word field is known to us right from several classes earlier field represents, the variation
of any property in special location example we discussed temperature field velocity field
etcetera. So, just like temperature field velocity field pressure field here we have
displacement field. So, moment you look at displacement field that is the idea that should
come to your mind that it is going to tell about displacement as a function of x, y, z just like
temperature, pressure, velocity etcetera. We have come across temperature gradient similarly
we are going to discuss about displacement gradient here of course, conceptually they are
more involved.
The way in which we are going to discuss displacement field and gradient is parallelly, we
are going to discuss displacement field displacement gradient, we are going to discuss
hierarchically also what is hierarchy? Slowly introduce for 1 dimensional case, then go to 2
dimensional case, then go to 3 dimensional case that is a hierarchy. So, first take 1D discuss
displacement field and gradient go to 2D discuss both of them similarly 3D that is the plan.
Now, let us start with the 1D case, we are going to discuss about displacement field, what is
shown here (in the above slide image) of course, a very good discussion from our book by W
D means on stress and strain. We can imagine a plate or a wall and then a wire attached to to
that. And you mark some points on the wire a, b, c, d and they are at locations 0, 1, 2 and 3.
Now, you stretch the wire; and that is what is shown in the second diagram. Now the points
or particles have move to some other location, the a, b, c, d have moved to some other
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location. They point a is not moved in fact, just saying it is something like attached to the
wall let us say b has moved to 2, c has moved to 4 and d has moved to 6.
Now, in terms of nomenclature which I have used few times earlier, the first figure represents
the underperformed state or the initial state. The second figure represents the deformed state
because you applied a force and continue to apply the force. Now, in terms of coordinate axis
I am using 2 coordinate axis X axis which represents the old coordinates and x represents the
new coordinate axis. The points a, b, c, d in terms of values X = 0, 1, 2, 3 for the undeformed
state and x = 0, 2, 4, 6 are the position in the deformed state.
Now, how do we formally say point a has not got displaced, but b has displaced from 1 to 2
and then c has displaced from 2 to 4 and d has displaced from 3 to 6. Remember the scale is
same only the nomenclature of axis is different what do I mean by that you take the same
scale; scale cannot change; only the axis we are used to represent the position or the
coordinate is different in the old configuration and the new configuration for old I use X for
the new I use x.
Now, what does the third diagram represent? It represents the displacement of all the four
points or the four solid particles; let us see how does it represent point. Now, u represents
displacement it’s a vector right now it looks like a scalar, but actually it’s a vector. So, u
vector for point a, point b, points c and point d.
Now, point a has not moved, so null vector ua is a null vector b has moved from 1 to 2. So,
the arrow mark shows a displacement from 1 to 2, c has moved from 2 to 4, so a
displacement of 2 units of course, all along the x axis d which was a position 3 has moved to
6. So, this represents displacement of 3 units for point d. So, the third diagram represents
because we are discussing the displacement field look at the nomenclature it says x axis and
X axis are superimposed that also shows we are at the same scale.
So, the third diagram represents the displacement for the different particles a, b, c, d, it shows
an arrow from the initial position to the final position. Let us move on to the next slide and
what is shown here formally is called the displacement field. Why is a displacement field? it
shows displacement as a function of position what happens to displacement field for different
particles this what we are going to discuss the next slide in a more detailed way.
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Now, the displacement field, u a vector, I have displacement only in the x direction. So, I
have not denoted that as ux displacement in the x direction just like our velocity in the x
direction here we are displacing x direction. Now, the displacement field ux can be
represented in term in 2 ways what is that?
The displacement can be represent in terms of the old axis that is X axis or the displacement
can be represent in terms of the new position axis or x axis let us see how do we represent.
Remember these are the displacements remember we had 0 1 2 and 3 the displacements are
same what is shown above the liner displacements. Similarly, the displacements are same 0,
1, 2, 3, but the axis with which you relate that defers.
The left hand side figure you are related this displacement to the old coordinate. So, you are
showing the displacement 0, 1, 2, 3 against the old position 0, 1, 2 and 3, the right hand side
we are showing the displacement against the new position 0, 2, 4 and 6. So, the independent
variable is different in the 2 figures, but the dependent variable the displacement is same in
both the cases the displacement the same that cannot be changed certainly, but with which
you are trying to relate the independent variable the position that defers it could be the old
position 0, 1, 2, 3 or to be the new position 0, 2, 4, 6.
Now, I will use let us say grammatically correct English statement, if I want to explain the
first figure I should say that 0, 1, 2, 3 are the displacements that will happen for the particles
at 0, 1, 2, 3 because that is the initial state before you applied the force that is the undeformed
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state. Now, we applied the force it has come to another equilibrium state we are in the final
state. Now, if I want to explain you see grammatically correct statement for the right side
figure I should say these are the displacements that has occurred for the particles which were
at 0, 1, 2, 3 or which are currently at 0, 2, 4, 6. So, in one case displacement that will happen
in other case displacement that has happened.
Now, what does this two figures tell you the displacement field in this case just ux can be
related as a function of X or can be related as a function of x.
ux = X ; ux = 12 x
So, at 0 you have 0 displacement, at 1 you have displacement 1. So, just ux = X . On the right
hand side the displacement is half the new coordinate position. So, ux = 12 x , for 0 you have 0
for 2 you have 1 for 4 you have 2. So, relationship its connects the displacement and the new
coordinate is ux = 12 x .
So, as I told you the independent variable a either is X or x the dependent variable is the
displacement that is same the functionality which you express other function which we used
to express or the axis which you use to express that can change either the old coordinate or
the new coordinate.
Now, the title of this slide says displacement gradient we are going to define displacement
gradient let us define that.
Dif f erence in displacement of 2 adjacent particles

Displacement gradient = Initial or f inal distance between the same particles
Let us understand this clearly, it says 2 adjacent particles. As usual why 2 adjacent particles
they are very close to each other we get a point definition of displacement gradient
everywhere that is a common theme throughout, all our equations all our variables should be
well at a point definition should be well at a point. So, we consider 2 adjacent particles of
course, here as per the diagram it may be slightly away, but theoretically considering 2
adjacent particles.
And let us say for example, you are considering particles which were at 1 and 2 they are
displacements are 1 unit and 2 units. Now, difference in displacement of 2 adjacent particles
the displacement of particle at 2 is 2 which was at 1 is 1, so difference in displacement is 1
unit. Now, the denominator is the initial or final distance between the particles. So, now,
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there is a possibility of 2 choices, the distance between the 2 particle in the old configuration
is 1 unit, but in the new configuration is 2 units. So, now, the same definition
∆ux ∆ux 1
∆X
= 1; ∆x
= 2
Let me repeat we are considering 2 particles which were at 1 and 2; their displacements are 1
and 2. So, the difference ∆ux tells difference in displacement that is 1; denominator the first
case we are taking the initial distance between the same particles initial distance between
them is 1. So, giving us value of displacement gradient of 1, the denominator we are using
∆X denote distance between the initial distance between the particles.
Second alternative is numerator there is no ambiguity or present difference in displacement of

2 adjacent particles, but denominator I take the distance between the final distance between
1
the particles I take the final distance between the particles which is 2 units. So, I have 2 . The
two values of two different ways in which you can express the displacement gradient.
Now, the small very small animation helps you understand better let us imagine like on the
same road we have 2 persons standing and they are initially at these locations one represented
by blue circle other represented with the orange circle. So, these are their initial position and
this is the distance between them in the initial configuration let us say and both of them are
the same line just for understanding I have shown separately. Now, let us say they start
walking and then after the same time let us say one walks much faster the other walks slower
and these are the final position of the 2 persons.
Now, let us say I want to evaluate the displacement gradient for these 2 persons. Now, this is
a displacement of the first person and this is a displacement for the second person, the
numerator is difference between these two lengths or distances. Now, denominator either you
can take the initial distance between them or the final distance between them that is the
analogy between here we are discussing particles little bit easier to understand if you take 2
persons there are two different locations they start walking depending on the rate at which
they walk there are two different positions and the first person displacement is so much
second person displacement or the distance walked by the person is so much that difference is
the numerator. Now, divide by the distance between them you take the initial distance or the
final distance.
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So, what we have to introduced is a displacement field, why is the displacement field in this
case its only 1 dimension. So, ux only is considered here is a function of X or x we said
displacement any field is a expressing a property or a variable in terms of x, y, z coordinates
in this case only 1 component ux as a function of only 1 variable either X or x.
Now, you have been telling X and x etcetera that that of course, is difficult to understand and
take forward also, but we are going to discuss is a condition under which we need not
differentiate both the definitions of the displacement gradient. So, that we need not worry
about either we consider X or x.
Formally what I going to discuss is called infinitesimal strain let us see what it is. We take the
same case of let us say a threat attached to a point a now we apply a force this point b now
gets displaced point a is at the same position, but the displacement of point b is very very
small it just gets displaced by 0.001. Now, if you look at the difference in displacement, the
displacement of point a is 0 but the point b got displaced by a small value 0.001. So,
difference in displacement is 0.001.
∆ux = ub − ua = 0.001 − 0 = 0.001
Now, what is the distance between them? In the initial state we took a let us say wire of threat
of length 1 unit that is a distance between a and b. Now, in the final configuration the
distance between them is 1.001
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∆X = 1.000; and ∆x = 1.001
So, initial distance between them as 1 unit the final configurations distance between them is
1.001, displacement does not depend on whether you take initial distance or final distance
that is anyway 0.001.
Now, we will calculate the displacement gradient based on the 2 options we have; the first
case
∆ux 0.001
∆X
= 1.000
= 0.00100
Coming to option 2
∆ux 0.001
∆x
= 1.001
= 0.000999
So, what do we conclude if the displacement is very very small. If the strain is very very
∆ux
small, then both the derivatives are same and we will use our very familiar derivative ∆x
or
∂ux
in terms of partial derivative ∂x
, eventually ux is going to vary with the x, y, z etcetera. So,
we have to represent using partial derivative and that is why we call this as infinitesimal
strain this is an assumption under which are going to work through of solid mechanics.
We will discuss more about this later right now the conclusion from this slide is that if the
displacement is very very small if you want to take some normalized way the strain is very
small if it is infinitesimal, then either you can work in terms of this definition of the
displacement gradient or this we are very familiar with the small x and we are going to work
∂ux
with ∂x
.
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Now, let us move on to same discussion extended to 2 dimensional case, we will discuss
displacement field displacement gradient. Now, what is shown here (in the above figure) is a
plate the red dots show the some points identified particles identified in the plate in the
undeformed configuration the initial state. We apply a force it gets deformed it reaches
another equilibrium state, now whatever points we are identified earlier have now got
displaced and those are shown as the blue dots.
Now, if you look at this, the case of a 2 dimensional displacement we are taken this example
to illustrate this illustration to discuss 2 dimensional displacement field. Now, because it is
2D we will have to consider ux and uy . The ux is the displacement in x direction. Now, let
us take an example let us take these particles around in this horizontal line, if you see these
two particles the same particle in the initial state and final state it has got horizontal displays
there is a ux . If you take these two the ux there is a ux the displacement in the x direction is
different from these two these two points.
Now, as you go along the x axis the horizontal displacement or ux keeps increasing as a
function of x. So, ux changes with the x, remember ux is displacement in the horizontal
direction around the x axis. So, the x coordinate distance between these two dots represent
the ux value that ux value keeps increasing along the x axis. Now, let us take particles
around this vertical line, now once again focus on the x displacement there is a small x
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displacement and then slightly more x displacement slightly more. So, the x displacement is
increasing as you go along the y direction.
So, ux changes with y as well ux represent displacement the x direction this example shown
it is varying along the x axis it is varying along the y axis specifically in this example they are
increasing along x axis increasing along y axis.
So, ux is a function of x comma y is analogous to the x component of velocity varying along

x direction y direction; x velocity is easy to understand because it is displacement because
they are not very familiar with that slightly difficult to get along with it, but just tells you the
x direction moment of a particle which we are focusing and just difference in x coordinate
gives you x displacement. Now, let us talk about the y displacement; displacement in the y
direction which is uy .
Now, what should we consider? Let us consider the particles along this horizontal axis. Now,
I want to focus on the vertical displacement which means that I should consider the
difference in the y coordinate. Here, there is hardly any vertical displacement, but now if you
see there is a vertical displacement between the red and blue dot that vertical displacement is
more here. So, the vertical displacement increases along the x axis that is what you are going
to say next uy changes with x. So, uy increases with x. So, vertical displacement is a
function of x coordinate.
Now, if you focus and let us say particles around this region, then we are considering these
two particles. And there is no displacement in the y direction, if you consider these two
remember they are the same particles in the initial state and final state. So, if you consider the
red and blue dots there is y displacement, if you consider these two particles there is once
again y displacement it is more than the earlier set and this y displacement keeps increasing
as you go along the y axis. So, uy changes with y as well.
So, the vertical displacement changes along the x axis; vertical displacement changes along
the y axis also uy as a function of is a function of x comma y. Combining these two the u
vector can be expressed as
u = ux (x, y ) i + uy (x, y ) j
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This is similar to velocity field v = v x (x, y ) i + v y (x, y ) j . So, we have seen is an example for
a displacement field in 2 dimensional case, where we have both displace x direction, y
direction and both of them vary in x and y direction.
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Lecture - 54
Displacement Field and Displacement Gradient – Part 2
Now we will take an example and then evaluate the Displacement Gradient, we are seeing
Displacement Field. Now we will evaluate displacement gradient for the two dimensional
example. This example is from the solid mechanics book by Kazimi.
So, you have a plate and then the coordinates are shown before deformation and after
deformation, before applying the force after applying the force or initial state final state.
Figure shows the coordinates of rectangular plate A, B, C, D to be (0, 0) and then (0, 100)
and then (150, 100) and then (150, 0) in the undeformed state. In the deformed state the new
coordinates are shown ( − 1 − 1) and then (1, 103) and then (152, 99) and then (150, − 5). We
are asked to calculate that displacement gradients. Let us do Let us see how do we calculate.
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Now, let us start with the definition of the displacement gradient which I have seen in few
slides ago, few slides back we are seeing that definition of displacement gradient. We said
dif f erence in displacement of two adjacent particles

Displacement gradient = distance between the same particles
Now, earlier we considered only one direction, so there was no mention of direction at all it
understood we are working in x direction only, but now the two particles which you consider
can be along x direction can be along y direction. And for particle considered along x and y
direction you can find difference in displacement along x direction and y direction. That is
what is shown here.
So, the denominator tells the direction along which are going to consider two particles. For
example, let us say x direction let us say we consider the particles B and C, if you consider B
and C for these two particles I can find out difference in the x displacement and y
displacement. That gives two possibilities for the numerator.
Now, we can consider two particles along y direction, for example C and then D. And
considering these two particles I can calculate that difference and displacement along x and y
direction once again you get another two set values. So, finally, we have four combinations of
displacement gradient: two for that direction along which are considering the particles, two
for the direction of displacement.
So, let us write here
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Particles along x direction for them difference in x displacement.
Particles along x direction once again, but now difference in y displacement.
Similarly particles along y direction, difference in x displacement.
Particles along the y direction once again, but different y displacement.
So, numerator x and y direction denominator x and y direction. So, you can calculate four
displacement gradients. Let us do that now.
Now, we will first consider particles along the x axis. In the present case you are going to
consider particles B and C. So, particles along x direction. Now, if you consider and then first
we are going to consider difference in x displacement. How do you write formally,
uxC −uxB
P articles along x direction, dif f erence in x displacement ∆u
∆x
x
= xC −xB
Remember u x tells displacement of a particle, we are going to consider two particles and
∆ux
look at the difference between them. That is why it says ∆x
.
Let us consider particles C and then B which are along the x axis. Now, it says difference in
displacement which means that x displacement of particle C minus x displacement of particle
B, and of course difference in their x coordinates. Now, let us take particle C, x displacement
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is nothing, but a difference in x coordinate, the final x coordinate is 152, initial x coordinate
is 150. So, the displacement of particle C is 2 units.
uxC = 152 − 150 = 2
Now, let us come to particle B. The final x coordinate is 1, initial x coordinate is 0, so that
this x displacement of particle B is 1 unit.
uxB = 2 − 1 = 1
And, the difference in x displacement
∆x = 150
So,
∆ux uxC −uxB 2−1 1

∆x
= xC −xB
= 150
= 150
Now, we are consider the same particles along x direction, but now look at the difference in y
displacement, and I say y displacement it is change in y coordinate. So, how do I write
∆uy uyC −uyB

∆x
= xC −xB
Now, let us look at particle C. Now, the y coordinate has moved from 100 to 99. So, the y
displacement of particle C is
uyC = 99 − 100 =− 1
Look at particle B, 100 has become 103. So, the y displacement is
uyB = 103 − 100 = 3
So,
∆uy uyC −uyB −1−3 4

∆x
= xC −xB
= 150
=− 150
The denominator is once again 150. Same particles are considered along the x axis the
distance between them is 150.
So, we are considered two particles along x axis B and C, looked at their difference in
displacement along x axis, and difference in their y displacement.
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Now, just we will repeat this: by taking two particles along the y axis we are going to
consider particle C and particle D. So, particles along the y direction: first we will consider
difference in their x displacement. How do you represent formerly?
∆ux uxC −uxD

∆y
= y C −y D
Now, let us look at point C. Now, for this case we focus on the x displacement. So,
uxC = 152 − 150 = 2
Now, coming to point D look at the x displacement
uxD = 150 − 150 = 0
Now, the vertical distance between the two particles, ∆y = 100. So,
∆ux uxC −uxD 2−0 2

∆y
= y C −y D
= 100
= 100
Now, the last combination considering the same particles along the y direction and looking at
the difference in the y displacement y displacement. So, how do you represent formerly?
∆uy uyC −uyD

∆y
= y C −y D
Now, let us consider particle C what is the y displacement of C
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uyC = 99 − 100 =− 1
Now, let us come to point D
uyD =− 5 − 0 =− 5
So,
∆uy uyC −uyD −1−(−5) 4

∆y
= y C −y D
= 100
= 100
So, we got now four values of displacement gradient let us arrange them.
The way in which we have arranged is; first we consider particles along the x axis which
were C and B the that is denoted by CB here, we calculated two gradients for them. Then we
consider particles along the y axis C and D.
[ ∆ux ∆ux ∆uy ∆uy

∆x ∆y ∆x ∆y ]=[ 1 2
150 100
− 4 4
150 100 ]
So now, I have arranged taken those values arranged column wise. Why specifically column
wise we will understand later, right now I have taken all the numerical values from the
previous slides and then filled up here. So now, what is that we have seen? We have seen a
displacement field in 2 D and then also discussed displacement gradients for 2 D. Because of
two directions along which I can consider particles two directions along which I can consider
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displacement four displacement gradients can be found out. And that is what we have done
now.
Now, let us move to three dimensional case. A very good representation, a very good
example from stress and strain. Now the initial configuration or the undeformed state is a
cube. You applied a force and it has become a cuboid like this ok. So, along the x direction
the length has decreased; along in the x direction original length has decreased.
Now, along the y direction the original length of this much, the final length is become twice
of that. Along the z direction no change at all. So, the cube has become cuboid with decrease
in length along x axis increase in length along y axis, that is what has happened.
Now, what is shown on the right hand side is the side view that is why you have x axis here
and then on the y axis here. Now, what are the things shown here in this diagram let us go
one by one. The initial position of A, B, C, D are shown the initial configuration. Now, the
same A, B, C, D are shown in the final configuration also as A’.
Now, let us come to B; So, it has moved in the B’ direction and this arrow mark represent the
direction. B is the original position and B’ is the final position. Now, C has not changed at all,
C and C’ are same. Now let us go to D; D has moved along the direction and this is D’ that is
what is shown in the figure, this arrow mark shows that D has moved along the x axis; of
course along the negative x axis by half a unit. So, this is D dash.
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Now, what else is shown? Below the new position three values are shown. What are they?
They represent displacement of these A, B, C the particles along x, y, z direction earlier we
are gradually moved from x to x and y now to x, y, z. So, the numbers below the new
coordinates represent the displacement of the particles A, B, C, D, because it can happen in
three directions three values are given.
So, let us take the case of A; there is only vertical displacement along the y direction by 1
unit. So, you have value 1 here, no displacement along x direction, no displacement along z
direction. So, it indicated as (0, 1, 0).
Now, let us take B; B has moved, but in terms of coordinate along coordinate direction it has
moved by half a unit along negative and the negative direction along x axis and 1 unit along
positive y axis. So, it indicated as (-1/2, 1, 0).
Now, coming to C to C’ no movement at all. So, displacement 0 along all the three directions.
Coming to D to D’ it has moved by half a unit in the negative x direction and there is no
movement along y axis z axis, and that is why it indicated as (-1/2, 0, 0).
So, we are shown a three dimensional geometry initial configuration final configuration, you
are shown one view of that the particle showing A, B, C, D; initial position, final position,
arrow marks going from initial to final position and the displacements of the particles as well.
Now, with all this information we will find out the displacement gradient.
Before that, how do we represent displacement field in three dimensional case;
u = ux (x, y , z ) i + uy (x, y , z ) j + uz (x, y , z )k
The displacement in the x, y, z directions can be function of x, y, z. And that is what we have
seen here as well. The displacements whatever numbers shown can be functions of x, y z, and
it may be a constant, but in general they are functions of x, y, z.
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Now, we will have to find out the displacement gradient. So, how many entries do we
expect? 9 entries we expect. Three directions along which you can consider the particles and
for every direction I can consider their x displacement, y displacement, z displacement,
difference in their this x, y, z displacements.
So, let us take first particles along x direction which means I am considering particles A and
B. Now, having considered particles along A and B I am going to consider their difference in
x displacement, y displacement, and z displacement. So, if you look at the denominator it is
always ∆ x, because we are considering particles along x axis. Numerator difference in that x
displacement, y displacement, z displacement.
∆ux uxB −uxA (− 12 −0)

∆x
= xB −xA
= 1 =− 1
2 −0
∆uy uyB −uyA 1−1

∆x
= xB −xA
= 1 =0
2 −0
∆uz uzB −uzA 0−0

∆x
= xB −xA
= 1 −0 =0
2
Now, remember we said these numbers represent that displacement of the particles along the
respective directions x, y, z direction. So, to evaluate the numerator it is enough if you look at
the difference in the displacement along with respective directions.
Just let me repeat: we are considering particles A and B for the first entry we are looking at
the difference in x displacement. And the three numbers here below the final coordinate tells
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you that displacement of the particles. We will have to look at the difference in displacement
that is all is required. For the first entry we will have to look at the difference in x
displacement.
So, let us complete the matrix. Now, there will be 9 entries each column corresponds to the
direction in which we are considering particles and each row corresponds to the direction of
displacement.
[ ∆ux ∆ux ∆ux ∆uy ∆uy ∆uy ∆uz ∆uz ∆uz

∆x ∆y ∆z ∆x ∆y ∆z ∆x ∆y ∆z ] = [− 1 0 0 0 1
2
0000]
So now, we have filled up all the 9 entries, it was very obvious that because of 3 D we will
have 9 combinations and we have found out all the 9 displacement gradients.
Now, you would have easily sensed that you have been indicating two directions all the time.
Any physical quantity which requires two direction to describe is a tensor. So, we are
introduced in fact very gradually a displacement gradient tensor. So, initially we got it was
1D it looked like a partial derivative for you as.
∂ux
● ∂x
We slowly move on to 2 D and then we wrote
● [ ∂ux ∂ux ∂uy ∂uy

∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ]
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Now, the just previous slide we have moved to the three dimensional case and we have got 9
entries for the displacement gradient tensor.
● [ ∂ux ∂ux ∂ux ∂uy ∂uy ∂uy ∂uz ∂uz ∂uz

∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ]
What are the two directions? As I told you one direction is for the particles along which
direction we are considering and one direction for the displacement. Now, just understand
this of course, we know that in using the definition which introduced earlier for displacement
gradient we said difference in displacement of two adjacent particles divided by the distance
between the same particles. We have considered particles along x, y, z direction that is one
direction, we have considered displacement in x, y, z direction for those particles that gives
another direction. So, we have two directions to represent each entity in this matrix. And
hence it is a displacement gradient tensor.
Now, this displacement gradient tensor is similar to a gradient of a temperature, in terms of

physical significance. What does gradient of a temperature tell you, how do you represent
first of all? Temperature of the scalar, you have a gradient of a temperature moment to take a
gradient of a scalar it becomes a vector because temperature field is there moment you tell
gradient if you attach a direction temperature varies along x axis in this way, temperature
varies along y axis in this way with some magnitude or some value minus or positive.
∂T ∂T ∂T
∇T = ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k
So, moment you take a gradient you attach a direction to temperature. So, temperature field is
scalar but now I say rate of change of temperature along x axis, rate of change of temperature
along y axis so you attach a direction.
So, gradient of a scalar is a vector physically why, scalar has no direction moment you take a
gradient attach a direction moment you attach a direction becomes a vector. Now if you
extend analogously to this displacement what you have got is a gradient of a displacement (
∇u ), displacement itself is a vector.
Now, we are going to say how displacement varies along x axis, y axis, z axis instead of
saying this how displacement varies along x axis, y axis, z axis we said two particles two
points etcetera without saying this. Now, because we know formerly we can use very formal
statement.
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Let me repeat: displacement itself is a vector we are considering gradient of displacement.
So, we are attaching a direction on a on top of a direction which makes gradient of a vector as
a tensor. So, first direction of whichever is first: one direction is the direction of the
displacement x, y, z direction, second is the direction of the gradient direction in which you
are interested in the variation, along which direction interested in the variation that is second
direction.
First direction of the displacement, second is the direction in which interest in the variation of
the displacement. So, those two directions result in a tensor. So, if you understand scalar
temperature, gradient of temperature then easy to extend to gradient of a displacement field
and that is a displacement gradient tensor.
So to summarize, we started with defining types of deformation, it should be it could be

change in length or change in angle, it could be and as well. And we quantified it by
definition, we express change in length change in angle in terms of normal and shear strain.
And then we said this normal strain, shear strain are somewhere depending on the
displacement of the particles or the points. So, we are discussed displacement field,
displacement gradient tensor slowly from 1D to 2D to 3D. The next we will have to relate
these two and that is what we will discuss in the next lecture.
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Lecture - 55
Strain Displacement Gradient Relation: Example
We are discussing Solid Mechanics and we have come to solid mechanics for second time to
understand displacement gradient that was our objective and the title for our second visit is
deformation and strain in that we have discussed the types of deformation namely change in
length, change in angle and then we quantified them in terms of strains namely normal strain
shear strain. Then we said the strains are related to the displacement of the particles or points.
So, then we discussed what was the displacement field, what was the displacement gradient
slowly moving from 1D, 2D to 3D.
Now, we have strain on one side and displacement field another side and then we will have to
relate these two and that is the objective of this lecture. Later on we will see what is
components of displacement and then the last bullet later on.
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The one question which I going to answer throughout this lecture is that, we are given
displacement field how do I calculate strain that is what we are going to do now.
We introduced deformation which are change in length, change in angle and strain is a
measure of defamation which means that, you first introduced change in length, change in
angle, but we need to quantify it and quantification was through strain namely normal strain
shear strain that is the meaning of the statements strain is a measure of deformation.
Now, when we explained even normal strain, shear strain we said take some points in the
object along one direction, and then the point got displaced they move to some other location
which means that the strain deformation are all related to the displacement of points or
particles in the body. We are going to derive a relationship for strain in terms of displacement
field that is the objective.
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Our discussion is going to be in 2D. So, just to recall that the discussion earlier what was the
displacement field; what is shown here; the red dots represent some points identified or
particles identified in a plate or 2D plate like this.
In the initial state undeformed state, you apply a force it deforms go to final state or deformed
state, the blue dots represent the same points in the deformed state, and then the we said ux
represents the horizontal displacement which is nothing, but the difference in the x
coordinates of the points and if you focus the difference in x coordinate which is x
displacement keeps changing in the x direction also in the y direction.
And now if you look at the y displacement which is the difference in the y coordinate that
also changes if you go along the x axis and the y axis that is what we summarized and that is
what we discussed in the slide, ux changes with x and ux changes with y as well. So, ux is a
function of x comma y.
Similarly uy changes with the x, uy changes with the y so, uy is a function of x comma y
and we have represented the displacement field in terms of a vector,
u = ux (x, y ) i + uy (x, y ) j
We are given this displacement field we need to find out the strains that is the idea.
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Now, we are proceeding towards finding a quantitative relationship between the displacement
field and the strain. Before that what we will do now is qualitatively we will see how we can
explain strain if you are given displacement field. We are going to derive quantitative
relationship later before that to get understanding. What we are going to do is qualitatively
can I say whether we have strain or not etcetera.
So, let us start we are given a displacement field what is a given displacement field; 2
dimensional case; so, we are given ux as a function of x comma y, uy as a function of x
comma y
ux (x, y ) = α + βy; uy (x, y ) = 2α − β x β≪1
So, as I told you ux depends on y only and uy depends on x only. Now alpha and beta
constants and we have a condition that beta is very very small than 1. Now how do you
understand this? We have a plate as you have seen earlier and we are given the displacement
field for this plate.
Now, in all these diagrams what you will see is, the red boundary represents the red figure
represents the initial configuration un-deformed configuration and the blue figure represent
the same plate after deformation the final state. So, red is initial state blue is final state.
Now for the moment for the first case we will take
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α = 1, β = 0
Now when I say what happens to the plate what I mean is given the coordinates ABCD I
want to find out the new coordinates ABCD, initial coordinates are given final coordinates
are to be found out.
How do you find out? You take the coordinate, add the x displacement, add the y
displacement get the final coordinate now, but the displacement depends on x and y. So,
accordingly you should calculate the displacement. Let us see one example
xf inal = xinitial + ux (x, y )
y f inal = y initial + uy (x, y)
So, that is what I said final coordinates are equal to initial coordinates plus the displacement
in the respective directions. Let us take an example coordinate C let us see what is initial
coordinate. Initial coordinate both in this diagram both are super imposed. So, the initial
coordinate of C is (1, 1). You will see the final coordinate shown here which is (2, 3) let us
see how do you find out that.
ux (x, y ) = α + βy; uy (x, y ) = 2α − βx
For, α = 1, β = 0
ux (1, 1) = 1; uy (1, 1) = 2
C (1, 1) →C (1 + ux (1, 1) , 1 + uy (1, 1)) →C (1 + 1, 1 + 2) = C (2, 3)
So, likewise we can calculate for A B and D and you can draw the square here connecting
ABCD which shows the new coordinates are ABCD.
So, what is that we are done? We are given displacement field in terms of ux and uy in this
particular case we are taking α = 1 , β = 0 we are given the initial coordinates using the
displacement we found out the final coordinates now let us see what has happened to the
plate.
The plate if you see here has just moved from one location to the other it has just got
displaced. If you look at the length of all the sides there is no change it means there is no
normal strain if you look at the angle there is no change there is no shear strain.
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So, it has just moved from one place to the other place the technical terminology for this is
translation that is where the title says translation. You applied a force it just moved the plate
that is all has happened. Remember first slide we had change in length, change in angle we
had also said plate is also moving, we ignored that point of time now we are discussing that
by applying the force nothing has happened to the plate in terms of shape or length that angle
nothing has happened; it just moved that is why we called as translation.
To be more specific we call this as rigid body translation, why; just like a rigid body it just
moved from one place to another place and you do not see any change in length, any change
in shape, it means no normal strain on shear strain.
And now we will also introduce one more terminology called rotation there is no rotation also
the plate is just moved on one way to assess rotation is based on the diagonal. So, if you look
at the diagonal it there is no change at all.
So, to conclude this case α = 1 , β = 0 the plate remember there is displacement because all
the coordinates have changed but the displacement is because of translation and there is no
normal strain no shear strain, no rotation the simplest case.
Now, let us take a more realistic case where there may or may not be normal strain shear
strain and rotation.
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ux (x, y ) = α + βy; uy (x, y ) = 2α − βx
Now, same displacement field; now we will consider two cases. The slide split into the two
columns let us discuss the left hand side column. Now I take
α = 0; β = 0.05
Remember β has extremely small values order of 10−6 . So, you have seen that if you apply
any force in a solid object, almost rigid a small deformation happens. So, slightly deformable.
So, β is very small, if I take beta 10−6 hardly we can see anything that is why we are taken
β as 0.05 but remember β = 0.05 is a very large value to show clearly we are considering
β = 0.05.
Now, let us proceed. As we are seen earlier the red figure represents the initial configuration,
the blue figure represents the final configuration. As we have done earlier, to know the final
configuration a final state I need to calculate the coordinates let us see how do we calculate
ux (x, y ) = 0.05y; uy (x, y ) =− 0.05x
So,
ux (1, 1) = 0.05; uy (1, 1) =− 0.05
So,
xf inal = xinitial + ux (x, y )
y f inal = y initial + uy (x, y)
C (1, 1) →C (1 + 0.05, 1 − 0.05) = C (1.05, 0.95)
So, you find the coordinates of C (1.05, 0.95). Similarly find the coordinates of B, A and D
you can draw the figure in blue which is the final state. So, red represents the initial
configuration blue represents the final configuration.
Now, let us analyze what has happened to the shape. If you look at the length there is no
change in length what do you mean that by that? Focus on the initial AB you have A here and
then this point and the length of this blue are almost the same or they are same.
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Here because I have taken 0.05 it may look like there is a change, but remember β is
extremely small value. So, there is no change in that length which means that there is no
normal strain. Similarly if you do if you take A and D and then AD once again there is no
change in length. So, there is no normal strain along x axis and along y axis.
Now, what about shear strain? Look at the angle initially the angle was 90 degrees, now in
final state both lines have slightly moved this way, but their angle is still 90 degrees. Look at
the angle but in red lines they are 90 angle between the blue lines are also once again 90
degrees. So, which means that there is no shear strain also.
But look at the plate the plate has undergone a rotation how do you understand as I told you
look at the diagonal the red diagonal versus the blue diagonal it has rotated clockwise. So,
there is rotation. So, the final configuration is rotated with reference to the original
configuration, final state is rotated with respect to initial state.
So, to conclude there is no change in length and no normal strain and then there is no change
in angle still 90 degrees no shear strain, but the plate has undergone rotation. So, there is
rotation.
Now, consider another case the right hand side a slightly different displacement field why is
it slightly you will understand. The displacement fields are given as
ux (x, y ) = α + βy; uy (x, y ) = 2α + βx
Now let us see what is implication of this. Once again take
α = 0; β = 0.05
So,
ux (x, y ) = 0.05y; uy (x, y ) = 0.05x
Now as we have done earlier for the left hand side we will find out the new coordinates of
point C let us find out this coordinate. Same like last time (1, 1) is the old coordinate to that
you add the displacement,
ux (1, 1) = 0.05; uy (1, 1) = 0.05
So,
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C (1, 1) →C (1 + 0.05, 1 + 0.05) = C (1.05, 1.05)
Now, similarly you can calculate for A B and then D. Now let us see what happens in terms
of strain. Look at the length there is no change in length, if you compare red AB and blue AB
no change in length. Consider let us say red AD and blue AD once again no change. So, there
is no normal strain now look at the angle. Look at the angle; look at the angle BAD the initial
state 90 degrees in the deformed state look at the angle BAD say smaller angle, angle has
reduced which means that there is shear strain in this particular case we said shear strain exist
when there is a change in angle.
So, in this particular case the because angle is reduced there is shear strain now what about
rotation? How to analyze rotation how to view rotation? Focus on the diagonal and the red
diagonal, blue diagonal are just superimposing on each other which means there is no
rotation.
So, the second case there is no normal strain just like the first case; first case there is no shear
strain it just turned like this; the second case it has become like this closer to each other
slightly very slightly because there is shear strain. First case just rotated, second case was
symmetric remain symmetric see it is 1.05, 1.05 along the same diagonal. So, there is no
rotation. Now going back to objective what did we say given a displacement field we should
be able to tell about normal stain, shear stain strain and rotation that is what we are done
talked about translation also.
Now, what we have done this qualitatively we are told by demonstration finding out
coordinates, looking at the picture, looking at the figure etcetera we are going to do this
quantitatively that is what our objective is. So, very nice example from the book Rayman
Barnes illustrates our objective very clearly before proceeding to quantitative evaluation of
the expression.
We are going to know find expressions for normal strain shear strain that is all, but these
cases really illustrate what is that we are going to do? In fact, after deriving the relationship
we will come back to this example and then say here we have set rotation; yes, but what is the
value we will be able to quantify it.
Right hand inside we said shear strain is existing there is shear strain but later on after
deriving the relationship you will be able to quantify it, find a x find a value for that.
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Lecture - 56
Strain Displacement Gradient Relation : Normal and shear strain
Moment you, let say type in your Google Strain Displacement Gradient this figure is the most
popular figure you will come across, same figure has been taken from Ryman Parnes and let
us understand this gradually. The x axis and y axis are shown and then you have plate PQRS
is shown, in the initial state undeformed configuration. Now two ways of visualizing this; one
is as I told you a plate, easy you to understand, other way should understand is it is a square
region inside a solid object.
Because you will see, as we go along we will make the plate to a point as usual, so then of
course, you can not say it is the plate. So, two ways of imagining, it is a plate to visual
observation or a 2 dimensional region in a solid object and that is denoted by P Q R S, the
length of the sides are ∆x , ∆y . Now this plate is subjected to a force and it has taken a final
state denoted by P*R*Q*, S* is not denoted because it is not important for us. So, PQRS
plate has become P*R*Q*S*. If you compare the final state and initial state easily can
understand that, there is change in length, PR is not same as P*R* that is normal strain.
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Similarly P*Q* and versus PQ, look at the angle there is change in angle, look at the rotation
there is rotation, what about translation yes there is translation. So, you consider the most
generic configuration; the initial plate has undergone translation, is undergone rotation also,
there is change in length also, change in angle also, that is what we want to represent.
Now coming back to the description, let us focus on P and P*; P has move to P* or more
formerly P has got displace to P*. How do you represent? P and P* are relating x
displacement. So, if you look at this one, it says the distance between P and P* is x
displacement; and then that depends on remember ux , uy depends on x and y, so it is
evaluate that x comma y.
This nomenclature we have seen earlier for our derivations. The vertical bar tells you that we
are evaluating at a particular location we not come across two subscripts; but now ux is
evaluate at x, y. Repeat again P has got displaced to P* that displacement is ux ; but that
depends on where P is present, the coordinates of P are (x, y), so ux evaluated at (x, y). Now
what about Q? Because the length of PQ is ∆x , the x coordinate of Q is x + ∆x .
So, this coordinate if you mention it is x + ∆x , of course same y, y coordinate is y. So, Q has
got displaced to Q* and x displacement is ux , evaluated at ( x + ∆x , y); same like as we have
done for a control volume, one phase is x other phase is x + ∆x . Similarly here looking at the
two points, so one tells you displacement at (x, y), other tells you displacement at ( x + ∆x , y).
Now P* and Q* have undergone vertical displacement also, now we are looking focus only
on the horizontal displacement. Now let us focus on the vertical displacement, P has move to
P* and that is what is denoted here as vertical displacement uy , once again evaluated at (x,
y). So, uy vertical displacement, that is the vertical distance between p and p star and
evaluated at (x, y).
Now Q has also shifted to Q*, or moved to Q* vertically displaced. The vertical displacement
is uy ; but where is it evaluated now, ( x + ∆x , y), , so uy evaluated at ( x + ∆x , y). So, we
have completely described all the nomenclature shown, one thing is left I will describe that as
well. What else you shown? The angle P*Q* makes horizontal is α ; which means that the
element P Q has undergone a small rotation of α , similarly PR is undergone a small rotation
of β to P*R*.
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So, all the nomenclature has been discussed just to summarize plate PQRS in an initial state
goes to P*R*Q*S* in the final state. And we have discussed x displacement of P, x
displacement of Q, and then similarly y displacement of P and Q and also we discussed what
does alpha and beta represent. With this nomenclature let us proceed and that is what is
shown here,
● Displacement as the function of x and y,

● x displacement of point P(x, y) = ux |x,y ,
● x displacement of point Q ( x + ∆x , y) = ux |x+∆x,y .
● Now talking about y displacement of point P (x,y) = uy |x,y
● y displacement of point Q ( x + ∆x , y) = uy |x+∆x,y
Now we are proceeding towards deriving a relationship between normal strain and
displacement gradient. Now let us start with the definition of normal strain.
|P * Q* |−|P Q|
εxx = |P Q|
The definition of normal strain is change in length by original length. We define introducing
εnn , the way to begin with we said εnn . Now our direction is along x axis, because we are
going to consider the line element PQ. So, that is why this is εxx , normal strain for nine
element oriented along x axis.
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Now, what is the final length? Final length is the length of P* and then Q*. So, length of
P*Q*, and the initial length is the length of P Q, divide by initial length PQ, there is
something known to us. But now this change in length by original length in the limit of
∆x→0 . That is why I told you two ways of imagining; one is the imagining as a plate easy to
visualize, other one is a 2 D region inside a solid object. And as usual we want a local point
form of a relationship between normal strain displacement gradient any relationship should
be valid every point, that is why the relationship which I going to derive is where every point
inside a solid object.
Now, so we have to evaluate this change in length over original length in the limit of ∆x→0 .
Now I will make an assumption, infinitesimal rotation what do I say PQ slightly rotates very
small, extremely small to P*Q*. What happens, in that case instead of taking this length
P*Q*, I will take the projected length of P*Q*. So, I will repeat again, actually I supposed to
take the actual length of P*and then Q*; because the rotation is very very small I am not
going to take this actual length, but I will project this Q* and I will consider only this length
as same as the original length, which is very much valid and the α≪1 , is very small, that is
the assumption.
Infinitesimal rotation that is α≪1 . Now what is the length of projected P*Q*, please keep
that in mind, we are going to write this that is my final length to some approximation. So, let
us write down
[(x+∆x+ux |x+∆x,y )−(x+ux |x,y )]−∆x

εxx = ∆x
Now, let me now draw the project P*Q*, what is this length of this line, difference x
coordinate that is all; x coordinate of Q* minus x coordinate of P*. What is x coordinate of
Q*, it is a original x coordinate plus the displacement; remember that is what we did in the
earliest slides to find out x coordinate of C, what did you do one plus displacement of that
point. Similarly here it is original x coordinate, what is that of Q* the original x coordinate is
x + ∆x to that you add the displacement of the point Q.
What is displacement of point Q; ux |x+∆x,y . So, if you add these two you will get the final x
coordinate. Now for point P, it has moved from P to P*; now we have to find out the x
coordinate of P*. How do you do that, the original x coordinate plus the displacement of
point P; what is the displacement ux |x,y .
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So, if you add these two you will get the new x coordinate of P*. And of course, so when you
subtract these two you will get the length of approximated P*Q*, the projection of P*Q*. So,
let us simplify this,
[ux |x+∆x,y −ux |x,y ]

εxx = ∆x
Now we will take limit ∆x→0 , what happens this becomes a partial derivative
∂ux
εxx = ∂x
We have found a relationship between strain and displacement gradient. Remember, when we
took the one dimensional example we had a wall, we attach the wire, stretched it etcetera; the
∂ux
one dimensional displacement was ∂x
.
What is the alternate way of interpreting because one of the components of the displacement
gradient tensor.
But now look at the physical significance, because it has got a main physical significance
saying that normal strain. What does it mean, remember all are point definitions, at a point
∂ux
take a small length and based on this application of force εxx or ∂x
tells you the fractional
change in length of that line segment at that particular point.
Once again as I told you, little difficult to imagine, at a point imagine a small very very small
line segment; what does it is final length minus original length divide by original length is
∂ux
represented by ∂x
which we call as normal strain. So, we are going to a physical
∂ux
significance were a simple derivative, partial derivative ∂x
; this is clear, then we can go at
∂ux
other things quickly. So, now whenever you look at ∂x
immediately what should come to
your mind is normal strain, different representation is there different view point.
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Now, let us there are relationship between the shear strain and displacement gradient. Now,
once again same assumption we make α is infinitesimal very small α≪1 ; how do you write,
tan( α ), opposite side by adjacent side. So, let me draw that P*Q* so, opposite side by
adjacent side;
y Q* −y P * (y+uy |x+∆x,y )−(y+uy |x,y )

tan tan α = =
xQ* −xP * [(x+∆x+u y |x+∆x,y )−(x+uy |x,y )]
So, this denominator is not new to us, xQ* − xP * is nothing, but the length of the projected in
our earlier case; projected P*Q* which I have already evaluated just for revision Q* is a new
position. So, the old x coordinate x + ∆x + uy |x+∆x,y , that gives the x coordinate of Q*, x
coordinate of P* is x + uy |x,y .
Now let us proceed further, because we said α is infinitesimal, I am approximating
tan tan α = α
So,
∂uy
== ∂x
∂u
1+ ∂xx
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∂ux
Now, second assumption infinitesimal normal strain, you have already seen that ∂x
∂ux
represents normal strain. I will assume that the normal strain is much smaller than 1, ∂x
≪1 .
∂ux
So, the denominator you can neglect ∂x
, denominator becomes just unity. So,
Change of y displacement along x direction. Y displacement is vertical; but now what we are
∂uy
∂x
tells you, how this vertical displacement changes in the x direction ok, that is the
∂uy
meaning of ∂x
. So, the way in which the vertical displacement changes along the x
direction, we going to got a physical meaning for that which tells you the rotation of the
element P Q.
Now, repeat the same thing you will get for β as
∂ux
β= ∂y
The displacement is along y direction; the derivative is along with respect to x direction; here
β the displacement along x direction, the variation is along the y direction they are the other
way round unlike the normal strain. Normal strain see here, you are saying what is the change
of x displacement in x direction; but α and β you are looking at y displacement along x
direction, x displacement along y direction.
Now, we are now in the process of deriving expression for shear strain. So, let us write the
definition for shear strain
π π
γ nt (P ) = 2 −< R * P * Q * = 2 −< R* P * Q*
So, this angle 90 degrees minus this angle R* P * Q* not for a finite value of ∆x ∆y , but the
limit of ∆x→0 , ∆y→0 and that angle is α + β . So,
∂uy ∂ux
γ xy = α + β = ∂x
+ ∂y
We have got an expression for shear strain which is the change in angle. So, once again just
like we discuss for normal strain, these gradients are familiar to us. In the 2 dimensional case
though of course, we did not sum up and discuss, separately we saw this gradient. But now
you see, when you sum up you got a good physical significance; what is the physical
significance at a point imagine too small lines and what is the change in angle from initial
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state to final state, that is what you obtain by summing these two derivatives. Look at them as
derivatives more mathematical, meaning change of uy with x, ux with y; but when you sum
up you get the shear strain a more physically meaningful quantity.
Now, we made a few assumptions, let us summarize all of them and this summary as a formal
terminology called infinitesimal strain theory. So, we are discussing solid mechanics strain
and solid mechanics. We will discuss under this assumption, remember sometime that we
discussed, we had a wire or thread and then we said it undergoes a small displacement or a
small strain, under that condition we said
∆ux ∆ux
∆X
= ∆x
∆ux
And then we said we are going to work with ∆x and it is valid under the assumption of a
small displacement or small strain; this also is a line with that all these are called infinitesimal
strain theory.
Now, it is an assumption in the case of solid mechanics, why when you subject a solid to a
force it can undergo a finite strain; we said most of the time it is very very small; but it can be
a large value also. We assumed it a that they are very very small, that is why it is an
assumption in solid mechanics. Later on you will see that when you go to fluid mechanism
when you carry over all that it is not an assumption in the case of fluid mechanics; it is an
assumption because of solid mechanics.
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And remember we are discussing solid mechanics under that assumption, because we have
come to solid mechanics we take some concepts to fluid mechanics. So, we are not discussing
in general finite strain theory, we are only discussing the part of it which is infinitesimal
strain theory; so that I can take over these concepts to fluid mechanics and that is not
assumption there, you will understand that later.
So, that is the scope of this discussion. If you look at very rigorous solid mechanics book,
they will discuss both finites strain theory and infinitesimal strain theory. We are not
discussing finite strain theory, that will not give us linear expressions, that will results in
non-linear expressions; that is beyond the scope of our discussion, not require also, just to
learn whatever is required whatever we can take over to fluid mechanics that is. So, what are
assumptions of infinitesimal strain theory?
● First, we said infinitesimal rotations, α≪1 ; similarly β≪1

● Then we said, when we derived expression for shear strain, what did we say
∂ux
infinitesimal normal strain; which means that εxx = ∂x
≪1
● And then because α≪1 ; β≪1 ; obviously, the sum α + β≪1 , which means that the
∂uy ∂ux
shear strain γ xy = α + β = ∂x
+ ∂y
<< 1 .
So, this complete set of assumptions is called infinitesimal strain theory. So, all our
discussions are within these assumptions, it is not a limitation at all for us. We can straight
away apply all these for fluid mechanics; let that we will see much later.
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Lecture - 57
Strain Displacement Gradient Relation: Rotation and volumetric strain
Now, in the example which we discussed we introduce another term called rotation, more
formally it is called rigid body rotation. Why is it rigid body rotation; the body as a whole
rotates which is something to similar to your rigid body mechanics which are studied earlier.
The; when the body rotates there is no internal strain stress nothing it just rotates that is all
that is why it is called Rigid body rotation.
Because the entire body rotates there is no relative movement between any two points in the
body, which means there is no normal strain there is no shear strain which mean other way of
putting it is the body does not undergo any deformation. When we say deformation what did
we say change in length change in angle, no deformation at all which means that you need
not worry about deformable bodies it is just a rigid body and that is why more formally called
as rigid body rotation.
Remember sometime back we said translation that is also rigid body translation, the entire
body translates just like I am moving to someplace it is rigid body translation. If I rotate that
is the rigid body rotation, so that is why it is called rigid body rotation. Now we will have to
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relate this rigid body rotation to displacement field and that is what we are going to do now.
That is easy because already we have got all the expressions at hand a small sign has to be
incorporated, let us see how do we do that.
Now, rotation of line segment PQ, moment you talk about rotation remember sometime back
we talked about moment balance immediately we chosen axis about which you would take a
moment. Similarly here you are talking about rotation. So, when I say rotation what is axis
about which I talk about rotation, in this case the plate lies in the xy plane. So, which means
my axis of rotation is along the z axis.
So, rotation of line segment PQ about the z axis. What is that? that is α , that is the rotation of
line element PQ and how do you represent,
∂uy
(ω z )P Q = α = ∂x
The nomenclature used is ω and it is about z axis. So, subscript z for the line element PQ, so
the nomenclature for rotation is that ω and about z axis.
Remember this rotation, the way in which you written is also a point from expression. We
have related α to this as a point form because we made ∆x→0 , ∆y→0 , Q→P , and R→P .
So, this rotation also how do you imagine at a point once again imagine a small line segment
∂uy
and how much it rotates is given by ∂x
.
Now, let us focus on the line element PR once again about z axis. Now if you look at the
rotation PQ as rotated in the anticlockwise direction but PR has rotate in the clockwise
direction. When earlier we are interested only in the change in angle, so we did not assign
any sense of rotation we are interested in α + β angle alone. But now because we want to
quantify rotation we will have to assign a direction as usual anticlockwise is positive. So,
there is no extra sign here but now when we write the rotation of element PR which rotates
clockwise direction because clockwise is negative I add negative sign.
∂ux
(ω z )P R =− β =− ∂y
We assigned sense of direction now, earlier we are interested only in the difference between
PRQ and P*R*Q*. So, we are interest only in α + β we need not worry about sign, but now
we are talked about rotation how P Q rotates how P R rotates, P R rotates in clockwise and P
Q rotates anticlockwise. So, we start assigning signs.
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Now, when we defined a shear strain what did we say, we take two line elements and then
what is the change in angle. Similarly now the definition of this rotation is that
Average rotation of the element = Average rotations of the two perpendicular line segments
Earlier for shear strain we consider two line segments looked at the change in angle between
them from initial to final state. And now we are looking at the average rotation of these two
lines.
So, average rotation of the element for this element is equal to average of the rotations of the
two perpendicular line segments. Earlier also we considered two perpendicular line segments
and looked at the difference in angle but now we are looking at the average of the rotation of
these line segments from the initial state to the final state. Take one rotation and take the
other rotation find the average that is how we define rotation of the element.
ωz = 1
2 [(ω )
z PQ + (ω z )P R = ] 1
2 ( ∂uy
∂x
− ∂ux
∂y )
This gives you the rotation for the element when I say element the two dimensional element.
So, always we imagine two ways physically you can imagine as a plate or it is a two
dimensional region inside a solid object, because it can vary from point to point. Now in
terms of a notation we had two subscripts for shear strain γ xy .
Now, to begin with we had εx and we want to have two subscript for normal strain also. So,
we said εxx . Now similarly for rotation, the notation subscript is only one because it says
rotation about the z axis what is the alternate way rotation in the xy plane. So, that every term
we will have two subscripts. So, this tells you rotation in the xy plane.
ω xy = ω z = 1
2 ( ∂uy
∂x
−
∂ux
∂y )
The ω z tells you rotation about z axis, equivalent way ω xy is rotation in the x y plane. So,
this is the nomenclature which we will use.
So, as we have done for normal strain sheer strain, we have related the rigid body rotation in
terms of the displacement gradients once again these two gradients are very well known.
They are known to us we already seen but subtraction and division by two use a physical
significance namely the rotation.
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So, let us summarize all of them and also write for other directions, that is the slide
● Normal strain: Ww discussed normal strain or derived normal strain for line element
along x axis. Similarly, you can write for y axis and z axis; line elements along y axis
z axis.
∂ux ∂uy ∂uz
εxx = ∂x
; εyy = ∂y
; εzz = ∂z
● Shear strain: we consider two elements which are along x and y axis, similarly we can
consider along y and z axis, z and x axis. So,
∂uy ∂ux ∂uz ∂uy ∂ux ∂uz
γ xy = ∂x
+ ∂y
; γ yz = ∂y
+ ∂z
; γ zx = ∂z
+ ∂x
● Rotation:
ω xy = 1
2 ( ∂uy
∂x
−
∂ux
∂y ); ω yz = 1
2 ( ∂uz
∂y
−
∂uy
∂z ); ω zx = 1
2 ( ∂ux
∂z
−
∂uz
∂x )
Just want to mention one thing in terms of remembering you always like to remember few
expressions at least.
In terms of remembering shear strain and rotation, better to remember in terms of the
∂
derivative ∂x , we know they are cross derivatives. If you have x in the denominator you have
uy in the numerator. So, in terms of remembering, shear strain can be remembered anyway
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because it is plus sign, but remember rotation you need to remember the order the sequence is
important.
∂ ∂ ∂
So, one way to easily remember is start with ∂x , then next is ∂y . Moment you write ∂x ,
you know that numerator should be uy . So, in that way you want make any mistake and of
course, once you remember that shear strain is also followed in writing this way here also a
∂ ∂
only ∂x is written first and ∂y is written second.
So, both are analogous only sign changes different. So, that you can easily remember the
expression for rotation and shear strain of course, you have a half here.
We have related normal strain, shear strain, rotation to the displacement gradients. Now we
look at another strain which I have not defined we will define and also related to the
displacement gradient that is called the volumetric strain. Just like the normal strain tells
about change in length the shear strain tells about change in angle, rotation tells about
rotation, volumetric strain tells about change in volume, in a 2D it will tell about change in
area.
Now, to derive expression for that or to relate these two, we will consider cuboidal element
the volumetric strain is change in volume original volume similar to our normal strain. Now;
so, we will have to find expression for new volume and then old volume is cuboidal then we
can find out expression of volumetric strain.
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So, for deriving that we will consider cuboidal element as shown here subjected to normal
strain only what does it mean; you have a cuboidal element and there is only change in length
alone could be decrease or increase whatever can happen, but there is no change in angle. So,
that is what is shown here, this is the cuboidal element. So, cuboidal element once again you
can imagine a physical object or it is a 3D space inside a solid object.
So, ∆x , ∆y , ∆z is the initial configuration or initial state and let us a represented by the
continuous line, the dashed line represents the cuboid still it reminds a cuboid why is that;
because there is only normal strain. So, it still remains a cuboid to begin with it was a cuboid
and after let say subjected to normal stresses and so, on only normal strain happens, that is
why in the final state represented by the dashed line it still remains a cuboid.
The lengths are different let see how do you find out the lengths. So, we are considering a
cuboidal element of lengths ∆x , ∆y , ∆z . The volume of element before deformation just a
cuboidal volume. So, multiply all the lengths ∆x , ∆y , ∆z . Now we have to find out the
changed volume or the new volume or the volume in the final state how do you find out it
remains a cuboid. So, if we find out the lengths we multiply all the lengths of the each of the
side. So, length of the side before deformation is ∆x .
Now, we have seen the normal strain has change in length by original length.
Change in length
εxx = original length
So, if you want to find out the change in length then you have to just multiply the εxx with
the original length.
C hange in length = εxx (original lenght)
C hange in length = εxx ∆x
So, that gives the change in length what is the new length and this change in length the old
length. So,
length of side af ter def ormation = ∆x + εxx ∆x
In this diagram it is shown that all the strains are positive because increase in length need not
happen. Generally this εxx can be positive or negative automatically it will reflect a decrease
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in length or increase in length. In this case the diagram shows all lengths have increased. So,
this is the new length the old length plus the change in length gives a new length.
Similarly along the y direction
length of side af ter def ormation = ∆y + εyy ∆y
Similarly along the z direction,
length of side af ter def ormation = ∆z + εzz ∆z
Now volume of element after deformation is just a product of all the lengths in the final state.
V olume of element af ter def ormation = (∆x + εxx ∆x)(∆y + εyy ∆y)(∆z + εzz ∆z)
Now, let us do some simplification, remember we are to relate with the displacement gradient
∂ux
because of physical significance we introduced εxx , now we will replace this εxx with ∂x
similarly εyy and εzz .
∂ux ∂uy ∂uz

= (∆x + ∂x
∆x)(∆y + ∂y
∆y)(∆z + ∂z
∆z)
Now let us take out ∆x , ∆y , ∆z they are common
) (1 + ) (1 + )
∂ux ∂uy ∂uz
= ∆x∆y∆z (1 + ∂x ∂y ∂z
Now, we will have to multiply all this. Now when we multiply what we do is, we neglect all
the terms which are squared, second order third order etcetera why do we do that? Remember
all our discussions are under the infinitesimal strain theory under that assumption the normal
strains are very small let say 10−6 compare to that when your square becomes 10−12 So,
which is negligible.
= ∆x∆y∆z 1 + ( ∂ux
∂x
+
∂uy
∂y
+
∂uz
∂z )
So, we neglect all the higher ordered terms and only retain the first order terms You will have
terms which are products of these derivatives. In fact, product of all the derivatives all those
are neglected second order terms onwards we are neglected only the first order terms are
retained.
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So, in what is that we have found out? The volume of the element after deformation has been
found out.
Now we can find out the expression for volumetric strain; volumetric strain how do you
define?
V olume af ter def ormation−V olume bef ore def ormation

F ractional change in volume = V olume bef ore def ormation
Analogous to our normal strain definition new length minus old length divided by old length
similarly here volume after deformation minus volume before deformation divided by
volume before deformation.
Now, let us express them in terms of our variables, you just now found out what is the
volume after deformation
∂uy ∂uz
∆x∆y∆z (1+ ∂u x
∂x + ∂y
+ ∂z )−∆x∆y∆z
= ∆x∆y∆z
So, now, ∆x∆y∆z cancels out and finally we have
∂ux ∂uy ∂uz

= ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
This can be represented in terms of our gradient vector as divergence of the displacement
field.
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∂ux ∂uy ∂uz
∇.u = ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
So, once again we have come across these terms of just gradients earlier and in terms of our
displacement gradient tensor, these are the diagonal elements. When you sum up you get a
nice physical significance tells you the fractional change in volume. So, ∇.u , the divergence
of the displacement field, one way is look at a divergence of displacement field other ways
look at it as tells you the fractional change in volume.
Now, when we started the derivation, we said there are only normal strains what happens if
you include shear strain ok? If shear strains are also considered no contribution to change in
volume still you will get the same expression the reason is they will only contribute to the
higher order terms we are not discussing that.
If you include shear strains meaning change in angle the final result will still be same, there is
a fractional change in volume will still be same reason is you will have terms here additional
terms because of the change in angle, but all of them will be higher ordered terms only that is
why it will not contribute towards the final expression.
Conclusion is that, only normal strains contribute towards volume change within our
infinitesimal strain theory. Within our assumption if I have an object and there is a change in
angle volume still remain same but obviously, there is change in length there is going to be
change in volume. Conclusion is that only normal strains contribute towards volume change.
So, what we have done here is, introduced another strain namely volumetric strain and which
is fractional change in volume and derive an expression relating volumetric strain to the
displacement gradients, they are nothing but this is sum of the diagonal elements of the
displacement gradient tensor.
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Lecture - 58
Strain Displacement Gradient Relation: Examples
Now, that we have derived expressions relating the Strains and the Displacement field let us
go back to our earlier example, where we qualitatively demonstrated that if you give me
displacement field we can tell looking at the figure and so on. Now, we can quantitatively
evaluate them, because what you all need is displacement field let us do that simple calculus
is required do that.
We are given the displacement field, so once again we will do left hand side and right hand
side separately. For the left hand side case this was the displacement field
ux (x, y ) = α + βy; u y = 2α − β x
These were the conclusions which we arrived there; no normal strain, no shear strain there
was rotation just looking at the diagram figure initial state and final state.
Now, let us evaluate that the normal strain is
∂ux ∂uy
εxx = ∂x
= 0; εyy = ∂y
=0
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We are now quantitatively shown that normal strains are indeed 0. So, same conclusion as we
have arrived earlier, but now quantitatively.
Now, shear strain
∂uy ∂ux
γ xy = ∂x
+ ∂y
=− β + β = 0
So now, the shear strain is also 0 that is what we inferred from the figure, initial state and the
final state of the figures, but now we have quantitatively shown that it is 0. In fact, the minus
sign here has been chosen so that you do not have any shear strain in this particular case.
Now, let us evaluate the rotation
ω xy = 1
2 ( ∂uy
∂x
−
∂ux
∂y )= 1
2
(− β − β ) =− β
So, there is rotation, but what is the difference now quantitatively evaluated.
Now what else can we infer? We assigned positive value for anti clockwise rotation and
negative for clockwise rotation. Now, we have got a negative value for rotation which means
that the element should have rotated clock wise and that is what we see here. So, qualitatively
you can say that there is rotation element has rotated clock wise, but now we are
quantitatively saying it is − β . That is the difference from the earlier discussion and the
present discussion.
Now, just let us repeat this for the right hand side case. We said that the displacement field is
almost same with a small change
ux (x, y ) = α + βy; u y = 2α + β x
Let us see what is the effect. We just already seen the effect, no normal strain, there was
shear strain and there was no rotation. That we can infer from the figure itself.
Now, let us quantitatively evaluate that:
∂ux ∂uy
εxx = ∂x
= 0; εyy = ∂y
=0
So differentiate ux with respect to x it is 0, and uy with respect to y it is 0. So, no normal

strain.
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Now shear strain,
∂uy ∂ux
γ xy = ∂x
+ ∂y
= β + β = 2β
So, there is shear strain and that is what we conclude from the figure as well.
Now, rotation
ω xy = 1
2 ( ∂uy
∂x
−
∂ux
∂y )= 1
2
(β − β) = 0
So, there is no rotation. Same conclusions as we have add qualitatively, but now
quantitatively we are saying yes there is shear strain, but no normal strain, no rotation.
One more point we said the shear strain is positive when it becomes acute, it becomes acute
angle. That is what we are seeing, earlier we had at right angles to each other and it has
become an acute angle and it should result in a positive shear strain. And we have got that as
2 β let us have β as 0.05, we have got that as positive. So, whatever qualitatively I have
seen based on the displacements now being related to displacement gradients and we have
evaluated them quantitatively,
Another example on relating displacement to strains. Look at the title of the slide, title says
experimental measurement of strains and rotation that has to be kept in mind. We will discuss
about the significance of that, but right now what is the significance. You have a plate and
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then you mark some points, a force is applied and then the points get displaced and we know
the coordinates, this example is not new to us we have already seen when we discussed about
two dimensional displacement field displacement gradient and then of course, initial
coordinates are given the final coordinates are given.
And the difference between the earlier example and this example is that the earlier example
we are given a displacement field as an expression, looked little more mathematical. Now,
the salient feature of this example is that we are given the coordinates which means that they
are measurable. You have a plate and then there are some initial state, let us you have applied
some force, something happened some change in angle or length etcetera and then you can
find out the new coordinates. That is why the title says experimental measurement of strains
and rotation based on the coordinates.
So, let us quickly read figure shows the coordinates of a rectangular plate ABCD the
coordinates are given before deformation. If after undergoing two dimensional strains the
new coordinates are they are also given, find the normal strains εxx , εyy this is new. Earlier
the question was find the displacement gradients, now the question is find the normal strains
εxx , εyy , shear strain γ xy and rigid body rotation ω xy .
Now, earlier also in another example we made we made this assumption. The assumption for
this particular case is that if you look at the diagram the rectangle becomes a parallelogram.
And remember we discussed earlier that lines parallel to the axis remain parallel. So, the lines
remain parallel which means that the strains are all uniformed throughout. So, rectangle
becomes a parallelogram strains are same along the entire surface. So, we are going to use
one or two of the sides to calculate the strains and they are applicable throughout the plate;
the rotation or strains.
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Let us do that. These slides are just for recall what you have seen earlier. So, let us go
through them. These slides we discussed earlier for calculating the displacement gradients.
Now what did we do? We took two particles along x direction, we took B and C and looked
at the difference in x displacement.
∆ux uxC −uxB 2−1 1

∆x
= xC −xB
= 150
= 150
And then we looked at the we took the same two particles B and C and looked at the
difference in y displacement.
∆uy uyC −uyB −1−3 4

∆x
= xC −xB
= 150
=− 150
Now, we are going to use this and arrive at physically meaningful values, earlier they were
just gradients.
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Now, what we will we do next? We took particles along y axis, we took particles C and D,
and then looked at the difference in x displacement, and then difference in y displacement as
well.
∆ux uxC −uxD 2−0 2

∆y
= y C −y D
= 100
= 100
∆uy uyC −uyD −1−(−5) 4

∆y
= y C −y D
= 100
= 100
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We also arrange this in the form of matrix which we later on called as a displacement
gradient tensor. And for a particle along one direction indicated by the denominator as ∆x we
arranged as one column. And for particles along the y axis we arranged as second column and
we found out these values.
[ ∆ux ∆ux ∆uy ∆uy

∆x ∆y ∆x ∆y ]=[ 1 2
150 100
− 4 4
150 100 ]
Now, let us see how do we use this to find out the strains and rotation etcetera.
Now, normal strains,
∂ux ∆ux uxC −uxB 2−1 1

εxx = ∂x
= ∆x
= xC −xB
= 150
= 150
Now, what does it tell you? It is a positive value, which means that a line element has
undergone elongation. So, if you compare B C and B’C’ you can easily see that there is a
1
increase in length, of course a small increase in length 50 . Remembers fractional change in
length, what you see is difference in length, what you have calculated is this change in length
by the original length. So, this what we calculate is a fraction normalize with the original
length, what you see here is just change in length, but anyway qualitatively we are seeing a
increase in length. So, let us do that along the y direction considering particles C and D.
∂uy ∆uy uyC −uyD −1−(−5) 4

εyy = ∂y
= ∆y
= y C −y D
= 100
= 100
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So, once again the line element C D has undergone elongation. And that we can see as well if
we compare C D, and C’D’ there is a small increase in length ok. So, the normal strains have
been calculated. Once again just we emphasize earlier we were given a expression for
displacement field, we differentiated that and found out the normal strain of course it was 0 in
the earlier case, but now we are given measurements from the measurements we are finding
out the normal strain. So, the strains are measurable. I want emphasize that particular point,
we will take this as a lead somewhere later on.
Now shear strain
∂uy ∂ux ∆uy ∆ux uyC −uyB uxC −uxD −1−3 2−0 4 2 1
γ xy = ∂x
+ ∂y
= ∆x
+ ∆y
= xC −xB
+ y C −y D
= 150
+ 100
=− 150
+ 100
=− 150
So, which means that there is a increase in angle. So, if you focus BCD and then B’C’D’
there is a small increase in angle. Of course, slightly difficult to visualize, but there is a small
increase in angle. So, we have quantitatively calculated the shear strain based on the
measurements of the coordinates in terms of the displacement gradients.
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Now, finally, the rigid body rotation. In the Previous slide we calculated the shear strain in
terms of this displacement gradients and just repeating it so that we can refer for the present
calculation only sign change is required.
∂uy ∂ux ∆uy ∆ux 4 2 1

γ xy = ∂x
+ ∂y
= ∆x
+ ∆y
=− 150
+ 100
=− 150
So, this is same as what we have done in the previous slide. Now, for the case of rotation it is
ω xy = 1
2 ( ∂uy
∂x
− ∂ux
∂y )= ( 1
2
∆uy
∆x
− ∆ux
∆y )= 1
2 (− 150
4 2
− 100 ) =− 300
7
So, negative sign which means clockwise rotation. And you if you look at compare ABCD
and A’ B’C’ you see a clock wise rotation. So, that is in line with what we observe ok.
And so once again we have quantified rigid body rotation based on measured coordinates.
And in this example we had normal strain, shear strain and rotation all of them were present.
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And we also saw how to calculate volumetric strain in terms of displacement gradients. So,
let us do that also. It was divergence of the displacement field and of course three terms are
there because it is two dimensional case only first two terms are there.
∂ux ∂uy ∆ux ∆uy 1 4 7

∇.u = ∂x
+ ∂y
= ∆x
+ ∆y
= 150
+ 100
= 150
This means that compared with the area of ABCD, the area of A’B’C’D’ is higher. It will be
difficult look at the figure, but slightly we can get a feel but quantitatively, but remember it’s
the fractional change in area.
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So, we have seen this and I have specified this as we go along. When we discussed
displacement gradient tensor they were all gradients they were all derivatives for us ok. In
terms of 1 D, in terms of 2 D, and in terms of 3 D as well. Now, when you look at it we can
attach a physical significance to them, either a separate term or combinations. For example,
∂ux ∂uy
we have seen what is significance of the term ∂x
, normal strain along x direction; ∂y
,
∂uz
normal strain along y direction similarly ∂z
normal strain along z direction. And then we
have seen if you take two derivatives and then if you add them, you get shear strain as
∂uy
∂x
+ ∂ux
∂y
. If you take difference and divided by two you get rotation as 1
2 ( ∂uy
∂x
− ∂ux
∂y ).
So, now it was looked like a more mathematical matrix there are tensor with derivatives
etcetera. That is how we remember when we introduced we said how x displacement varies in
the x direction, y direction, z direction; how y displacement varied along x direction, y
direction z, direction. So, more of a mathematical statement.
Now, each term or a combination of term has a very good physical significance. And then if
you add all the diagonal elements you get the fractional change in volume.
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And let us summarize what we have seen so far. First we qualitatively demonstrated the
relationship between strain and displacement field. We looked at translation, normal strain,
shear strain, and rigid body rotation. Then we quantitatively related strain and displacement
gradients. Once again for normal strain, shear strain, rigid body rotation, and of course a
volumetric strain as well. In terms of application we applied it for measurement of strain and
rotation. And we also saw that the physical significance of components either separately or in
combination of the displacement gradient tensor.
So, we have seen the physical significance of the components of the displacement gradient
tensor. And this last line is the lead for our next lecture. That the displacement gradients
tensor, the components either separately or in combination have physical significance. What
is it physical significance, how are we are going to use that; that we will see as we go along.
And so that is the lead to the next lecture.
682
Lecture – 59
Displacement Gradient Tensor
We have derived the linear momentum balance and then we are proceeding towards the
Navier-Stokes equation. And we found that the linear momentum balance the viscous stresses
were unknown and we need to related to the velocity; velocity gradient. And to understand
velocity gradient we have come to solid mechanics and we are discussing strain.
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And with reference to this journey to the Navier-Stokes. The having derived the differential
form of linear momentum balance the viscous stresses on the right hand side were unknown.
We need to relate it to the velocity gradient, I think now we can have some field for velocity
gradient having discussed displacement gradient. So, to understand velocity gradient we
came to solid mechanics and so, that you can understand and displacement gradient. We
introduced normal strain, shear strain also discussed about rotation, we also discussed about
displacement field and displacement gradient that is where we stand. Now, we are going to
discuss about this block, which says differential displacement is equal to deformation plus
rotation let us see what it means.
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In terms of outline, this is the outline for the our second visit to solid mechanics title
deformation and strain. We defined the types of deformation either change in length or
change in angle and their measures are called as strains namely normal or shear strain. And
we found that they are related to the displacement field. So, we discussed displacement field
displacement gradient in 1 D, 2 D and then 3 D. Then we related the strains to the
displacement field in terms of displacement gradient.
Now, we are going to look at the last two bullets namely components of displacement and
then as a result of that we will show that the displacement gradient tensor is sum of two other
tenses namely strain tensor and rotation tensor. The motivation for splitting this displacement
gradient into strain and rotation we will discuss later towards end of this lecture.
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Now, we look at the title it says total displacement. Now when I say displacement it means
change in coordinates that is all its means nothing more than that. If you have a plate and then
you apply a force it undergoes deformation, there is some change in coordinates that change
in coordinates could be because of several reasons or several components. First if you just
move the plate it is translation that is what we have seen. So, that can result in change in
coordinate, just moves.
So, remember you have the same graph sheet. So, your axis is same and your object moves or
the plate moves there is change in coordinate and that is what is we have seen earlier, we
discussed in example where when we changed α , the initial state translated to the final state,
but there is a change in coordinate which means it is got displaced.
Now, what is the second case? If it just rotates the entire body rotates once again there is
change in coordinate and that is what we have seen in this case. We took the same
displacement field and this time we kept α = 0 and gave a non 0 value for β and we found
that it rotates, but what we are discussing now is by rotation there can be change in
coordinate.
We took another case third case where there was shear strain, there is change in angle and
once again if you look at this, there is change in coordinate. And of course, we have not
discussed a normal strain here this particular example did not have normal strain, but we took
another example where we had normal strain, shear strain and rotation as well of course, this
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example does not have translation, but this also we concluded that when there is normal strain
change in the length of the plate let us say then there is change in coordinate or displacement.
So, now, if you want to put them all together what are the components of total displacement.
The first 2 are called rigid body motion that is translation and then rotation why is it so? The
entire body just moves something like I moving in this direction and I am just rotating. These
2 are called rigid body motion there is no relative displacement between different points in
the body something like you what you did in a rigid body mechanics that is why it is called
rigid body motion.
So, rigid body motion could be
● Translation just moving in a way way or
● Rotation or moving this way and then rotation.
Deformation; so when we say a deformation strictly, it means
● Change in length namely normal strain and then
● Change in angle namely shear strain.
Now, we are slowly trying to distinguish these 2 very clearly and that is in fact, the objective
of the today’s lecture also. Total displacement could be because of rigid body motion or
deformation. So, far we could not have been very formal in using this terminology, but this
lecture we have to be very precise and clearly mention what is rigid body motion, what is
deformation we are going to distinguish these 2 or separate these 2.
Or in other ways dissect the total displacement into its components what are the components?
Rigid body motion and then deformation. Rigid body motion could be because of translation
and then rotation and deformation is because of normal strain and shear strain. What we are
going to see is if you have a displacement how do you factor that into that due to translation,
that due to rotation and that due to normal strain and that due to shear strain, we are going to
separate into we are going to separate deformation part from the rigid body motion part.
As I told you the motivation we will see towards the end of the lecture why do we really do
this is will be discussed later. Now, how are we going to do this? The way in which we are
going to do this is express displacement gradient tensor in 2 different ways we will take
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displacement gradient express the displacement gradient tensor in 2 different ways and then
achieve our objective of splitting the displacement into rigid body motion and deformation
that is what we were going to do.
Now, as a recall to displacement gradient tensor, let us look at the example which we have
discussed in the previous lectures this example was taken to illustrate the displacement
gradient tensor for a 3 dimensional case. We said we had a cube it become a cuboid, then we
noted the initial configurations, the position at the initial state and then the final positions in
terms of A’B’C’, we have also noted the displacement in all the directions for these points.
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And then we wrote the displacement gradient tensor what we did was, we took particles along
one direction let us say A and B, found out the difference in x displacement, y displacement,
z displacement they varied by the distance between them and then we got values minus 1, 0,
0. What we did was we found out these values and then arranged all those values along a
column we said we will justify it to later.
[ ∂ux ∂ux ∂ux ∂uy ∂uy ∂uy ∂uz ∂uz ∂uz

∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ] = [− 1 0 0 0 1
2
0000]
And then of course, similarly for the y direction z direction. Now this particular example
shows the displacement gradient tensor for a specific example. Now, what we will do is make
this more generalized this looks as it for a referred particular example we will make it more
generalized and also we will you know why we would collected all these values and arranged
as a column rather than row.
So, two things we will do, first instead of attaching this displacement gradient tensor to a
particular example, we will derive more general expression which expression is going to be
same, but in a more general sense and also you will automatically understand why we
arranged these values along a column rather than a row.
What it means is if you look at a column then it corresponds to difference in displacement x

and y direction for two particles along x direction and second column tells same thing for two
particles along y direction third column tells about particles along z direction. So, if you take
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one row it tells about change in x displacement for particles along x direction, y directions, z
direction or tells about change in x displacement along x direction, y direction, z directions.
Why did we arrange like this?
Of course, then we saw this displacement gradient tensor same slide as what we have seen
earlier for 1 dimensional case, the 2 dimensional case and the 3 dimensional case . So, it is
just to recall what a displacement gradient tensor is.
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Now, we will proceed with our objective of deriving the displacement gradient tensor in a
more generic way in two different ways and we will discuss now the first way can be called
as a more mathematical way. Before going ahead with that what is shown in this figure are
points P and P*, Q and Q*. So, what is shown is you take a plate identify point P identify
point Q and it undergoes change in coordinate, it could be rigid body motion, it could be
deformation. Because of that, because of any of these reasons it could be rigid body motion
and it could be deformation P moves to P*, and Q moves to Q*. As I told you P has got
displaced to P* and Q has got displaced to Q* that displacement could be because of rigid
body motion which is translation and rotation or because of deformation which is normal
strain and shear strain.
Now, objective is to spilt rigid body motion or take away rigid body motion from the
deformation first thing what we will takeout is translation. What is translation? If you take let
us say a plate and moves along one direction; every point, let us say if you focus on two
points both the points move by the same distance. Let us say the plate’s moves by 5
centimeter this and you focus on these two points both the points move by 5 centimeter and
that is what is shown here
rp* = rp + u
Here, rp* and rp star are position vectors. What do you mean by position vectors? The
vector joining the origin and the point of interest so, the vector joining origin and point P is
rp the vector joining origin and P* it is its rp* they are position vectors and u is the
displacement of particle P and because it is displacement for a point at P it is denoted as u
vector as a function of x, y, z. So, rp is a position vector for p, rp* position vector for P*,
uP = u and that is the displacement of point P which is at a position x, y, z. And we will
come to Q little later right now focusing on P.
Of course, u is a displacement field which has 3 components ux , uy , uz which we have

already discussed and all three can be functions of x, y and z.
u = ux (x, y , z ) i + uy (x, y , z ) j + uz (x, y , z )k
Now, what is translation and our objection is to remove translation and rotation from
deformation is it very easy to remove translation and that is what we are going to do first. As
I told you translation how do you understand translation? You have a plate and the plate
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moves what is implication? If you mark any 2 points they move by the same distance how do
you represent
rp* = rp + a
Here, a is a constant vector why is a vector?. If it is the plate is moving in one direction it is a
scalar, but suppose if it is the same plane but moves in an angle then it is a vector of two
components. But suppose the plate moves in 3D direction then it is constant vector, but 3
dimensional vector all these are translations because the entire body moves.
I will repeat again the plate let us say moves along a straight line these two points also have
the same displacement, both are the same displacement. And in this case a is a constant
vector constant, a is a scalar now all the case a is constant in this case it is a scalar. But
suppose the plate gets translated in 2D then a is 2D vector, but now the plate can also move
or translate in 3D, which case a is 3 dimensional vector. So, in a general sense a is 3
dimensional vector, every point gets displaced by that either scalar or vector.
So, now, how to eliminate or how to remove translation? Instead of talking displacement of
every points separately if you talk about difference in displacement they will just cancel out.
Let us say you are at P and then another point slightly away let us say P and then Q and then
if the plate moves by 5 centimeter, P also moves 5 centimeter, Q also moves 5 centimeter,
difference in displacement is 0.
So, to remove translation, all points displaced by the same distance in the 3 directions. And
eliminate by taking difference of displacement. So, what we will now on work is, in terms
difference in displacement. Reason for a working in terms of difference in displacement is its
takes care of translation has been eliminated.
For work in terms of displacement it includes translation. If a if there is change in coordinate

and if you are working terms of displacement alone of every coordinate, then it can include
translation we want to avoid that how to avoid is just by taking the difference in displacement
between two points on the plate ok. So, next slide onwards in fact, throughout the further
discussion, we will work in terms of difference in displacement.
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Remember we are proceeding towards deriving expression for displacement gradient tensor,
we are going to do it in 2 difference ways and we are discussing the first way now. Before
that we said that instead of working in displacement working in terms of difference in
displacement, we have taken care of translation by taking difference in displacement.
Now, we will focus on the point Q as well. Now, P is at a point x, y, z, we have another point
neighboring point Q which is at a another location x + dx , y + dy , z + dz . So, the x, y, z
distance between P and Q are dx , dy , dz . Now, the plate undergoes may be rigid body
motion and deformation P had moved to P* and Q has moved to Q*. Now, the respective
displacements are denoted by uP , uQ alternatively in terms of displacement field because P
is at x, y, z it is displacement field at x, y, z.
The displacement of Q is displacement vector at x + dx , y + dy , z + dz . Now what is P*? P*

is the new position, as we have seen earlier the new position can be find out as the old
coordinate plus the displacement similar for x direction, y direction, z direction.
So, the old coordinate is x; and the displacement in x direction is uxP similarly y direction, z
direction.
P (x, y , z ) → P * (x + uxP , y + uyP , z + uzP )
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Now, coming to Q*, the new coordinates are the old coordinate x + dx plus the displacement
along the x direction for point Q which uxQ . So, similarly y direction and then z direction.
Q (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) → Q* (x + dx + uxQ , y + dy + uyQ , z + dz + uzQ )
So, displacement of P is
up = u(x, y , z )
And the displacement of Q is
uQ = u(x + dx, y + dy, z + dz)
Now, we said that we look at difference in displacement right. Yeah, let us write expression
for difference in displacements as I told you the reason is it takes care of translation,
translation gets eliminated. Now, how do you represent difference in displacement is
du = uQ − uP = u (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) − u(x, y , z )
What are this line tell you? The vectorial difference in displacement of Q and P. So, we are
looking at 2 points of course, remember these points are in a plate which has under gone rigid
body motion and deformation and remember the points here are shown far away, but they are
very near neighboring points. Now, instead of working in terms of the vectorial difference
which is little difficult let us work in terms of component.
So, let us now focus on the x component of the previous equation. So,
dux = ux (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) − ux (x, y , z )
This equation tells you the difference in x displacement between P and Q, this is the vectorial
equation and written a x component of that. So, this tells you the difference in the x
displacements of points Q and P. Now, we will take this displacement
ux (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) and we will write in terms of a Taylor series,
∂ux ∂ux ∂ux

ux (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) = ux (x, y , z ) + ∂x
dx + ∂y
dy + ∂z
dz
Now, let us substitute this equation in the above ux (x, y , z ) cancels out,
∂ux ∂ux ∂ux

dux = ∂x
dx + ∂y
dy + ∂z
dz
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What is the other way of looking at it? ux is a function of x, y, z and dux is total derivative
of ux you are expressing that in terms of partial derivative. Two different way of interpreting
this. What you have done is a little more geometrical physical way of understanding dux
little more mathematical way is ux is a function of x, y, z, ux is x displacement all the
components are functions of x, y, z. So, ux also a function of x, y, z. So, expressing total
derivative in terms of partial derivative gives you this expression straight away fine.
Now, what is the significance of this expression? The left hand side what do you have is let
us tentatively call as difference, the what we have left hand side is the total difference in x
displacement between Q and P. Right hand side that has been expressed a three different
terms. What do they represent? This x displacement is a function of x, y and z, ux varies with
x, y, z. The first partial derivative takes into account variation of ux in the x direction, second
partial derivative takes into account variation of ux in the y direction, third derivative takes
into account variation of ux in the z direction. So, left hand side tells you the total difference
in displacement and that has been apportioned into 3 parts because of the variation of x
displacement along x direction, y direction, z direction. So, mathematical statement total
derivative relating partial derivative.
Now, let us do this. For the other two direction as well.
∂ux ∂ux ∂ux

dux = ∂x
dx + ∂y
dy + ∂z
dz
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Similarly, you can do for the y direction
∂uy ∂uy ∂uy

duy = ∂x
dx + ∂y
dy + ∂z
dz
And similarly for the z direction
∂uz ∂uz ∂uz

duz = ∂x
dx + ∂y
dy + ∂z
dz
The first tells you about the difference in x displacement between P and Q, the second tells
you difference in the y displacement between P and Q and then similarly last one tells a z
displacement between P and Q. The difference in x displacement, difference in y
displacement, difference in z displacement. Now, let us arrange this in a form of a matrix
equation
[dux duy duz ] = [ ∂u∂xx ∂ux ∂ux ∂uy ∂uy ∂uy ∂uz ∂uz ∂uz
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ] [dx dy dz ]
Now, look at the example which you have seen earlier (right hand side in the above slide
image) we took this example and then found out we took two particles along x direction, we
found out these three derivatives in terms of difference in x, y, z displacement and then we
wrote this as a in a form of a column not in a form of a row.
Now, if you compare these two displacement gradient tensors, they are both same. That is
why we collected all those values and wrote as a column rather than a row entry in this
particular matrix or tensor.
Now, what does this tensor tell you? We have already discussed that the left hand side we
have the displacements and the displacements are in x, y, z directions and each of them can
vary in x, y, z direction which are here and hence resulting in nine components of the
displacement gradient tensor; ux , uy , uz themselves have directions x displacement, y
displacement, z displacement. All of them can each of them can vary in x, y, z direction that
is what is given here.
So, the tensor connecting these two has two directions attached to it. And if you write in this
way one row corresponds to the x displacement along x direction y direction and z direction
and when we wrote here we took particles along one direction and considered their x
displacement, y displacement, z displacement.
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So, in the displacement gradient what happens is along the row you have only x
displacement, y displacement, z displacement, but when we considered here the particles we
considered two practices along x direction and considered their x displacement, y
displacement, z displacement difference in x, y and z displacement that is why we wrote them
collected them and wrote as a column rather than a row. So, one row belongs to a
displacement in one direction, but when we wrote from here we took difference in
displacement along three different directions considering particles along one direction that is
why we collected and wrote them as a column rather than a row.
So, of course, that time it was not possible to explain the reason, now we have a very good
reason to explain why we wrote those element as a column rather than a row. And also we
said that this displacement gradient tensor was looked like for a specific example, it is not the
case, we have derived the displacement gradient tensor in a more generic way and so, what is
derived is more general form of the this displacement gradient tensor. Same form, but we did
not restrict to a particular geometry, we did not restrict to a particular configuration we have
derived in a more general sense.
What we have done now is derived a relationship between the total difference in
displacement or differential in displacement, we have almost use this were synonymously
throughout the lecture differential and difference. So, we have a related their differential in
displacements to the differential in the directions x, y, z in terms of a displacement gradient
tensor. Now, this is more mathematical we took two points looked at the difference in
displacement etcetera. We are now going to arrive at the same expression more geometrically
and that is what we are going to do now.
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Lecture - 60
Components of Total Displacement – Part 1
[dux duy duz ] = [ ∂u∂x

x ∂ux ∂ux ∂uy ∂uy ∂uy ∂uz ∂uz ∂uz
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ] [dx dy dz ]
We have derived this relationship between dux , duy , duz and dx, dy, dz and the
displacement gradient tensor the first way which is more mathematical. Now, we will derive
the same relationship in the more geometrical way in terms of the components of the total
difference in displacement.
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Like I mention the book which is being followed here by Brady and Brown in the Rock
Mechanics for underground mining very peculiar reference they sense that this particular
topic which are going discuss is done mostly mathematically in most of the books. I would
appreciate certainly this book that has done more geometrically and that is why we following
that approach.
If you are refer any typical book on solid mechanics or continuum mechanics, this particular
step is done more mathematically, to be very specific this reference is being chosen. So, that
we get a good geometrical interpretation. What is that we are going to do, derive the same
relationship in alternate way in a more geometrical sense.
Now, also look at the components of the total difference in displacement. The title has to be
explained first we had displacement we said we want to eliminate translation. So, we have
looked at difference in displacement. Now, what is total difference in displacement, just tells
you that whatever two points and their total difference in displacement which may be because
of rotation, normal strain, shear strain, I do not include translation now because, we are
looking at difference in displacement so translation is gone, but still remember this total
difference includes that due to normal strain, shear strain and rotation; rotation is still there.
At the end of this, what we will see is remember what we said was we want to eliminate both
the rigid body motions, namely translation and rotation. We are taken care of translation very
easily just by difference. End of this discussion, we will separate out rotation also that is the
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overall picture let us go to the details. How are we going to do this, we are going to take plate
or two-dimensional region, plate is little more physically imagine and visualize, actually it is
a two-dimensional region in a solid, and we are going to consider points P and then S.
The x distance between them is ∆x , y distance between them is ∆y and that is what is shown
in the figure (above referred slide image). Remember when you derived the relationship or
displacement gradient, we consider two points P and Q and the difference in x coordinates
was ∆x , y was ∆y , z was ∆z . Remember we are going to arrive at the same expression. So,
here also I am considering two points of course, in 2D, which are separated by ∆x and ∆y .
Now, three cases will be considered one by one. What are the three cases? The first case I
consider that for the understanding will take up as a plate, the plate undergoes only normal
strain. Look at the title here, in the figure, this figure shows only normal strain and this title
shows normal strain. Second figure, I consider only shear strain. The lengths are same; and
there is no rotation of the element, but there is only shear strain because there is change in
angle. So, only shear strain and the second column heading is shear strain only. Third I just
consider the rotation of the plate only, no normal strain, no shear strain, and that is the third
configuration, only rotation.
Now, what are we going to do? we said displacement is because of translation, rotation,
normal strain, shear strain. We are taken care of translation by difference in displacement
which means that if you say difference in displacement along one direction let say
x-direction, that has components from normal strain, shear strain and rotation. What do you
mean by that?
If there are two points and then there is a difference in the x displacement which means that
could be because of normal strain, could be because of shear strain, could be because of
rotation. What you have observe is some effect of all these three put together in terms of
difference. We are going to dissect it find out the components that is exactly we are going to
do.
Normal strain only Shear strain only Rotation only
∆ ux
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∆ uy
∆ uz
This table is a matrix where we are going to find out the components of the total difference in
displacement, understand why total difference in displacement, we have a difference in
displacement what you observe is total, it has its components that why I call as total
difference in displacement.
Just want to mention that finally we will go back to differential because our relationship in
terms of differentials just for understanding tentatively come to in terms of difference.
So, what is that you are going to do, we are going to find out the components of total
difference in displacement along three directions. What do I mean by that? Take two points,
you observed a difference in their displacement that is the total difference in displacement
that is the this heading of this row, that we are going to split into that the difference due to
normal strain, difference due to shear strain, difference due to rotation, difference in x
displacement due to all this; similarly difference in y displacement, similarly difference in z
displacement.
So, this table is going to be filled up in a more geometrical way. So, just to summarize they
are going to take a plate or two-dimensional region, subjected to normal strain only, shear
strain only, rotation only, find out what are the components of the total displacement along
x-direction, y-direction, z-direction.
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Now, earlier I said total difference in displacement, look at the title now, difference in
displacement due to normal strain only, that is what we are going to see. So, of course, now, a
larger figure is shown, we considering the plate, please not that we are considering a point P
and a point S, the x distance is ∆x , y distance is ∆y . This is in line with our earlier
consideration of points P and Q separated by ∆x , ∆y , ∆z . Now, the plate undergoes normal
strain only, what do I mean by that, there is a change in the length along the x-direction only.
There is no change in angle.
Just want to mention this red is the original configuration or initial state. Remember this is
blue line, but bellow that you have a red line. So, whatever I mark now is a initial state and
then you subject this to normal strain only. Then what is a boundary, the blue line is the new
state; part of the red is below the blue boundary. Now, subjected to the normal strain only and
then along x axis only.
Now, we know that normal strain is related to the displacement gradient in terms of
∂ux
εxx = ∂x
I will write in terms of difference
∆ux
εxx = ∆x
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As I told you we have working in terms of difference for understanding. What does this tell
you in terms of physically if you want to read this statement, it relates normal strain to the
difference in x displacement between two points with which are separated by ∆x distance
that is what we have here. We have two points which are separated by distance ∆x .
And so this expression should relate to the difference in displacements between P and S.
Now, the point P the way in which you have drawn there is no displacement for point P. So,
the displacement of S becomes the difference in displacement. We are considering points P
and S point, P there is no displacement so actually S moves to S* I should have noted here
just displacement of point S only, but what is that I have marked their difference in
displacement.
What is the reference point? My reference point is P, because there is no displacement of P

displacement of S becomes difference in displacement. So, please keep this in mind this
follows for all other discussion also. Though it may look like displacement, it is difference in
displacement because we are always considering point P for which there is no displacement.
So, now we can what is that we are interested in, remember we are interested in the
difference in displacement due to normal strain only. So, same expression, earlier we wrote
as an expression for normal strain, but now we are going to write an expression for ∆ux
which is for interested in. So,
∆ux (normal strain only) = εxx ∆x
what it tells you is S to S* the different displacement or difference in displacement because of

normal strain only can be obtained by εxx ∆x .
So, once again this discussion looks like you have a plate and then of a finite length ∆x , ∆x .
Please keep this in mind which is small region in solid two dimension region, where these are
very very close to each other P and S are very close to each other, where visualization we are
drawing a diagram and then saying a plate etcetera. Remember because epsilon x is a point
definition as ∆x → , ∆x → .
Similarly, here also this points P and S are very very close to each other as we have as
applicable to the definition of εxx . And so this gives you the difference in displacement, this
expression gives you the difference in displacement along the x-direction because of normal
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strain only and that entry is made here. We have nine entries to make we have made one
entry. Now, similarly if you consider the y-direction and z-direction, we can fill two more
entries.
∆ ux εxx ∆x
∆ uy εyy ∆y
∆ uz εzz ∆z
What this table tells you is, what is the difference in x displacement because of normal strain
along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis. And one component is now completed.
So, now let us move onto finding out difference in displacement due to shear strain only.
Now, same plate is considered. Now, the initial status given by PQRS, the red boundary. And
P*Q*R*S* is the final state, and the deformed boundary. And the way in which we have
considered as you want to considered include only shear strain, so there is no change in
length. P R is equal to P*R* in terms of length, similarly all other sites also. And also there is
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no rotation look at the diagonal PS and diagonal P*S*, there is no change. So, the only the
change in angle has happened, no normal strain, no rotation.
Now, of course, the length ∆x , ∆y are shown let us proceed further to explain other
nomenclature. We are considering the case of pure shear strain, where there is no normal
strain and rotation. Now, what I shown here is this is a diagram, part of the diagram which
are used to relate the strange the displacement gradient.
I have taken a small part of that I have shown here. We showed this angle is α , α made by
P*Q* with the x-axis; angle made by P*R* y axis is β . Now, those angles where different in
a general scenario where you had rotation, normal strain etcetera. But now we have only
shear strain, we can easily imagine is going to be symmetric have only shear strain.
In this case, where we have only shear strain you just changes in angle, so α and β are
equal. Now, we defined shear strain as, because α and β are same
π γ xy
γ xy = 2
−< R* P * Q* = 2α; α = 2
γ xy
α= 2 is applicable when we have shear strain only that is the relationship. Now,
∂uy ∂ux
tan tan (α) ≅α = ∂x
; tan tan (β) ≅β = ∂y
We have already derived while driving discussing this case where we are relating strains to
∂uy ∂ux
displacement gradient. We proved that α = ∂x
, and β = ∂y
. We can you can refer those
slides for this derivation. Now, for the present case, we will write in terms of difference, so
write as
∆uy ∆ux
tan tan (α) ≅α = ∆x
; tan tan (α) ≅α = ∆y
Now, these expressions first expression for α , second expression for α correspond to this,
∆uy
this figure. Let me explain. Let us take this expression α = ∆x
.
Now, if you consider the triangle you do not see a triangle there, why because I have shown a
large value of alpha. Remember alpha is extremely small 10−6 as such a small value. What
happens then this, R, R*, S, S* can be approximated to a triangle. Now, of course, it does not
look like even a triangle. But remember this is going to R and R* is going to be very very
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close to each other and then you will S* somewhere here then R*, S*, S will be a triangle.
∆uy
And then you can apply this relationship for that triangle relating α = ∆x
.
What does this relationship tell you, it relates α to the difference in y displacement for two
particles which are separated ∆x away that is what we have here also. Once again as like a
last example, the difference in displacement is related to the point P and that is why S to S* is
displacement, but denoted here as difference in y displacement.
So, this relationship is applicable for this case. And this relates α , the difference in
displacement in the distance between them. What is that we are interested in we are interested
in the in getting expression ∆uy from this equation. Now, let us take the second relationship
∆ux
α= ∆y
and that corresponds to this triangle. Once again in the limit of very very small α is
becomes a triangle.
The second equation what does it tell you how α is related to difference in x displacement
between two particles which are ∆y away. Same thing is here we have P and then S, we are
which are ∆y away. So, this equation is applicable for this triangle. And we are going to use
this we have written for α , but what is interest what is of interest was is the difference in the
x displacement ∆ux and the we will write this expression for ∆ux .
So, now, we will write the difference in x displacement due to shear strain only. So,
γ xy
∆ux (shear strain only) = α∆y = 2
∆y = εxy ∆y
So, γ xy shear strain half of that is denoted by another variable namely εxy . And what is the
significance of this statement is that, you had a plate it is subjected to shear strain only, then
what is the difference in displacement, ∆ux difference in displacement. What did we say that
difference in displacement could be because of normal strain which I have already discussed
could be because of shear strain.
So, we are saying that the difference in displacement that can happen because of shear strain
in the x-direction is by given by ∆ux and that is what you have related to the shear strain.
Now, similarly you can write the expression for the difference in y displacement due to shear
strain only see when shear strain happens, there is not alone difference in x displacement,
there is difference in y displacement also. We can very clearly see S moves to S*, so there is
a displacement in x-direction S moves to S* so, there is displacement in the x-direction,
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displacement in the y-direction of course, we are calling it as difference in displacement
related to P.
So, difference in y displacement
γ xy
∆uy (shear strain only) = α∆x = 2
∆x = εxy ∆x
What to conclude what we are done is if there is shear strain, what is the difference in
displacement along x-direction y-direction.
Just complete for other directions ok, this expression which we have written in the previous
slide, difference in x displacement due to shear strain only, difference in y displacement due
to shear strain only.
∆ux (shear strain only) = εxy ∆y
∆uy (shear strain only) = εxy ∆x
The nomenclature has been made very clear, difference in displacement in the x-directions so
∆ux . Now, we are considering nor the total difference in displacement, we are considering
only that due to shear strain only that is way the within the bracket it is written as shear strain
only. Now let us fill up the table.
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∆ ux εxy ∆y + εzx ∆z
∆ uy εyz ∆z + εxy ∆x
∆ uz εzx ∆x + εyz ∆y
Now, remember we said shear strain causes difference in displacement along x-direction and
y-direction. So, you will have one entry for ∆ux you will have another entry for ∆uy that is
what is shown here. We have one entry for ∆ux , which is εxy ∆y ; another entry for ∆uy =
εxy ∆x . So, these are the two terms which we have written based on the strain in the x, y
plane. We are considered x, y plane, considered the strain which has resultant in displacement
two directions; one in x-direction and y-direction. If you understood this very clearly extend
to other pairs of directions.
So, strain in x, y plane for example, causes difference in displacement along x-direction and
y-direction that should be kept in mind, that is of course, we just now discuss shear strain in
the x, y plane results in difference in x and y displacement.
708
Lecture - 61
Components of Total Displacement - Part 2
Now, the last part difference in displacement due to rotation only. What is shown here, the
same plate with just rotation which you called as a rigid body rotation, the entire body just
rotates. PQRS is the initial state P*R*Q*S* is the final state. If you look at this there is no
change in length between PR and P*R* and the angle RPQ is equal to angle R*P*Q*; no
shear strain also, only rotation and this is the components you want to separate out.
Remember we have already separated out translation but difference in displacement still
includes rotation we are going to separate it out.
So, let us see What are these components contribute. Look at this, S has moved to S*, there is
a difference in displacement. The reason is rotation we have to evaluate that and find
expression for that. Now once again, this figure is we had discussed already the context of
deriving relationship between normal strain, shear strain and rotational also if you derived in
terms of displacement gradient, same figure here as we have seen the previous slide.
Now when we derived that
709
∂𝑢𝑦
ω𝑥𝑦 = α = ∂𝑥
Then we also derived for rotation for the element PR to P*R* and the relationship was
∂𝑢𝑥
ω𝑥𝑦 =− β =− ∂𝑦
But we PR rotated in the clockwise direction because we have taken to account, the direction,
clockwise is negative. We added a negative sign. Now, if you write in terms of difference
∆𝑢𝑦 ∆𝑢𝑥
ω𝑥𝑦 = ∆𝑥
; ω𝑥𝑦 =− ∆𝑦
ω𝑥𝑦 is the rotation and that is related to difference in y displacement for particle separated
along x axis by ∆𝑥 and that is what we have here; P and then S once again there is no
movement displacement of P. And So, we can apply this relationship for the present case for
difference in displacement between P and S.
Similarly, second expression tells you that relates the rotation omega to the difference in x
displacement for two particles which are separated along the y axis by ∆𝑦. That is why we
have here also P and S separated by ∆𝑦 along the y-axis.
So, now what we will do is apply the expression for this triangle; what is that triangle? So,
the angle between the lines corresponding lines between the initial state and final state, all of
them are ω𝑥𝑦.
Now, we have discussed the negative sign; whenever you talk about ∆𝑦, it is higher y minus
lower y, you are along the y axis, ok. So, there is no ambiguity. When you talk ∆𝑢𝑥, it is
always final state minus initial state, that is what ∆𝑢𝑥 represents. In this particular example S*
is the final state, S is the initial state and that has moved along the negative x axis to account
for that we have the negative sign.
So, if it is both along the positive axis respective axis, then negative sign is not required, as
∆𝑢𝑦
we have in this case. In the case of ∆𝑥
, S moved vertically up. So, it is along the positive y
axis and of course, x is along the positive x axis. But when you take the second expression,
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∆𝑦 is still along the positive way, but S moves towards the negative x axis and so the negative
sign takes care of that.
Now, as usual we will use these expressions for writing expressions for ∆𝑢𝑦 and ∆𝑢𝑥, what do
they represent? They represent difference in y displacement and x displacement because of

rotation only. So, you first write for x direction
So, difference in x displacement due to rotation only. So, we use the second equation,
∆𝑢𝑥(𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦) =− ω𝑥𝑦∆𝑦
Let us use the first equation and write expression for difference in y displacement due to
rotation only.
∆𝑢𝑦(𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦) = ω𝑥𝑦∆𝑥
So, as usual the nomenclature has been made very clear. The first is ∆𝑢𝑥 difference in x
displacement due to rotation only. Second equation is difference in y displacement due to

rotation only. Just as a quick check in this particular case is ω𝑥𝑦 positive or negative;
anticlockwise rotation so ω𝑥𝑦 is positive.
So, now let us let us take this equation, ω𝑥𝑦 is positive, ∆𝑦 is positive, ∆𝑢𝑥 is negative,. We
should get a negative difference in x displacement. So, it is a only cross check in fact, we
written the negative sign taking into account the x displacement just as a quick cross check or
ω𝑥𝑦 is positive and ∆𝑦 is anyway positive. So if you substitute delta, the difference will be
negative which is in line with our moment of S to S* along the negative x-axis.
711
Now, of course for the difference in y displacement that is very clear, ω𝑥𝑦 is positive, ∆𝑥 is
positive and S moves along the positive y axis. So, now let us summarize the expressions
which we have derived in the previous slide for difference in x displacement and difference in
y displacement due to rotation only.
Now, let us fill up this table; we have filled up normal strain, we have filled up shear strain,
they are not shown just for clarity. Now we have to fill up this rotation only. Now just like for
shear strain, when shear strain happens it contributes to x and y displacement. Similarly one
rotation happens in x y plane, it contributes to x displacement and y displacement and so, you
will have one entry for ∆𝑢𝑥, one entry for ∆𝑢𝑦 and that is what is shown here.
∆𝑢𝑥 − ω𝑥𝑦∆𝑦 + ω𝑧𝑥∆𝑧
∆𝑢𝑦 − ω𝑦𝑧∆𝑧 + ω𝑥𝑦∆𝑥
∆𝑢𝑧 − ω𝑧𝑥∆𝑥 + ω𝑦𝑧∆𝑦
712
So, now we have filled the last column also based on rotation in the x y, y z and z x planes.
So, rotation in the x y plane results in difference in the x and y displacement.
So, put together all of them. The individual figures are shown here, the individual tables are
show here, the bottom of the slide. The first figure is where normal strain corresponding
table, second figure for shear strain only and the corresponding table, third figure is for
rotation only the corresponding table.
Now, we can fill the entire table. We said we are proceeding towards that
∆𝑢𝑥 ϵ𝑥𝑥∆𝑥 ϵ𝑥𝑦∆𝑦 + ϵ𝑧𝑥∆𝑧 − ω𝑥𝑦∆𝑦 + ω𝑧𝑥∆𝑧
∆𝑢𝑦 ϵ𝑦𝑦∆𝑦 ϵ𝑦𝑧∆𝑧 + ϵ𝑥𝑦∆𝑥 − ω𝑦𝑧∆𝑧 + ω𝑥𝑦∆𝑥
∆𝑢𝑧 ϵ𝑧𝑧∆𝑧 ϵ𝑧𝑥∆𝑥 + ϵ𝑦𝑧∆𝑦 − ω𝑧𝑥∆𝑥 + ω𝑦𝑧∆𝑦
Now, I have written ∆𝑢𝑥, ∆𝑢𝑦, ∆𝑢𝑧 the total difference in displacement; total difference in
displacement that is a left hand side. Now, in the right hand side we have three columns, let
say normal strain only, shear strain only, rotation only.
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So, this full table is just combination of the three separate tables what we have shown earlier.
And what is the other way of looking at it; if you focus on a particular row what can be
physically told, the total difference in x displacement is or has contributions from normal
strain, shear strain and rotation, that is what we said. The displacement has an additional
contribution translation; we have taken care of that. Difference in displacement does not have
that component namely translation. It has rotation, normal strain and shear strain.
Now, we are proceeding towards getting the relationship between 𝑑𝑢𝑥, 𝑑𝑢𝑦, 𝑑𝑢𝑧 and 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦,
𝑑𝑧 in terms of displacement gradient in the second way which is more geometrical way and
that is what we will do now, that is a last step. We said we will derive the displacement
gradient in two different ways. The first one was more mathematical, the second one is more
geometrical and that is what we have done now.
So, now we are at the last step, where we are going to arrive at the expression. So, now what
we do, I come back to differential because our expression was in terms of the displacement
gradient expression was in terms of differential, though this table is in terms of difference I
am writing in terms of differentials.
𝑑𝑢𝑥(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = 𝑑𝑢𝑥(𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦) + 𝑑𝑢𝑥(𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦) + 𝑑𝑢𝑥(𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦)
So, look at the nomenclature very clearly written here. The left hand side is difference in
displacement and then the bracket says total, and difference in displacement along x
714
direction. So, left hand says difference in displacement or differential in displacement, there
is a total difference in displacement, right hand side where difference in displacement into
normal strain only, difference in displacement due to shear strain only and difference in
displacement due to rotation way.
Now, we are going to do sum up all the components, all the terms in the first row, ok. All of
them correspond to difference in x displacement coming from contributions from normal
strain, shear strain and rotation, we are going to sum up all of them. Let us do that and see
what do we get
𝑑𝑢𝑥 = ϵ𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ϵ𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 + ϵ𝑧𝑥𝑑𝑧 − ω𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 + ω𝑧𝑥𝑑𝑧
So, if you have observed the two shear strain terms, difference in x displacement because of
shear strain has further two components; one from shear strain in x y plane, shear strain in z x
plane. Similarly for rotation if you say the difference in displacement x direction has two
components, one coming from rotation in x y plane, other coming from rotational in z x
plane.
So, this equation is just sum of all the terms in the first row. We will express them in terms of
displacement gradients. So, let us do that
𝑑𝑢𝑥 =
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑥
𝑑𝑥 +
1
2 ( ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )𝑑𝑦 + ( 1
2
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑧
+
∂𝑢𝑧
∂𝑥 )𝑑𝑧 − ( 1
2
∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
−
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )𝑑𝑦 + (1
2
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑧
−
∂𝑢𝑧
∂𝑥 )𝑑𝑧
If you simplify this
𝑑𝑢𝑥 =
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑥
𝑑𝑥 +
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦
𝑑𝑦 +
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑧
𝑑𝑧 +
1
2 ( )
∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
𝑑𝑦 +
1
2 ( )
∂𝑢𝑧
∂𝑥
𝑑𝑧 −
1
2 ( )
∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
𝑑𝑦 −
1
2 ( )𝑑𝑧
∂𝑢𝑧
∂𝑥
The last terms cancel each other, and we have
∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑢𝑥

𝑑𝑢𝑥 = ∂𝑥
𝑑𝑥 + ∂𝑦
𝑑𝑦 + ∂𝑧
𝑑𝑧
And similarly we can get derive for other directions for 𝑑𝑢𝑦 and 𝑑𝑢𝑧 as well.
∂𝑢𝑦 ∂𝑢𝑦 ∂𝑢𝑦

𝑑𝑢𝑦 = ∂𝑥
𝑑𝑥 + ∂𝑦
𝑑𝑦 + ∂𝑧
𝑑𝑧
∂𝑢𝑧 ∂𝑢𝑧 ∂𝑢𝑧

𝑑𝑢𝑧 = ∂𝑥
𝑑𝑥 + ∂𝑦
𝑑𝑦 + ∂𝑧
𝑑𝑧
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So, I think now these expressions are familiar to you. The same expression is what we
derived earlier more mathematically. That is what I am going to see in the next slide.
So, if we summarize all this; we will summarize all the total difference in displacement.
∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑢𝑥

𝑑𝑥 + ∂𝑦
𝑑𝑦 + ∂𝑧
𝑑𝑧
∂𝑢𝑦 ∂𝑢𝑦 ∂𝑢𝑦

𝑑𝑢𝑦 = ∂𝑥
𝑑𝑥 + ∂𝑦
𝑑𝑦 + ∂𝑧
𝑑𝑧
∂𝑢𝑧 ∂𝑢𝑧 ∂𝑢𝑧

𝑑𝑢𝑧 = ∂𝑥
𝑑𝑥 + ∂𝑦
𝑑𝑦 + ∂𝑧
𝑑𝑧
These are same as what you have seen in the previous slide. And then we will arrange in a
form of a matrix that is what we did earlier also,
∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑢𝑦 ∂𝑢𝑦 ∂𝑢𝑦 ∂𝑢𝑧 ∂𝑢𝑧 ∂𝑢𝑧

[𝑑𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑢𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑧 ] = ⎡⎢⎣ ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
⎤[𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 ]
⎥
⎦
Remember this slide is same as earlier slide, only the title is different. Earlier title was
displacement gradient tensor obtained more mathematically, but right now this is obtained
more geometrically based on the components.
716
Just to recall these are the slides which we had earlier where we consider two points
separated by 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦, 𝑑𝑧 and then, we first took of translation by looking at difference in
displacement.
Then we wrote expression for difference and displacement first vectorially and then along x
direction and got this relationship by expanding in Taylor series or expanding this total
differential in terms of partial derivative.
717
And in the previous slide what we had and this slide are same the title is different, because
the way in which we have written this the first way what we are done, right. Now is the
second way. Both result in a same expression, same matrix equation or same set of equations
in two different ways.
So, let us write down the relationship which we have got into different ways; Physical
significance is same. This means if you have got the same expression in two different ways
what are the conclusions, that is what we are going to discuss now,
718
∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑢𝑦 ∂𝑢𝑦 ∂𝑢𝑦 ∂𝑢𝑧 ∂𝑢𝑧 ∂𝑢𝑧
[𝑑𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑢𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑧 ] = ⎡⎢⎣ ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
⎤[𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 ]
⎥
⎦
Two different ways
● First one mathematically from total displacement,

● Second one geometrically from components of total displacement.
That is what we have done. What is implication that is the statement now normal strain, shear
strain and rotation completely specify the total displacement, what does it mean? If you are
considering the difference and displacement when I say total displacement, total difference in
displacement we made a statement that it has three components; normal strain, shear strain,
rotation, we are proving it now.
There could be other terms also, other components also, but this proof tells you that we
consider; we consider only three ways normal strain, shear strain and rotation. By considering
the individual components, we get the same expression what we had taken earlier; by
considering total displacement which means that normal strain, shear strain and rotation
completely specify the total displacement or difference in displacement. That is an important
conclusion.
Initially we made a statement that I am going to consider only normal strain, shear strain
only, rotation only, but why should I consider only these three; this is the conclusion. It is
enough if you considered those three you can arrive at the same expression which implies
that those are the only three, one or two strains and rotation to be considered to arrive at the
total displacement; that is the conclusion which we arrived.
719
Lecture – 62
Strain Tensor and Rotation Tensor - Part 1
We came across this few slides back and discuss this. When we discussed we said
displacement refers to change in coordinates and that could be because of a rigid body
motion, which has two components namely translation, rotation; and translation is just the
whole body moving in any direction; and rotation is just whole body rotating;
And the change in coordinate displacement could also be because of deformation which is
change in length or change in angle, which we call as normal strain and shear strain and
We said that we are going to separate these two components these two contributions namely
rigid body motion and deformation by writing the displacement gradient tensor in two
different ways and we said that translation can be easily taken care of by writing difference
and displacement.
Then we moved on and then arrived at the displacement gradient tensor in two different
ways, one mathematical other by analyzing the individual contributions namely normal
strain, shear strain and rotation.
720
So, having done that now we are ready to look at the split between these two the rigid body
motion and the deformation. In particular, we ready to separate out rotation from normal
strain, shear strain, already retranslation has been taken care because we are working in terms
of difference in displacement.
So, let us do that. So, let us write down the displacement gradient tensor using the first way
which was the mathematical way, where we expressed total differential in terms of partial
differential, so that is the first expression.
[dux duy duz ] = [ ∂u∂xx ∂ux ∂ux ∂uy ∂uy ∂uy ∂uz ∂uz ∂uz
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ] [dx dy dz ]
Second what we do was, we analyze the individual component, individual contributions to
the displacement in x-direction, difference in displacement due to normal strain, shear strain
and rotation;
∆ ux εxx ∆x εxy ∆y + εzx ∆z − ω xy ∆y + ω zx ∆z
∆ uy εyy ∆y εyz ∆z + εxy ∆x − ωyz ∆z + ω xy ∆x
∆ uz εzz ∆z εzx ∆x + εyz ∆y − ω zx ∆x + ω yz ∆y
721
And then these are the components and then we summed up all in the previous slide that is
what is shown here, and then proved that it is same as the first row for the x displacement and
hence got an expression for displacement gradient in the second way also.
Now, we are not going to sum up all the components as shown here, we are going to
separately sum the normal strain, shear strain contributions, and keep rotation separately, and
that we are going to do in the form of a matrix. Let us do that. The left side is the column
vector of difference in displacement. As I told you here we have written difference in
displacement to represent similar to this we have writing in terms of differentials of
displacement.
[dux duy duz ] = [εxx εxy εxz εxy εyy εyz εzx εyz εzz ] [dx dy dz ] + [0 − ωxy ωxz ωxy 0 − ωyz − ωzx ωyz 0 ] [dx dy d
So, how do I write this expression. So, left hand side we have a column vector differences of
displacement, right hand side we have column vector of dx , dy , dz .
So, we have to represent this table in the form of two mattresses or two tenses that is what we
going to do now. The normal strain shear strain have been put together and represented as a
one row in this particular tensor or matrix.
So, what is that we have done now, earlier we summed up all the contributions and proved
that this expression is a what we obtain through the mathematical way.
Now, what we have done we have split this as one matrix representation, and these two terms
as or represent rotation as another matrix representation. Now, we have shown that the
displacement gradient tensor is equal to the tensor obtained by splitting into components
which means that the displacement gradient tensor is equal to sum of these two tensors or
matrices.
Now, we will write in terms of the displacement gradients
[dux duy duz ] = [ ∂u∂x ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

1 ∂uy ∂ux 1 ∂ux ∂uz 1 ∂uy ∂ux ∂uy 1 ∂uz ∂uy 1 ∂ux ∂uz 1 ∂uz ∂u
x
2 ∂x + ∂y 2 ∂z + ∂x 2 ∂x + ∂y ∂y 2 ∂y + ∂z 2 ∂z + ∂x 2 ∂y + ∂
So, what we have done is the first one represents the tensor from the mathematical way; the
equation (table entries) represents the same tensor when we derive it in terms of components,
but represent as two different tenses or two different matrices. What we are done here is
represented those two different tensors in terms of displacement gradient εxx , εxy are
722
variables; unless we expressed in terms of displacement gradients, they are not useful, they
are just expressions, or variables introduced for our convenience.
This three-dimensional representation of course, looks little more complex. What we will just
show in this slide is what is the 2D version of that looks little easier to follow, easier to
understand, even for your understanding you will understand most of the concepts by looking
at the 2D version of the equation.
[dux duy ] = [ ∂u∂x x ∂ux ∂uy ∂uy

∂y ∂x ∂y ] [dx dy ]
[dux duy ] = [εxx εxy εxy εyy ] [dx dy ] + [0 − ωxy ωxy 0 ] [dx dy ]
[dux duy ] =
[ ∂ux 1
∂x 2 ( ∂uy
∂x
+
∂ux
∂y ) (
1
2
∂uy
∂x
+
∂ux
∂y ) ∂uy
∂y ] [dx dy ] + [0 − ( 1
2
∂uy
∂x
−
∂ux
∂y ) (
1
2
∂uy
∂x
−
∂ux
∂y ) 0 ] [dx dy ]
So, this slide is same as the previous slide those equation where for 3D. corresponding
equations are shown here in this slide for two-dimensional case, all have the same
significance as the previous slide just 2D version of the previous slide of a little looks little
simpler to look at it and understand as well.
723
Now, we said that the displacement gradient tensor is equal to the sum of the two tensors and
that is what we are going to see the next slide for a 3D version,

∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ]=[ ∂ux 1
∂x 2 ( ∂uy
∂x + ∂ux
∂y ) (
1
2
∂ux
∂z + ∂uz
∂x ) (
1
2
∂uy
∂x + ∂ux
∂y ) ∂uy 1
∂y 2 ( ∂uz
∂y +
∂uy
∂z ) (
1
2
The left hand side is contains all the nine combinations of displacement gradients; and right
hand side you have the normal strain along the diagonal and then you have the shear strain
along the non-diagonal elements and when you come to the second tensor, it is all zero along
the diagonal elements and of diagonal elements have the rotation in the different planes.
Now, how do you name them? first of all these are in terms of characteristics this is a
symmetric tensor; you can just understand a symmetric matrix. What is symmetric matrix?
The off diagonal components are same that is why it is symmetric tensor, also called as a
symmetric matrix for simple understanding.
If you come to the second matrix or tensor, now the off diagonal components have same
magnitude, but opposite sign and that is why it is called a antisymmetric matrix or
antisymmetric tensor. So if you want to write formally let us say A is a matrix and when you
right for symmetric matrix you write as
Aij = Aji
And for anti-symmetric you write as
724
Aij =− Aji
That is why when i = j you get 0 as the diagonal elements off diagonal elements are opposite
to each other.
Now, coming to the nomenclature, in terms of nomenclature the first tensor is called strain
tensor, very easy to understand. It contains contribution of normal strain and shear strain. It
represents deformation. So, it is called as strain tensor or deformation tensor.
S trainor def ormation tensor = [ ∂ux 1

∂x 2 ( ∂uy
∂x
+
∂ux
∂y ) ( 1
2
∂ux
∂z
+
∂uz
∂x ) ( 1
2
∂uy
∂x
+
∂ux
∂y ) ∂uy 1
∂y 2 ( ∂uz
∂y
+
∂uy
∂z ) ( 1
2
∂ux
∂z
+
∂u
∂
The second one has all its component as rotation, in the different planes hence called as
rotation tensor.
[
Rotation tensor = 0 − 1
2 ( ∂uy
∂x
− ∂ux
∂y ) (
1
2
∂ux
∂z
− ∂uz
∂x ) ( 1
2
∂uy
∂x
− ∂ux
∂y )0− ( 1
2
∂uz
∂y
−
∂uy
∂z ) − 1
2 ( ∂ux
∂z
− ∂uz
∂x ) (
1
2
∂u
∂y
So, first contains information about normal strain and shear strain and hence called strain,
they represent nothing but deformation, so deformation tensor. The right hand side is the
rotation tensor for our understanding you can understand as just matrices.
And so, we have achieved our objective that is objective with which we started this lecture.
What is that; left hand side has all components of difference in displacements of course, of
varying different directions, which means translation has been taken into account. Now,
difference in displacement have two components, one was the rigid body motion because of
rotation, other was for deformation because of normal and shear strain and we want to
separate the rotation part from the deformation part and that is what we have achieved.
Once again why did we all this will see later the last slide after this we will have numeric
example now, let us put this in words displacement we said because of translation and
rotation which we called as rigid body motion and then normal strain and shear strain were
called as deformation.
Now, what we will see is a numerical example to illustrate whatever we have discussed so
far. We have so far proved that
T he displacement gradient tensor = S train tensor + Rotation tensor
We have proved that more analytically. We will show now in terms of a numerical example.
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Lecture – 63
Components of Total Displacement: Example
Now, we will start with the displacement field, now this displacement field meaning 𝑢𝑥 as a
function of x, y, and 𝑢𝑦 as a function of x, y.
𝑢𝑥(𝑥, 𝑦) = α𝑥 + (β + δ)𝑦, 𝑢𝑦(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2α𝑦 − β𝑥
α = 0. 04, β = 0. 05, δ = 0. 1
This displacement flied looks similar to what we are considered earlier, but of course, slightly
different for example, both 𝑢𝑥 and 𝑢𝑦 are functions of x and y.. These are chosen so, that to
demonstrate certain features or demonstrate that the total displacement can be split into its
components that is a idea.
So displacement field is chosen to demonstrate that the total displacement as sum of the
deformation plus the rigid body rotation. Now let us calculate all the four gradients which
will be useful for us. So,
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∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑢𝑦 ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
= α = 0. 04; ∂𝑦
= β + δ = 0. 15; ∂𝑥
=− β =− 0. 05; ∂𝑦
= 2α = 0. 08
So, this we will keep it handy so, that we will you can use it very as we go along. We are
given the displacement flied and we have calculated all the 4 displacement gradients once
again what does this displacement flied represent? We have a plate and then we it has
subjected to same force and this displacement tells you displacement of all the points in the
plate. And this displacement includes all the components we are going to separate each of
them.
First let us look at the total displacement. We are going to arrive at total displacement in two
different ways as we are done in the derivation. First in terms of the partial derivatives more
mathematically, second in terms of splitting each of the components.
So, the first method for total displacement. So, we are going to look at difference in
displacement. As we are discussed difference in displacement takes care of translation. Now
how do you write total difference in displacement between two points
∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑢𝑥
𝑑𝑥 + ∂𝑦
𝑑𝑦
We have written this using the first method where you express the total differential in terms
of partial differentials.
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Now I will write in terms of ∆ for easy understanding.
∆𝑢𝑥 = ∂𝑥
∆𝑥 + ∂𝑦
∆𝑦
Now in the particular case the displacement field is linear they are all functions of x y which
means that our displacement gradients are constants remember we had values 0.04, 0.5, 0.8 or
whatever value which mean they are constant throughout the plate. So, displacement flied is
linear. So, displacement gradients are constants.
So, now, let us consider points A and C, I will demonstrate all for point C then you can extent
to other points. Now in the particular case A is not displaced so, the total difference in
displacement becomes total displacement of point C. We actually suppose to consider
difference in displacement between C and A, but because A is not getting displaced the
difference in displacement between C and A becomes displacement of C itself.
In this case total displacement of C. So, A is not displaced. So, total difference in
displacement becomes total displacement of point C. So, we will talk in terms of
displacement itself. So, coordinate further the coordinates of A are (0, 0). So, ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦
becomes x and then y. So, the second expression just becomes simplified as
𝑢𝑥 = ∂𝑥
𝑥 + ∂𝑦
𝑦
Why is it simplified? Left hand side is difference in displacement we just now said it
becomes equivalent to just displacement. So, I writing it as 𝑢𝑥, in the right hand side we have
∆𝑥 and ∆𝑦 because coordinates of A are (0, 0), they becomes just x and then y, this is what
we use for further similarly we will use later on also. So, what we have done is, started with
total difference in displacement in terms of the partial derivatives and then ∆𝑥, ∆𝑥 difference
in displacement becomes just becomes displacement because one point does not move.
So, for all the conditions we will take A as our reference point. So, that it becomes easy to
understand because A does not get displaced.
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Now, we will calculate
𝑢𝑥 = ∂𝑥
𝑥 + ∂𝑦
𝑦
Similarly we can write for 𝑢𝑦 also
∂𝑢𝑦 ∂𝑢𝑦
𝑢𝑦 = ∂𝑥
𝑥 + ∂𝑦
𝑦
Now, we will take all the values which we calculated for all the gradients. We calculated all
the combination of gradients.

∂𝑥
= α = 0. 04; ∂𝑦
= β + δ = 0. 15; ∂𝑥
=− β =− 0. 05; ∂𝑦
= 2α = 0. 08
So, we calculated the components of the displacement gradient tensor more formally. So,
now, for point C which is (1, 1), total displacement
𝑢𝑥 = ∂𝑥
𝑥 + ∂𝑦
𝑦 = 0. 04(1) + 0. 15(1) = 0. 19;
𝑢𝑦 = ∂𝑥
𝑥 + ∂𝑦
𝑦 =− 0. 05(1) + 0. 08(1) = 0. 03
So, as usual the red boundary shows the initial configuration initial state and the coordinates
are (0, 0) etcetera and the blue boundary shows the final state. Remember the final state
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shows the displacement of all the points we have calculated for C alone, if you repeat for all
other points you can get the coordinates of B, coordinates of D, then you will be able to draw
the boundary of the plate ABCD in the final state.
Now, remember it shows the total displacement. This displacement could be because of
rotation, normal strain, shear strain and this is what we are going to do now separately
represent the normal strain, share strain and rotation then sum up and see that we will be able
to get back this total displacement and that is what we did analytically, but now we are going
to do in terms of a numerical calculation.
So coordinates of C in deformed configuration due to displacement you know the

displacement. So, just add to the original coordinate so,
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 = (1 + 𝑢𝑥, 1 + 𝑢𝑦) = (1 + 0. 19, 1 + 0. 03) = (1. 19, 1. 03)
So, those are the coordinates similarly, you can calculate for ABCD.
Now, take normal strain alone shear strain alone, rotation alone and see how the displacement
happens. When we consider normal strain only, the difference in displacement or the
differential displacement is
𝑑𝑥 → ∆𝑢𝑥 = ∂𝑥
∆𝑥
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And as usual as we are discussed earlier difference in displacement become displacement ∆x
becomes x and so, we get this simple expression.
∂𝑢𝑥
𝑢𝑥 = ∂𝑥
𝑥
Similarly in the y direction we write
𝑑𝑢𝑦 = ∂𝑦
𝑑𝑦 → 𝑢𝑦 = ∂𝑦
𝑦
So, as we have seen earlier we get this expression for displacement. So, we will take all the
values of displacement gradients from the first previous slide.

∂𝑥
= α = 0. 04; ∂𝑦
= β + δ = 0. 15; ∂𝑥
=− β =− 0. 05; ∂𝑦
= 2α = 0. 08
So, that now, we can calculate for point C, once again I take point C what is it called?
Displacement dur to normal strain only so,
∂𝑢𝑥
𝑢𝑥 = ∂𝑥
𝑥 = 0. 04(1) = 0. 04
∂𝑢𝑦
𝑢𝑦 = ∂𝑦
𝑦 = 0. 08(1) = 0. 08
Now, what are the coordinates of C in deformed configuration due to normal strain only.
Similarly can applied for other points and the red boundary becomes the blue boundary this
displacement is because of normal strain only.
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Now, let us proceed to displacement due to shear strain only which mean that we have to
consider the second column.
𝑑𝑢𝑥 =
1
2 ( ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )𝑑𝑦 → ∆𝑢 = ( 𝑥
1
2
∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )∆𝑦
Now as like in the earlier case we write this as
𝑢𝑥 =
1
2 ( ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )𝑦
And similarly in the y direction we take this as
𝑢𝑦 =
1
2 ( ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )𝑥
Now let us get all the values of the gradients from the previous slides,

∂𝑥
= α = 0. 04; ∂𝑦
= β + δ = 0. 15; ∂𝑥
=− β =− 0. 05; ∂𝑦
= 2α = 0. 08
So, now, for point C which is (1, 1), displacement due to shear strain only
𝑢𝑥 =
1
2( ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )𝑦 = 1
2
(− 0. 05 + 0. 15) = 0. 05
𝑢𝑦 =
1
2 ( ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )𝑥 = 1
2
(− 0. 05 + 0. 150) = 0. 05
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So, now, what are the coordinates of C in deformed configuration due to shear strain only just
add to the original coordinate
Now, last one displacement due to rotation only. So, we should consider this column the third
column, what is expression? The difference in displacement is
𝑑𝑢𝑥 =−
1
2 ( ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
−
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )𝑑𝑦→∆𝑢 =− ( 𝑥
1
2
∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
−
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )∆𝑦
As we have done earlier lift hand side becomes 𝑢𝑥 right hand side becomes just y.
𝑢𝑥 =−
1
2 ( ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
−
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )𝑦
Let us write down for y
𝑑𝑢𝑦 =
1
2 ( ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
−
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )𝑑𝑥 → 𝑢𝑦 =
1
2 ( ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
−
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )𝑥
So, now, let us look at all the derivatives that is why we calculated all this derivatives to
begin with ok. So, we require that several times and so, it becomes handy to calculate and
keep it ready.
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∂𝑥
= α = 0. 04; ∂𝑦
= β + δ = 0. 15; ∂𝑥
=− β =− 0. 05; ∂𝑦
= 2α = 0. 08
So, once again for point C displacement due to rotation only due to rotation only
𝑢𝑥 =−
1
2 ( ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
−
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )𝑦 =− 1
2
(− 0. 05 − 0. 15) = 0. 10
𝑢𝑦 =
1
2 ( ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
−
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 )𝑥 = 1
2
(− 0. 05 − 0. 150) =− 0. 10
So, now, let us add to the original coordinates, coordinates of C in deformed configuration
due to rotation only.
Just want to mention it says deformed configuration, but says rotation only looks little
paradox because we said deformation is normal strain shear strain only, but this is a usual
nomenclature used initial configuration, final configuration, initial state, final state. So, that is
why this says deformed configuration meaning final state the blue boundary due to rotation
only.
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 = (1 + 𝑢𝑥, 1 + 𝑢𝑦) = (1 + 0. 10, 1 − 0. 10) = (1. 10, 0. 90)
So, now, what is it we have done? We have separately consider the displacement due to
normal strain, shear strain and rotation now put them together and check whether we get the
same as we get the same as we are done straight away with total displacement.
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So, let us do that that is what is shown here. Now we will discuss for point C.
Point C displacement due to normal strain only the values were 𝑢𝑥 = 0.04 and 𝑢𝑦 = 0.08. The
corresponding figures are shown here the bottom of the slide. The first figure shows for
normal strain only and the displacements were 0.04 and 0.08 that is also seen here.
Now next we consider shear strain only. So, displacement due to shear strain only were 𝑢𝑥 =
0.05 and 𝑢𝑦 = 0.05.
And thirdly we took displacement due to rotation only and the displacements were 𝑢𝑥 = 0.1
and then 𝑢𝑦 =− 0.1.
Now let us add all the displacements coordinates should not be added anyway that is not
meaning full displacement have to be added.
So, sum of displacements are 𝑢𝑥 = 0. 04 + 0. 05 + 0. 1 = 0.19 and
𝑢𝑦 = 0. 08 + 0. 05 − 0. 1 = 0.03.
This is same as what we got earlier by straight away writing total displacements and that is
what is shown here of cause same as that obtained from total displacement.
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And this is what shown in larger sized figures, this shows a pervious slide were the individual
displacements are shown in the x and y direction and the sum is also shown here. This large
figure has been obtained two times first by considering only total displacements in teams of
partial derivatives which is more mathematical, we got the coordinates of C as 1.19, 1.03.
Now, these individual figures are considering normal strain only, shear strain only, rotation
only. When we sum up all the displacements once again you get the left hand side figure, but
now by decomposing the total displacement, splitting it that into components because of
normal strain, shear strain and rotation only. So, good example to visualise what we mean by
representing a displacement gradient tensor as sum of strain tensor plus rotation tensor.
And just to like to mention about this coordinate C of course, obvious if you look at start with
normal strain, there is positive x displacement and due to shear strain also there is positive x
displacement, due to rotation also positive displacement that is way all of them get added and
you have a large positive displacement a total displacement. Now if you look at y
displacement it is positive y displacement for normal strain, again a positive y displacement
for shear strain but when you came here rotation there is a negative displacement in the y
direction.
That is why when you sum up, you get a small positive y displacement that is why if you
look at initial C and final C, large x displacement and a small y displacement of course, that
explains whatever we discussed earlier little more graphically.
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So, now we can write this statement again that
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 + 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟
Now I think we can look at it more physically geometrically instead of just looking at terms
of calculus or differentials and remember that is why in the end of the pervious discursion,
∂𝑢𝑥
we were looking at the physical significance of these terms. We said ∂𝑥
initially just a
mathematical gradient slowly we said see it represent normal strain and then we said the two
terms sum together represent shear strain and we said that we will leave it to the present and
that is what we have done now.
⎡
⎢
⎣
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑥
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑧
∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑦
∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑧
∂𝑢𝑧
∂𝑥
∂𝑢𝑧
∂𝑦
∂𝑢𝑧
∂𝑧
⎤= ⎡
⎥ ⎢
⎦ ⎣
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑥
1
2 ( ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 ) (
1
2
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑧
+
∂𝑢𝑧
∂𝑥 ) (
1
2
∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑢𝑥
∂𝑦 ) ∂𝑢𝑦
∂𝑦
So, symmetric tensor, anti symmetric tensor we have seen and strained deformation tensor,
rotation tensor, you need not even discuss in terms of tensor just understand in terms of
matrix easy for understanding.
Now kept as a kind of suspense why did we really split into two parts and that answer there
will be answered now.
Now if you take a plate and then apply a force and just let us a translates; obviously, there
will not be any internal stress it just rotates there will not be any internal stress, but now let us
say you try to pull then there is a internal stress it means that a change in length the strain and
the stress are related you try to squeeze in what happens? The shear strain and stress are
related other example would be if I just move I am translating no I do not feel any stress
inside.
If I just rotate I do not feel any stress of course, if I keep rotating I may fall feel giddy and
leave fall, but that does not mean internal stress are developed. But imagine somebody is
trying to pull me this side, pulling me that side really I will be on severe stress and that is
what exactly is happening. So, physically intuitively we can understand more mathematically
also we can say.
Physically we can see that the stress is related to the strain part only, but not to translation and
rotation. Translation we have taken care, but we have take care of rotation that is why we
separated, see this tensor on the left hand side includes rotation normal strain shear strain.
737
Based on the discursion that stress is not to be related to the rotation so, we will have to take
out this rotation part and that is what we had done now.
So, the important tensor for us or the important components for us are the components of the
strain tensor not there of the rotation tensor. Just one more point we are right now discussing
strain for solids we are discussed stress and we are going to relate these two and that we will
of course, later.
So, let us complete whatever I said
● Rigid body motion (translation and rotation) is not related to stress,

● Deformation (normal strain shear strain) is only related to stress and hence strain
tensor not displacement gradient tensor related to stress tensor.
How are we going to relate that we will see, but we should be ready with the right hand side.
Left hand side is stress tensor the right hand side is the not the displacement gradient tensor,
but the strain tensor, components of that.
So, relate stress tensor to displacement when I say displacement, it is displacement gradient
not even displacement gradient tensor, but the one part of it namely strain tensor that is a
biggest take away from this slide. I said I will tell the motivation later now the motivation
becomes very clear now, that is why as been reserved till this point that the reason for
splitting is the only one part of the displacement gradient tensor is to be related to stress.
738
And in terms of our journey to the Navier Stokes, we ready with the linear momentum
balance for fluid and we found out that the viscous stress tensor is unknown, we need to
relate it to the velocity gradients and we said to understand velocity gradients, we will take a
diversion to solid mechanics and first we understood normal strain, shear strain, rotation,
displacement gradient and now we understood this particular block which says differential
displacement is equal to deformation plus rotation.
Reason is that, this deformation or the strain tensor alone is important for us to relate to
stress. So, in terms of the plan, now that we are discussed all the concepts of soiled
mechanics, understood the displacement gradients now it’s time for us to go fluid mechanics,
discuss next two blocks and we will see how all these concepts analogously apply for the case
of fluids, what is our objective to relate the viscous stresses to velocity gradients.
Understand velocity gradients we came to solid mechanics displaced discussed displacement

gradients we go to fluid mechanics and discuss about velocity gradient. And then we will
have to relate these two that is what we do here were we relate stress to the strain and go to
fluid mechanics and relate stress to strain rate what is strain rate we will understand later. So,
when we say stress strain relationship, it is between stress and the strain tensor. Of course,
that we will understand as we go along just to give you a outline at this point.
So, let us summarise this part of the lecture alone, the components of displacement or
translation and rotation which we call as rigid body motion, normal and shear strain which we
739
call as deformation ok. In the displacement gradient tensor we have seen as a sum of strain
tensor and rotation tensor, only the deformation part of displacement is related to stress, relate
stress tensor to strain tensor, which we will take little later meaning going back to fluid
mechanics and when we come back to solid mechanics third time, we will do this.
But it now we are going back to fluid mechanics in the next lecture to discuss about velocity
gradients all the concept discussed was solid mechanics you will see that analogously can be
applied for fluid mechanics of course, there small concepts are there that we will discuss.
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Lecture - 64
Normal and Shear Strain Rate
We have derived the linear momentum balance and then, we have proceeding towards the
Navier Stokes equation. To understand the surface forces on the right hand side, we going to
solid mechanics understood stress came back to fluid mechanics understood total stress and
then we had completed the differential linear momentum balance. And then we realize that
the viscous stress tensor components are unknowns they have to be related to velocity
gradients.
To understand velocity gradients, we need to understand displacement gradients. So, we went

to solid mechanics discussed about strain and then now we are coming back to fluid
mechanics to discuss about strain rate that is where we are.
741
In terms of our journey to the Navier Stokes, we derived the differential form of the linear
momentum balance with the viscous stresses in the right hand side. They need to be related to
the velocity gradients. To understand velocity gradients we first understood displacement
gradient by taking a diversion to solid mechanics and then we discussed strain, displacement
gradient, strain tensor, rotation tensor etcetera. Now, we are going to analogously discuss
these two blocks for fluid mechanics, the highlighted two blocks are going to be discussed
now.
742
We have discussed difference between solids and fluids after our first visit to solid
mechanics. When we came back to fluid mechanics after the first visit to solid mechanics, we
discuss difference between solids and fluids. So, once again now, we are coming back to fluid
mechanics. So, we will discuss the difference between solids and fluids it will be a revision,
but we will highlight one particular aspect there. The topics which are going to follow are
analogous to what we discussed under strain when we discussed solid mechanics.
● There we discussed deformation, normal and shear strain, here we are going to
discuss rate of deformation, normal and shear strain rate.
● There we discussed displacement gradient tensor; here we are going to discuss
velocity gradient tensor,
● Then we related the strain and displacement gradient; here we are going to relate
strain rate and velocity gradient and
● There we expressed the displacement gradient tensor as sum of strain tensor and
rotation tensor. Analogously here, we are going to express the velocity gradient tensor
as sum of strain rate tensor and rotation rate tensor.
So, these four topics are almost analogous to what we discussed for strain in solid mechanics.
Let us start with the comparison of solids and fluids; we discussed the difference between
solids and fluids under two categories. First set of characteristics for which we know the
difference between solids and fluids that is what is shown here. We discussed it in terms of
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distance between adjacent molecules, molecular arrangement, strength of molecular
interaction, ability to conform to shape of container, capacity to expand without limit and
able to exhibit a free surface.
So, these differences all known to us, then we went on to discuss the difference between
solids and fluids which is from a mechanics point of view and that is this slide about. So,
when we apply a tangential force to a solid, it starts deforming and deform until the internal
stresses balance the external apply tangential force and then it stops deforming and that is
what is shown here, an undeformed state and a deformed state.
So, it goes from one equilibrium state to another equilibrium state and then it stops deforming
and so, solids can resist shear stress under static condition and that is what is shown here D C
initial state D‘ C’, the final state. And if you remove the tangential force, the solid goes back
to its original state.
Now, if you apply a tangential force for a fluid as shown in the right hand side, it starts
deforming, but now it continues to deform as long as you apply the tangential force and that
is what is shown here D C are the points at some time t. As long as you apply, D moves to D’
or D’’ C moves to C’ or C’’. So, it continuous to deform as long as you apply the tangential
force and now if you take out the tangential force, it just retains the final shape as such ok.
So, that is why we say fluids flow.
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So, now, what is the implication? because of this fluids cannot resist shear stress under static
condition. Even if apply a very small tangential force, they start moving. So, fluids cannot
resist shear stress; however, small it is under static condition, they immediately start flowing.
Now, we also discussed the difference between solids and fluids using this coaxial cylinder
arrangement.
If you have a solid between the two cylinders and then try to rotate the inner cylinder, then
the force required to rotate depends on how far the solid is deformed from an initial state. So,
there is some initial state and more you deform from the initial state, more the force is
required that is what happen in the case of solids. But in the case of fluid what happens? If
you fill a fluid between the two cylinder; now the force required to rotate in the cylinder will
now depend on how fast you rotate the cylinder so, depends on the rate of deformation.
So, in the first case in the case of solids it depended on an how far it is deform which means
depends on deformation, the force depends on deformation. In the case of fluids it depends on
how fast you rotate the cylinder and other words the force required to rotate the in the
cylinder depends on the rate of deformation that is the key difference between solids and
fluids which are going to take as a basis for further discussion.
We also shown animation to show that fluids deform continuously, there is a flow between
two parallel plates; the bottom plate is fixed the top plate is set to motion at a constant
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velocity 𝑣𝑝 and the velocity profile is linear we have come across the several times. We
identify a region of fluid and then if you focus on that region of fluid, we can easily see that it
continuously deforms as long as the plate is moving; this region continuously deforms and
that is what we say that fluids deform continuously. So, the animation shows that this region
continuously deforms of course, it replace back, but otherwise it deforms continuously.
Now, this table highlights the differences from a mechanics point of view which is of present
interest to us what are the differences response to shear stress. The key difference is that
solids resist deformation, fluids resist rate of deformation as you have seen the cylinder
example is the best example to understand this. On one case force depends on deformation;
other case the force depends on rate of deformation and we have already discuss this earlier
ability to resist small tensile stress and compressibility.
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So, now let us summarize all the differences between solids and fluids.
● Solids resists shear stress under static condition, fluids cannot resist shear stress under
static condition even for a very very small shear stress. They cannot resist shear stress
under static condition.
● Solids reach an equilibrium stage and stop deforming, fluids deform continuously and
so, we say fluid flows.
● When the tangential force is removed, solids regain original shape. Fluids do not
return to their prior shape.
● Now, the major difference which is of importance to us for the present discussion is
that the case of solids force depends on deformation, with the case of fluids force
depends on rate of deformation.
When we discussed stress for a solids and then when we came back to fluids to discuss about
total stress we took lead from the first difference and then we said fluids under static
condition have some stress when they flow their additional stress and so on.
Now, the difference which is of relevance to us is the last difference and that is why this has
been highlighted in the earlier difference the first difference was highlighted now, the last
difference highlighted and we are going to take lead from this difference. It says force
depends on deformation for solids force depends on rate of deformation for fluids.
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Now, based on this difference, we can intuitively write this table.
Solids Fluids
Deformation Rate of deformation
Translation, Rotation, Normal strain, Translation rate, Rotation rate, Normal

Shear strain strain rate, Shear strain rate
Displacement field, Displacement Velocity field, Velocity gradient

gradient
∂𝑢𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥
ϵ𝑥𝑥 = ∂𝑥
ϵ˙ = ∂𝑥
𝑥𝑥
Now, we are going to relate the normal strain rate to the velocity gradient. So, of course, we
are going discuss further slides in detail about all this, but now based on the fact that force
depends on deformation for solids and force depends on rate of deformation for fluids, we
can come up with this table.
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Now, the way in which we are going to discuss the order of topics, they are all going to be
analogous to what we discussed for strain under solid mechanics. So, some will be recall
slides, then other will be new slides for fluids. So, this is the recall slide where we defined
normal strain and then shear strain.
*
∆𝑆 −∆𝑆
ϵ𝑛(𝑃) = ∆𝑆
ϵ𝑛 > 0: 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
ϵ𝑛 < 0: 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
For normal strain, it is change in length by original length at a point we take a small line
element along direction n and the change in length by original length gives a normal strain.
π * * *
γ𝑛𝑡(𝑃) = 2
−< 𝑅 𝑃 𝑄
γ𝑛𝑡 > 0: 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
γ𝑛𝑡 < 0: 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
For the case of shear strain, we take two perpendicular line elements and then look at the
change in angle between the initial state.
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Now, we will analogously introduce two measures of rate of deformation earlier it was two
measures of deformation. When we discuss solid mechanics we said there could be change in
length, change in angle. They are quantified in terms of normal strain, shear strain. Similarly
here for the case of fluids, we are going to discuss normal strain rate and shear strain rate and
this slide is for normal strain rate.
So, how do we define normal strain rate? Earlier we have seen strain to be defined as change
in length of line element, now it is rate of change in length of line element. Of course,
normalized by the length. So, rate of change in length of line element is a normal strain rate,
you express this formally as
*
ϵ˙𝑛(𝑃) =
∆𝑆 −∆𝑆
∆𝑆
ϵ˙𝑛 > 0: 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
ϵ˙𝑛 < 0: 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Now, the last part of the definition is same as normal strain which tells about change in length
by original length. Now we need to express in terms of rate of change of length. So,
numerator tells change in length divide by ∆𝑡 gives rate of change in length of course, per
original length. And now we have two limits the first limit is as we have seen already. At a
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point we consider a small line element that is why ∆𝑠→0 and now we are divided by ∆𝑡 and
the rate is defined as the limit of ∆𝑡→0.
So, that is why you have another limit here which tells ∆𝑡→0. So, one limit makes the
definition of normal strain rate where at a point that is why ∆𝑠→0, other limit makes the
definition of normal strain rate instantaneous.
This animation shows rectangle element. Let us see what happens. If you focus on the line
element A D, its length keeps increasing with respect to time; if you focus on the line element
A B, its length keeps decreasing with time. So, this is what we mean by normal strain rate. In
one case of course, it is greater than 0 which means the length increases with time that is a
that is happening for line element along x axis. If you focus on line element along y axis ϵ˙𝑛
its length decreases with time and hence the normal strain rate is less than 0. So, this is a
simple animation.
Earlier when we were discussing solid mechanics, we were discussing yeah line element,
initial length and then final length, but now we are interested in what is the rate of change of
that length; of course, normalize, but normalize by the instantaneous length. So, same
significance, but now it is respect with respect to time and that is what you see here the length
of line segment AD keeps increasing, length of line segment AB keeps decreasing.
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So, now let us define shear strain rate ok. How do you define? Earlier we said change in
angle between two line elements; now it is rate of change in angle between two line elements.
So, let us see how do you formally define the shear strain rate.
γ˙𝑛𝑡(𝑃) =
1 π * * *
∆𝑡
[ 2 −< 𝑅 𝑃 𝑄 ]
γ˙𝑛𝑡 > 0: 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
γ˙𝑛𝑡 < 0: 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
So, the terms within bracket are the same what we have seen earlier for the definition of shear
strain and now we are interested in the rate of change of that. So, divide by ∆𝑡 and then ∆𝑡→0
and once again, we have two limits here. The first limit tells that at a point we consider two
line elements which are perpendicular to each other. So, that makes the definition of the shear
strain rate valid at a particular point and we have another limit ∆𝑡→0. So, that makes the
definition of shear strain rate valid at every instant of time.
In the case of solid mechanics, we need a definition which is valid at every point, but now we
have a definition which is valid at every point and every instant of time. And let us look at
this animation where the initially the angle BAD was ninety degrees and now the sides the
angle between AB and AD decreases, they come closer to each other and the rate at which
this angle changes is what we mean by shear strain rate.
Like to mention that the way in which you understand shear strain rate is that we consider
two line elements. Let us say sometime t and some other time t + ∆𝑡. Let us say the two line
elements become like this, they come closer to each other and now the rate of change of angle
is the shear strain rate.
And the rate at which this change happens in the limit of ∆𝑡→0 is the shear strain rate. Then
rate at which α + β changes with time is also shear strain rate either way of looking at it and
π
remember always it is the change in angle per unit time and the angle at time t is always 2
.
So, in this case the shear strain rate strictly applies only to the initial time instant not as it
progresses.
Of course, if the shear strain rate is greater than 0 which means that the two lines have come
closer towards each other; there is a decrease in angle between them with respect to time.
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And if the shear strain rate is less than 0, then the two lines have gone away from each other
which means there is increase in angle between them with respect to time. Whatever we
discussed for solids under static condition, now we are discussing as a rate.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering
Lecture - 65
Strain Rate Velocity Gradient Relation
Then we introduced displacement field and then displacement gradient tensor for solids first
for 1D, 2D and then 3D. And what was the definition of displacement gradient? We consider
two adjacent particles and then take the difference in displacement of two adjacent particles,
divide by the distance between the same particles. We have also said that the two particles
can be considered along x, y, z directions and displacements could be in x, y, z directions and
hence the displacement gradient as a tensor.
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And now let us see how do we extend that for fluids. This part is same as what we have seen
in the last slide; for solids we have
Dif f erence in displacement of two adjacent particles

Displacement gradient = Distance between the same particles
Now for the case of fluids, let us define the velocity gradient. How do we define velocity
gradient? Instead of displacement now we take velocity. So, the definition is
Dif f erence in velocity of two adjacent particles

V elocity gradient = Distance between the same particles
Now, can analogously write the velocity gradient tensor; once again it is a tensor the reason is
we can consider the particles along the x, y, z directions and the difference in velocity can be
along once again x, y, z directions resulting in a velocity gradient tensor.
V elocity gradient tensor = [ ∂v x ∂v x ∂v x ∂v y ∂v y ∂v z ∂v z ∂v z ∂v z

∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂y ]
Other way of explaining is that velocity itself is a vector, there are three components. Now,
you are looking at the gradient of that velocity component that could be in three directions
resulting in a tensor; velocity in three directions, the gradient in three directions, resulting in
9 combinations of directions, resulting in a velocity gradient tensor.
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Then what we did in solid mechanics was having discussed strain and discussed displacement
field, displacement gradient. We expressed strain in terms of displacement gradient and we
are going to repeat the same exercise here. But now find relationship between strain rate and
then velocity gradient. This is the diagram which we have discussed to relate strain and then
displacement gradient where we initially took a two dimensional plate or a two dimensional
region of length ∆x ∆y and then the subjected to a force.
And so, there was translation, rotation, normal strain, shear strain meaning change in length
and change in angle as well. So, PQRS became P*Q*R* S*. And, you also noted the
displacements of all the points. For example, ux |x,y is the x displacement of P and ux |x+∆x, y is
a x displacement of Q and uy |x,y is a y displacement of P, uy |x+∆x,y is a y displacement of Q.
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And, we derive the relationship between normal strain displacement gradient. So, let us
quickly recall that so that we can easily understand the relationship between normal strain
rate and velocity gradient which we are going to derive in the next slide. Normal strain is
defined as change in length by original length we are considering a line element along x axis
and hence it is
|P * Q* |−|P Q|
εxx = |P Q|
Then we said we are going to assume infinitesimal rotation.
[(x+∆x+ux |x+∆x,y )−(x+ux |x,y )]−∆x

εxx = ∆x
So, we said the length of P*Q* is same as the projected length of P*Q*. So, length of P*Q*
becomes the difference in the x coordinate of Q* and then P*.
Now, ∆x cancels out and we are left with
[ux |x+∆x,y −ux |x,y ]

εxx = ∆x
When you take limit ∆x→0 we get
∂ux
εxx = ∂x
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So, what we have done is related normal strain to the displacement gradient. Now, see
analogously we derived relationship between shear strain and displacement gradient where
we derived
∂uy ∂ux
γ xy = α + β = ∂x
+ ∂y
We also derived relationship for rigid body rotation and we defined that as average of
rotations of two perpendicular line segments. We took into account the sign as well and we
got the expression
ω xy = ω z = 1
2 ( ∂uy
∂x
−
∂ux
∂y )
So, one is anti-clockwise other is clockwise. So, we take in account the sense of rotation.
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So, now we are ready to derive the relationship between strain rate and velocity gradient. The
same figure has shown here just colored in blue to get a feel that we are looking at a fluid
element. Let us see how do we derive
The normal strain rate is rate of change of length per unit length. Change of length per unit
length this normal strain; rate of change of length per unit length is the normal strain rate.
How do we understand this normal strain rate so, that it will be easy to derive.
dL
1 dL
L dt
= L
dt
Suppose if you have a rod and just imagine that the length keeps increasing, then at any
instant of time the rate of change of length divide by the instantaneous length is the normal
strain rate. Or let us say there is a thread whose length keeps increasing with time, then how
dL
do you define normal strain rate? The rate at which that length changes which is dt .
The nomenclature is shown here divide by the instantaneous length, length at any instant of
time that is the normal strain rate. Now, we are going to apply this for this small line segment
PQ; let us do that. So,
D∆x
1 D∆x
ε˙ xx = ∆x Dt
= ∆x
Dt
Now instead of L, I have written this expression in terms of ∆x because ∆x equivalent to our
D
L. Now the D which is used here is capital Dt , the reason is this derivatives taken following
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the fluid motion. Remember the this line PQ is in a fluid and the rate of change of its length is
determined by following its motion along with the fluid that is why we take a substantial
D
derivative Dt .
Now, you can express this as,
* *
1 |P Q |−|P Q|
ε˙ xx = lim
∆t→0 ∆t |P Q|
So, this is the expression for the normal strain rate for a line element along the x direction.
So, now, let us express this change in length by original length exactly as we have done
earlier. So, this expression is exactly same as what we have done earlier in terms of
displacements.
1 [(x+∆x+ux |x+∆x,y )−(x+ux |x,y )]−∆x

ε˙ xx = lim∆t ∆x
∆t→0
Now the difference comes, remember these are in terms of displacement that is why we had a
quick recall of derivation of normal strain. Now these expressions are in terms of
displacement, we will have to express in terms of velocities. So, we will express the
displacements in terms of velocity into ∆t , we consider small time interval ∆t over the time
interval, we express the displacement as the velocity into ∆t that velocity is some average
value over the ∆t .
1 [(x+∆x+vx |x+∆x,y ∆t)−(x+vx |x,y ∆t)]−∆x

ε˙ xx = lim ∆t ∆x
∆t→0
So, ux |x+∆x,y is expressed as v x |x+∆x,y ∆t . Now, x cancels out, ∆x cancels out and then we have
1 [v x |x+∆x,y −v x |x,y ]∆t

ε˙ xx = lim ∆t ∆x
∆t→0
Now of course, ∆t cancels out and this becomes
∂v x
ε˙ xx = ∂x
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Now, you are taking limit ∆t→0 which means that the velocities become instantaneous
values that is the difference between the two steps, when you cancel out ∆t and when you
are taking ∆t→0 . These two velocities were average velocities over some time interval ∆t ,
but now we are taking ∆t→0 so, they become instantaneous values. So now, this gradient of
velocity is gradient of instantaneous velocities and as we expect this relationship is valid at
every instant of time and also at every special location.
So, the relationship between the normal strain rate and velocity gradient is given by
∂v x
ε˙ xx = ∂x
If you compare with the corresponding relationship for solids which is normal strain is equal
to the displacement gradient ok. So, if you want to let us say vaguely say, it is just time
derivative on both sides that is a little crude way of saying the time derivatives of course,
substantial time derivative.
So, one way it is just time derivative on both sides this I would say crude view point will help
us to extend analogously all the relationship. Though we have done the derivation in detail,
this will help us to understand and write the expressions analogously. Of course, this
animation has been going on which shows which I have seen already shows the that the
length of line segment AD keeps increasing and length of line segment AB keeps decreasing.
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This rewritten from the last slide normal strain rate
∂v x
ε˙ xx = ∂x
Now, as we have discussed we can now quickly write the expression for shear strain rate
which is γ̇ xy shear strain rate.
∂v y ∂v x
γ̇ xy = ∂x
+ ∂y
So, once we understand that is just time derivative for quick understanding, then we can
analogously write all the expressions. You can also introduce
ε˙ xy =
γ̇xy
2
= 1
2 ( ∂v y
∂x
+
∂v x
∂y )
And, of course, we have this animation. So, one for normal strain rate the left hand side and
the right hand side is for shear strain rate; one for normal strain rate, the left hand side. The
right hand side is to illustrate shear strain rate and one in which the length keeps increasing or
decreasing other in which the angle decreases with respect to time.
Once again want to mention that the shear strain rate is always with reference to two line
elements which are perpendicular to each other. So, only the initial a time let us say whatever
time t where we have two perpendicular line segments and the angle decreased between the
two line elements that rate of change of angle is a shear strain rate. It is not applicable
throughout the motion of the fluid element.
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We can also relate rotation rate and then velocity gradient. We said for the case of rotation,
we define it as average of rotation of two perpendicular line segments. Now, it is very simple
average of rate of rotation of two perpendicular line segments. What does it mean? lets say if
you consider two line segments P Q and R S which are perpendicular to each other, rate at
which P Q rotates plus rate at which P R rotates average of these two is the rotation rate. Of
course, taking into account the sense of rotation so, rotation rate is
ω˙ xy = 1
2 ( ∂v y
∂x
− ∂v x
∂y )
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Lecture - 66
Volumetric Strain Rate
Then we discussed about volumetric strain in solid mechanics and then related the volumetric
strain to the displacement gradients.
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Volumetric strain is the fractional change in volume which is

V olumetric strain = V olume bef ore def ormation
Or change in volume by original volume, something similar to our definition for normal
strain. And we took this cuboidal element and proved that the volumetric strain is the sum of
the three displacement gradients which we expressed as divergence of the displacement field.
∂ux ∂uy ∂uz

∇.u = ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
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Now, analogously we can relate the volumetric strain rate to the velocity gradients, let us see
how do we do that. First let us define volumetric strain rate. For volumetric strain, it was
change of volume per unit volume and so the volumetric strain rate is rate of change of
volume per unit volume.

V olumetric strain = V olume bef ore def ormation
This definition we have seen just now for a volumetric strain as fractional change in volume
which we have seen as the sum of these three displacement gradients.
So, now, analogously for the case of fluids, the volumetric strain rate which is the fractional
rate of change of volume. So, volumetric strain is change in volume per unit volume. And
volumetric strain rate is rate at which this happens.
Just like we had some of the sum of three displacement gradients, we will now have sum of
these three velocity gradients
∂v x ∂v y ∂v z
V olumetric srain rate = ∇.v = ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
Just like in the case of normal strain rate and shear strain rate, we had for the case of solids,
for example, normal strain in terms of displacement gradient, left hand side normal strain
became normal strain rate, right hand side became velocity gradient. Similarly, here we have
volumetric strain in terms of displacement gradient and so, volumetric strain rate in terms of
velocity gradient, same expression, replace the displacements with the corresponding
velocities. And just like we expressed the fractional change in volume as divergence of
displacement field, we can express the volumetric strain rate in terms of divergence of the
velocity field.
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So, now, we have come across divergence of velocity earlier, once again we are coming
across divergence of velocity. So, now, there are two viewpoints or two ways of discussing
the physical significance of divergence. And so we are going to discuss the physical
significance of divergence from two viewpoints that is the objective now. As we have said
divergence of velocity has two physical significance, what are they? first, we derived the
continuity equation and express that in terms of vectorial form in this way.
∂ρ
∂t + ∇.ρv = 0
What is the significance of the two terns in the continuity equation or the differential total
mass balance? The first term represents time rate of change of mass per unit volume, second
term, either vectorially as divergence of ρv vector, ∇.ρv or sum of these three terms that
represents net rate of flow of mass out by convection per unit volume. So, divergence of ρv
vector, ∇.ρv represents net rate at which mass flows out by convection per unit volume. So,
if you take ∇.v , that represents net rate of flow of volume of fluid.
In the case of ∇.ρv , it was mass, but in ∇.v same physical significance, instead of mass it
is volume. Now, this gives physical significance of ∇.v from a Eulerian view point, we have
a small region. And ∇.v represents net rate of flow of volume of fluid leaving by convection
per unit volume. Now, we have seen in alternate view point for ∇.v , the previous slide
767
which is fractional rate of change of volume. So, we can interpret ∇.v also as fractional rate
of change of volume.
What does it mean? If you have a fluid element and let us say if you are following the fluid
element, the rate of change of volume of that fluid element of course per unit volume is
represented by ∇.v . So, another physical significance of ∇.v is that, the rate of change of
volume of a fluid element as you follow the fluid element of course, normalized per unit
volume and this significance of ∇.v is from a Lagrangian view point.
First one was in terms of an Eulerian view point; this physical significance is from a
Lagrangian view point. So, ∇.v can be expressed both from a Eulerian view point which is
what we already discussed when we discuss the continuity equation, the new view point is
from a Lagrangian view point and that is the fractional rate of change of volume of a fluid
element.
Why is it Lagrangian? Remember when we discussed about normal strain rate, shear strain
D
rate, similarly volumetric strain rate, all the derivatives are substantial derivatives Dt . So, all
the derivatives are following the fluid motion and that is why ∇.v , the fractional rate of
change of volume represents that we would observe if we follow a fluid element.
Now, having understood ∇.v , the divergence of velocity vector in two different viewpoints.
What we will do is express the continuity equation for a material particle view point, actually
768
we have done this earlier for the linear momentum balance this slide is a recall slide. We
derived the linear momentum balance from a Eulerian view point and then did some simple
rearrangements for the terms in the left hand side and that is what is shown here.
Dv x ∂p ∂τ xx ∂τ yx ∂τ zx
ρ Dt
= ρg x − ∂x
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
So, we re-express the linear momentum balance from a material particle point of view. Why
is that, the left hand side is now in terms of mass per unit volume times the acceleration of the
fluid particle. So, the left hand side now is in terms of a Lagrangian viewpoint. So, the same
linear momentum balance, we expressed from a material particle view point and discuss the
significance as well. And now what we are going to do is express the equation of continuity
from a material particle view point.
So, let us look at the Eulerian representation. So, this is the equation of continuity which we
have derived when we derived the conservation equation for total mass, the differential form
of that.
∂ρ ∂(ρv x ) ∂(ρv y ) ∂(ρv z )

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
You can also express the continuity equation in terms of divergence.
∂ρ
∂t + ∇.ρv = 0
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And what is the significance, the first term represents time rate of change of mass per unit
volume, second term represents net rate of flow of mass out by convection per unit volume
that we have seen again.
How do you represent the Lagrangian form? As we have done for the linear momentum
balance, remember, when we do in material particle view point. When you express the linear
momentum balance in material particle view point, we are we rearranged the left hand side
only that transient term and then the convection term right hand side was still the sum of
forces acting. So, let us take the equation of continuity
∂ρ ∂(ρv x ) ∂(ρv y ) ∂(ρv z )

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
. Let us apply product rule.
∂(v y )
∂ρ
∂t
+ ρ ∂(v
∂x
x)
+ v x ∂(ρ)
∂x
+ρ ∂y
+ v y ∂(ρ)
∂y
+ ρ ∂(v
∂z
z)
+ v z ∂(ρ)
∂z
=0
So, let us group terms together
∂ρ
∂t
+ v x ∂(ρ)
∂x
+ v y ∂(ρ)
∂y
+ v z ∂(ρ)
∂z
+ρ ( ∂(v x )
∂x
+
∂(v y )
∂y
+
∂(v z )
∂z )=0
Let us rewrite that last equation here, and then we will be able to easily identify terms of
physical significance.
770
∂ρ
∂t
+ vx
∂(ρ)
∂x
+ vy
∂(ρ)
∂y
+ vz
∂(ρ)
∂z
+ρ ( ∂(v x )
∂x
+
∂(v y )
∂y
+
∂(v z )
∂z )=0
We will do a small rearrangement, so that we can write the physical significance of the terms.
1
ρ ( ∂ρ
∂t
+ v x ∂(ρ)
∂x
+ v y ∂(ρ)
∂y
+ v z ∂(ρ)
∂z
=− ) ( ∂(v x )
∂x
+
∂(v y )
∂y
+
∂(v z )
∂z )
Now, we can easily identify that left hand side four terms together constitute the substantial
derivative of density. So,
1 Dρ
ρ Dt
=− ∇.v
So, what we did is, took the continuity equation which we have derived, applied product rule
then simple rearrangement and then we could get you could express the continuity equation
from a Lagrangian point of view or a material particle point of view. Why is it Lagrangian,
Dρ
because we have Dt on the left hand side which is substantial derivative which is derivative
following a fluid particle.
So, in terms of significance, what was the left hand side tell us, fractional rate of change of
Dρ
density of the fluid particle. Why is it fractional rate of change of density, we have Dt is rate
Dρ
of change of density of fluid particle, why is it, because it is Dt it is fractional because we
1
have ρ . So, left hand side represents fractional rate of change of density of fluid particle.
Right hand side we have seen just few slides back that ∇.v represents fractional rate of
change of volume of fluid particle.
So, now, look at the significance, both the left hand side and right hand side corresponds to a
fluid particle. Left hand side represents fractional rate of change of density, right hand side
fractional rate of change of volume of both correspond to a fluid particle. So, as you follow a
fluid particle, what is it rate of change of density, that is what is given by this equation of
continuity expressed in this form.
So, what does it imply, change in density of fluid particle. So, when you look at this equation
of continuity, you should imagine that we are following a fluid particle and looking at it is
rate of change of density ok. So, change in density of a fluid particle is entirely due to
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changes in its volume, because of change in volume its density changes. Or density changes
attributed to the change in volume.
Now, if the volume of fluid particle does not change, what does it mean, you are tracking the
fluid particle and the volume of the fluid particle does not change. What can we conclude, if
you look at the right hand side, the fractional rate of change of volume which is ∇.v = 0 .
Then of course, the flow is incompressible.
So, this is the very physically meaningful definition of incompressible flow. What is that, if
you follow a fluid particle and if its volume does not change, then we say the flow is
incompressible and the condition is
∂(v x ) ∂(v y ) ∂(v z )

∇.v = ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
And we already discussed incompressible flow. So, let us compare both the conditions. This
slide is a recall slide which we are discussed already. The continuity equation,
∂ρ ∂(ρv x ) ∂(ρv y ) ∂(ρv z )

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
And then we discussed two special cases;
● One is for steady compressible flow,
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∂(ρv x ) ∂(ρv y ) ∂(ρv z )
∇.ρv = ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
● Another one is incompressible flow. We said for incompressible flow, density is not a
function of time or space.
∂(v x ) ∂(v y ) ∂(v z )

∇.v = ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
This same condition which we have discussed now as ∇.v = 0 and we said density is not a
Dρ
function of space or time which means Dt
= 0 . So, both the conditions are equivalent.
First we said the condition for incompressible flow in terms of density, as density not varying
with time or space and hence arrived at ∇.v = 0 and we said that is a incompressible flow.
Now, once again we arrive at the same condition ∇.v = 0 in a more physically meaningful
way, because ∇.v represents fractional rate of change of volume of fluid particle. And if the
volume does not change, then it is incompressible flow.
Dρ
And when ∇.v = 0 then Dt
= 0 , which is in line with our earlier condition that density is
not a function of time or space. So, we have discussed the condition for incompressible flow
in two different ways.
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Lecture - 67
Velocity Gradient Tensor
In case of solid mechanics, we moved on further to look at the components of displacement

or look at the different components of total displacement that we did by getting an expression
for displacement gradient tensor in two different ways. The first method was more
mathematical, the second one the expression was derived by considering the different
components of displacement. So, the next few slides are recall slides which we have
discussed under solid mechanics.
So, this slide shows the derivation for displacement gradient tensor using the first method
which is the mathematical method. So, we consider the two particles, looked at the difference
in displacement and expressing the total derivative in terms of partial derivatives.
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We could express the relationship between dux , duy , duz in terms of dx , dy , dz and the
tensor relating these two is the displacement gradient tensor. So, this is the first method in
which we arrived at the displacement gradient tensor, the more mathematical way.
[dux duy duz ] = [ ∂u∂x

x ∂ux ∂ux ∂uy ∂uy ∂uy ∂uz ∂uz ∂uz
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ] [dx dy dz ]
Second what we did was we looked at the components of total displacement. We consider
normal strain only, shear strain only, rotation only.
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∆ ux εxx ∆x εxy ∆y + εzx ∆z − ω xy ∆y + ω zx ∆z
∆ uy εyy ∆y εyz ∆z + εxy ∆x − ωyz ∆z + ω xy ∆x
∆ uz εzz ∆z εzx ∆x + εyz ∆y − ω zx ∆x + ω yz ∆y
And, then once again got an expression between dux , duy , duz and dx , dy , dz and the
second way was more physical because we consider the normal strain, shear strain and then
rotation.
[dux duy duz ] = [εxx εxy εxz εxy εyy εyz εzx εyz εzz ] [dx dy dz ] + [0 − ωxy ωxz ωxy 0 − ωyz − ωzx ωyz 0 ] [dx dy d
[dux duy duz ] = [ ∂u∂x ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ] [dx
1 ∂uy ∂ux 1 ∂ux ∂uz 1 ∂uy ∂ux ∂uy 1 ∂uz ∂uy 1 ∂ux ∂uz 1 ∂uz ∂uy ∂uz
x
2 ∂x + ∂y 2 ∂z + ∂x 2 ∂x + ∂y ∂y 2 ∂y + ∂z 2 ∂z + ∂x 2 ∂y + ∂z ∂z
So, this equation shows the relationship between dux , duy , duz and dx , dy , dz obtain by
the using the mathematical method, the first method. And, these two are the equations obtain
using the second method where we considered the components of total displacement one at a
time namely normal strain, shear strain and then rotation and here the equation is in terms of
the component of the two tensors. Now, from these two equations we could write that the
displacement gradient tensor is a sum of these two tensors.
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So, the displacement gradient tensor is a sum of a two tensors.

∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ]=[ ∂ux 1
∂x 2 ( ∂uy
∂x + ∂ux
∂y ) (
1
2
∂ux
∂z + ∂uz
∂x ) (
1
2
∂uy
∂x + ∂ux
∂y ) ∂uy 1
∂y 2 ( ∂uz
∂y +
∂uy
∂z ) (
1
2
The first one was symmetric, second one was antisymmetric. The first one was called as the
strain or deformation tensor, second one we called as the rotation tensor. So, what we have
done is split the displacement gradient tensor into two tensors; a strain tensor and a rotation
tensor. Objective was to separate the rigid body motion from the deformation. We looked at
difference in displacement so that translation is taken care. To remove the rotation part, we
considered each of the component separately namely normal strain, shear strain, rotation
separately, include the normal strain and shear strain into the strain tensor. And so, the other
tensor just represents the rotation component.
So, by doing so we have separated the rotation component from the deformation component
that is what is shown here displacement consists of rigid body motion and deformation. Rigid
body motion consists of translation and rotation, translation has been taken care by taking
difference in displacement and now rotation has been separated. And so, we are left with only
normal strain and shear strain in the deformation or strain tensor.
777
Now, analogously we will express the velocity gradient tensor in terms of two tensors. Here
again it is done by deriving an expression for the velocity gradient tensor in two different
ways; one the mathematical way the other by splitting into components; the normal strain
rate, shear strain rate and the rotation rate. The case of fluids, we will just rederive the first
method the mathematical way alone, second one we will just analogously express it.
So, now what is it we are going to do now? We are going to derive the expression for velocity
gradient tensor using the first method which is the mathematical way. Now what we do for
that? We consider two points P and Q, the coordinates are of P are x, y, z coordinates of Q
are x + dx , y + dy , z + dz . So, they are two neighboring points in the fluid domain, velocity
of fluid at point P let us denote by v P also equal to the velocity field at x, y, z.
v P = v (x, y, z)
Now, if velocity of fluid at point Q will denote it as v Q and which is equal to the velocity
field at x + dx , y + dy , z + dz .
v Q = v (x + dx , y + dy , z + dz)
Now, let us look at the difference in velocities. Difference between the velocities a two
neighboring points which we denote as
dv = v (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) − v (x, y, z)
778
So, to proceed further we will write in terms of the components; let us write it for the x
direction
dv x = v x (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) − v x (x, y, z)
So, this tells the vectorial difference in velocities between two neighboring points. Now, let
us take the v x (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) and expand that in Taylor series, some multivariable
Taylor series because the function of three variables x, y, z.
v x (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) = v x (x, y, z) + ∂x
dx + ∂y
dy + ∂z
dz
So, if you substitute this Taylor series expansion in the previous equation,
dv x = ∂x
dx + ∂y
dy + ∂z
dz
So, what this tells you is dv x is the total difference in x component of velocity with in the
two points that has been expressed in terms of the partial derivatives. Other way of looking at
it is expressing the total derivative in terms of partial derivative; two ways of looking at it.
Let us repeat this for the other directions. Let us write for dv x , dv y and then dv z ,
dv x = ∂x
dx + ∂y
dy + ∂z
dz
∂v y ∂v y ∂v y
dv y = ∂x
dx + ∂y
dy + ∂z
dz
779
∂v z ∂v z ∂v z
dv z = ∂x
dx + ∂y
dy + ∂z
dz
Now, express them in terms of a matrix,
[dvx dvy dvz ] = [ ∂v∂x

x ∂v x ∂v x ∂v y ∂v y ∂v y ∂v z ∂v z ∂v z
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ] [dx dy dz ]
So, left hand side, we have the column vector dv x , dv y and then dv z , and right hand side,
we have dx, dy, dz and then the matrix which relates these two vectors is the velocity
gradient tensor. Why is it a tensor? First velocity has three directions. Now we are looking at
the gradient of the velocity, this gradient can be along three directions. So, totally giving us 9
combinations of directions and hence it is a velocity gradient tensor.
So, what is that we have done now is derived an expression for the velocity gradient tensor by
using the first method which is the more mathematical method. We are not going to derive
the expression using the second method we will straight away write analogously from our
knowledge in solid mechanics.
That is what is shown here though. So, this equation is from the previous slide expressing
velocity gradient tensor using the first method.
[dvx dvy dvz ] = [ ∂v∂x

x ∂v x ∂v x ∂v y ∂v y ∂v y ∂v z ∂v z ∂v z
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ] [dx dy dz ]
780
Now, if you follow a approach similar to what we have done for solid mechanics as we had in
the second method, what is it? Considering normal strain rate separately, shear strain rate
separately, rotation rate separately, then we will be able to write this equation.
[dvx dvy dvz ] = [ε˙ xx ε˙ xy ε˙ xz ε˙ xy ε˙ yy ε˙ yz ε˙ zx ε˙ yz ε˙ zz ] [dx dy dz ] + [0 − ω̇ xy ω˙ xz ω˙ xy 0 − ω̇ yz − ω̇ zx ω˙ yz 0 ] [dx dy

This also relates dv x , dv y , dv z in terms of dx, dy, dz, but splits into two tensors. And the
next equation writes this equation in terms of components.
[dvx dvy dvz ] = [ ∂v∂x ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

1 ∂v y ∂v x 1 ∂v x ∂v z 1 ∂v y ∂v x ∂v y 1 ∂v z ∂v y 1 ∂v x ∂v z 1 ∂v z ∂v
x
2 ∂x + ∂y 2 ∂z + ∂x 2 ∂x + ∂y ∂y 2 ∂y + ∂z 2 ∂z + ∂x 2 ∂y + ∂z
So, now based on this equation and these equations, we can write the velocity gradient tensor
as sum of these two tensors and that is what is shown in the next slide.
The velocity gradient tensor that is in the left hand side is equal to sum of two tensors.
[ ∂v x ∂v x ∂v x ∂v y ∂v y ∂v y ∂v z ∂v z ∂v z
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ]=[ ∂v x 1
∂x 2 ( ∂v y
∂x +
∂v x
∂y ) (
1
2
∂v x
∂z +
∂v z
∂x ) ( 1
2
∂v y
∂x +
∂v x
∂y ) ∂v y 1
∂y 2 ( ∂v z
∂y +
∂v y
∂z ) (
1
2
The first one is a symmetric tensor as we can see the off diagonal elements are same the
symmetric tensor. And, the second tensor is antisymmetric because the off diagonal elements
are say of same magnitude opposite in sign; and how do we name them? In the case of solids
we call it as strain tensor because it contained information about deformation namely normal
strain and shear strain.
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Now, this tensor now contains information about rate of deformation namely normal strain
rate and shear strain rate. All the diagonal elements represent the normal strain rate and the
off diagonal elements represent the shear strain rate by 2. So, we call this strain rates the
strain rate tensor. Of course, the second tensor was called as rotation tensor for a solids now
for the case of fluids it is the rotation rate tensor. So, we have split the velocity gradient
tensor into the strain rate tensor and the rotation rate tensor just like we expressed the
displacement gradient tensor as some of strain tensor and rotation tensor. So, this slide is that
way analogues to what we have discussed for solids.
Other names are there, we have seen deformation in solids is analogues to rate of deformation
in fluids. So, other name is rate of deformation tensor and all this second tensor is also called
as rate of rotation tensor. In terms of more popular terminology strain rate tensor is more
popular and then rate of rotation tensor is more popular.
We will introduce some nomenclature so; that it will becomes handy for us later on. The
velocity gradient tensor left hand side is L, right hand side that the rate of deformation tensor
is D and rate of rotation tensor is W. D is used so, that represents deformation we use omega
for rotation. So, we are using capital W for tensor.
L=D+W
Where,
L = S train rate tensor = [ ∂v x ∂v x ∂v x ∂v y ∂v y ∂v y ∂v z ∂v z ∂v z

∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ]
Similarly,
D= [ ∂v x 1
∂x 2 ( ∂v y
∂x +
∂v x
∂y ) ( 1
2
∂v x
∂z +
∂v z
∂x ) ( 1
2
∂v y
∂x +
∂v x
∂y ) ∂v y 1
∂y 2 ( ∂v z
∂y +
∂v y
∂z ) ( 1
2
∂v x
∂z +
∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v z
∂y +
∂v y
∂z ) ∂v z
∂z ]
[
W = 0 − 1
2 ( ∂v y
∂x − ∂v x
∂y ) (
1
2
∂v x
∂z − ∂v z
∂x ) ( 1
2
∂v y
∂x − ∂v x
∂y )0− ( 1
2
∂v z
∂y −
∂v y
∂z ) − 1
2 ( ∂v x
∂z − ∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v z
∂y −
∂v y
∂z ) 0]
Now, whatever follows is once again analogues to what we discuss for solid mechanics.
Rigid body motion of fluid is not related to viscous stress. What is that mean? Remember our
objective was to relate the viscous stress tensor to the velocity gradient and then to
understand velocity gradient, we went to solid mechanics understood displacement gradient.
We come back to fluid mechanics to and then discussed about rate of deformation velocity
gradient etcetera.
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Now, what is that that has to be related to the viscous stress? Based on the discussion on solid
mechanics and now for fluids also, the rigid body motion of fluid what is that the entire body
just translating and then the entire body rotating is not related to the viscous stress. When a
fluid body just translates and then just rotates there are no internal viscous stresses developed.
So, that is not related to the viscous stress. So, this tensor is not related to the viscous stress.
Rate of deformation of fluid which is which includes normal and shear strain rate that only is
related to the viscous stress. So, the first tensor is what is related to the viscous stress.
Whenever there is normal strain rate, shear strain rate; then we have viscous stresses. So, we
have to relate the rate of deformation of fluid and viscous stress which means that strain rate
tensor and not velocity gradient tensor related to the viscous stress tensor. We said we need to
relate the viscous stresses to velocity.
Then we said velocity gradient, but now we are saying it is not the entire velocity gradient
only a part of it which is the strain rate tensor or the rate of deformation tensor. Why is that?
Because, velocity gradient tensor also includes the rate of rotation tensor, but we have seen
that the viscous stress tensor is not related to the viscous stresses are not related to the rate of
rotation just like we discussed for solids. Remember we said if you have a solid under just
translate just rotates, there are no internal stresses. But if you pull a solid and then and then
change the angle of a solid, then internal stresses are developed ok. So, that is why the normal
strain shear strain was related to the stress.
Similarly here whenever there is normal we have a fluid element that length keeps increasing
angle between two line elements keeps changing, then viscous stresses are developed in
fluids. So, the strain rate tensor not the velocity gradient tensor is related to the viscous stress
tensor. And so, the last line we need to relate viscous stress tensor to velocity that is what we
said. A better way of saying is to velocity gradient is a still more process way of saying is
related to the strain rate tensor. So, we need to relate the viscous stress tensor to the strain rate
tensor.
783
So, like to discuss a terminology which we have not mentioned so far namely fluid
kinematics. If you look at fluid mechanics books, fluid kinematics is discussed among the
first or second chapters. Let us look at the definition fluid kinematics deals with describing
the motion of fluids without necessarily considering the forces that cause the motion. So, just
talks about motion of fluids, does not give importance or pay attention to what causes the
fluid motion or the forces which causes the fluid motion.
So, what are the topics which are discussed under fluid kinematics?
● The Lagrangian, Eulerian approaches of describing flow,

● Substantial derivative,
● Visualization of flow patterns; namely Streamlines, Pathlines and Streaklines,
● Distinction between system and control volume,
● Reynolds transport theorem and then
● Decomposition of fluid motion.
What is decomposition of fluid motion, that is expressing the velocity gradient tensor in
terms of the strain rate tensor and then the rotation rate tensor which means that we are
decomposing the fluid motion into deformation and then rotation.
The way in which we have discussed is we have discussed all these topics under that heading
fundamental concepts at the beginning of the course just like any fluid mechanics book could
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do, but based on the organization of the course, we have discussed this decomposition of
fluid motion just now under when we are discussing strain rate for fluids. So, but these topic
put together all come under the heading of fluid kinematics or kinematics of fluid motion.
So, what is fluid dynamics? Fluid kinematics within focus on the forces; so, fluid dynamics
deals with the analysis of specific forces necessary to produce the motion of fluid. Fluid
kinematics we dealt only with motion of fluid without considering the forces. Fluid dynamics
we pay attention to the forces which cause the motion of fluid.
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Lecture - 68
Strain Rate: Example 1
We are discussing Strain Rate in Fluid Mechanics and we have discussed these topics, we
started distinguishing fluids from solids and found that deformations for solids and rate of
deformation for fluids and rate of deformation could be in terms of normal and shear strain
rate and we also discussed about the rate of rotation, and introduced the velocity gradient
tensor, analogous to the displacement gradient tensor for solids and then we related strain rate
to the velocity gradient and then finally, expressed the velocity gradient tensor as sum of
strain rate tensor and rotation rate tensor, which we called as a decomposition of fluid motion.
786
Now, we look at applications or examples where we evaluate them, interpret them physically,
that is the objective. So, let us take the first example.
So, let us take this example on Planar Couette flow which is well known to us. We have two
plates, and the top plate is moving at a velocity of 𝑣𝑝. So, planar Couette flow in the narrow
gap between large parallel plates is shown. The velocity field in narrow gap is given by
𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑥 = ℎ
𝑦
Here, 𝑣𝑝 is the velocity with the plate and h is the vertical distance between the two plates,
where given the velocity with the plate as 𝑣𝑝 = 4 millimeter per second and the height to be
ℎ = 4 millimeter.
So, now at time t = 0 line segments ac and bd are marked in the fluid to form a cross as
shown. So, we are going to track these lines. That is what is shown here, ac is the horizontal
line and bd is the vertical line and evaluate the positions of the marked points at t equal to 1.5
seconds and sketch for comparison.
So, how will the position of a, b, c, d look like after 1.5 seconds; And we will also has to
calculate the rate of angular deformation and the rate of rotation of a fluid particle in this
velocity field And then comment on your results.
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So, now the coordinates of a, b, c, d are given, a is (1, 2), and c is (3, 2). Same y-coordinate
and differing in x-coordinate. And compare for the vertical line bd, the coordinates are (2, 3)
and (2, 1) of course, x-coordinate is same and differing in the y-coordinate. So, what you
should imagine is as if you have a color dye and then marking this is the lines line at time t =
0.
Now, we ask to find out coordinates after 1.5 seconds. So, let us do that. So, how do you find
coordinate? The original coordinate plus the displacement which is happened during the time
1.5 second, that is all we will have to do.
𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑥 = ℎ
𝑦; 𝑣𝑦 = 0
So, in this case, there is only the x component of velocity, there is no y component of
velocity.
Now, let us take at a point a (1, 2), and the velocity will be
𝑣𝑝 4 𝑚𝑚
𝑣𝑥 = ℎ
𝑦= 4
𝑥2 = 2 𝑠
I said taking numerically 𝑣𝑝 and h are equal gives as the velocity at a point as numerically
equal to the y-coordinate.
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So, if you look at this 4 points, the velocity depends only on the y-coordinate. Not only that
because of this particular example numerical values chosen the velocity is same as the
y-coordinate. So, you can quickly get to know the velocity from the coordinates. So,
𝑣𝑝 4 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎(1, 2), 𝑣𝑥 = ℎ
𝑦= 4
𝑥2 = 2 𝑠
𝑣𝑝 4 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐(3, 2), 𝑣𝑥 = ℎ
𝑦= 4
𝑥2 = 2 𝑠
𝑣𝑝 4 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑏(2, 3), 𝑣𝑥 = ℎ
𝑦= 4
𝑥3 = 3 𝑠
𝑣𝑝 4 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑(2, 1), 𝑣𝑥 = ℎ
𝑦= 4
𝑥1 = 1 𝑠
The point a moves horizontally at a velocity of 2 millimeter per second. Point c also moves at
the same velocity 2 millimeter per second because they are at the same y-coordinate.
But if you compare b and d, b moves at 3 millimeter per second which is at a higher velocity
of course, because it is closer to the plate which is moving and if you look at d is moving at 1
millimeter per second which is closer to the stationary plate. So, now 𝑣𝑥 is numerically equal
to y-coordinate. That will be easier to understand as we go along.
So, now, as I said we will have to find out the displacement of point a in 1.5 second is the
velocity into the time, so
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎 𝑖𝑛 1. 5 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 2𝑥1. 5 = 3 𝑚𝑚
Similarly,
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑏 𝑖𝑛 1. 5 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 3𝑥1. 5 = 4. 5 𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐 𝑖𝑛 1. 5 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 2𝑥1. 5 = 3 𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑 𝑖𝑛 1. 5 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 1𝑥1. 5 = 1. 5 𝑚𝑚
So, after 1.5 second what are the coordinates of point a,
' ' '

𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎(1, 2) = 𝑎 (1 + 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 2 + 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡) = 𝑎 (1 + 3, 2 + 0) = 𝑎 (4
Remember there is no change in y-coordinate. Only if there is a vertical component was

velocity component along the y direction that will change, but we do not have that..
789
Now, let us do repeat this for the other points b is (2, 3)
' '
𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑏(2, 3) = 𝑏 (2 + 4. 5 , 3) = 𝑏 (6. 5, 3)
Now, similarly we can find out the other coordinates for example, c is
' '
𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐(3, 2) = 𝑐 (3 + 3 , 2) = 𝑐 (6, 2)
Similarly, for the point d,
' '
𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑(2, 1) = 𝑑 (2 + 1. 5 , 1) = 𝑑 (3. 5, 1)
So, this is how the lines look at t equal to 1.5 seconds. So, this top figure shows the two lines
at time t equal to 0 and the lines have become as soon in the diagram below. The line ac is
become a’c’ in the line b d as become b’d’. So, these are the new coordinates;
'
𝑎(1, 2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 (4, 2)
'
𝑏(2, 3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 (6. 5, 3)
'
𝑐(3, 2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 (6, 2)
'
𝑑(2, 1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 (3. 5, 1)
790
Now, let us run this animation which will show you how these lines move as a function of
time. This is after a particular time interval of 1.5 seconds. What we will see is how this
initial the cross, two lines are crossing each other, how they move as the time progresses
So, this is how they move and what of course, this is qualitatively shown here and what you
see here is the position of the lines at time t = 1.5 seconds but as if you going to track from 0
to 1.5 seconds this is how the line moves, the both the lines move.
We introduced few tensors and with physical significance. So, we will calculate those tensors,
also find out the rate of angular deformation, rate of rotation which is asked in the question.
𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑥 = ℎ
𝑦
Now, let us calculate this strain rate tensor for this particular velocity field. So far we have
been working in terms of the expression for the strain rate tensor, but now because we are
given the velocity field we can evaluate the strain rate tensor.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 = ⎡⎢

⎣
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑥
1
2 ( ∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑦 ) ( 1
2
∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑦 ) ∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑦
⎤ = ⎡0
⎥ ⎢
⎦ ⎣
1 𝑣𝑝
2 ℎ
1 𝑣𝑝
2 ℎ
0 ⎤⎥
⎦
So, if you calculate the rate of angular deformation remember rate of angular deformation is
∂𝑣𝑦 ∂𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑝 𝑣𝑝 4 −1
γ̇𝑥𝑦 = ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
= 0+ ℎ
= ℎ
= 4
= 1𝑠
791
How do you interpret this; what is the meaning of this. Now, remember, we had γ𝑥𝑦 = α + β
based on this diagram which we have seen earlier. Now, γ̇𝑥𝑦 remember it is just taking time
𝐷
derivative. So, if you want to write formally it is γ̇𝑥𝑦 = 𝐷𝑡
(α + β). So, this rate of angular
deformation tells you that rate at which these two angles α + β together are changing, that is
a significance of 1 second inverse.
γ𝑥𝑦 is just shear strain, α + β. γ̇𝑥𝑦 is the material derivative of that which is following the
fluid motion. So, in this case the angles are α + β, and we are looking at the sum of this and
how that sum of that angle changes the respective time.
So, in this case the sum is positive which means that α 𝑎𝑛𝑑 β are increasing, which means
that the angle between let us say a time t = 0 you marked these lines, at some time little later
the angle would have decreased. So, rate of angular deformation tells you about a rate at
which α + β are changing, and if it is positive tells you that the two line segments let us say
initially they were P Q and P R, now it is P*Q* and P*R*, they are approaching towards each
other.
We already seen that earlier remember shear strain is positive means acute angle. In this case
we cannot talk about angle remember, we can always talk only about the rate at which the
angle changes. So, 1 per second tells you rate at which the two line segments approach each
other towards each other.
Now, let us calculate the rate of rotation tensor is,
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 = ⎡⎢0 −

⎣
1
2 ( ∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑥
−
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑦 ) (
1
2
∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑥
−
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑦 ) 0 ⎤⎥⎦ = ⎡⎢⎣0 1 𝑣𝑝
2 ℎ
−
1 𝑣𝑝
2 ℎ
0 ⎤⎥
⎦
Now, let us find out the rate of rotation. Rate of rotation is
ω̇𝑥𝑦 =
1
2 ( ∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑥
−
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑦 ) (
=
1
2
0−
𝑣𝑝
ℎ ) =−
1 𝑣𝑝
2 ℎ
=−
1 4
2 4
=− 0. 5 𝑠
−1
So, what does this tell you? Remember, when we introduced ω̇𝑥𝑦 we introduced that as
α − β. We said α is counter clockwise, β is clockwise rotation. So, we attached sign to that
792
because rotation takes about the sense of rotation. Now, if you want to calculate ω̇𝑥𝑦 then it is
𝐷
𝐷𝑡
(α − β) the material derivative.
So, now, this tells you the what is the net rotation, so this rate of rotation tells you rate at
which α − β changes. So, tells about the net rate of rotation of the element and in this case it
is negative which means it is rotating the clockwise direction. Remember, in both the cases at
every instant we are taking two perpendicular line at let us say t = 0, and then to t = 0.1, you
take two perpendicular lines and they approach each other as given by the rate of angular
deformation.
Similarly, at next instant you cannot start with those lines which have come together. Once
again start with lines which are perpendicular to each other because always you are talking
about γ̇𝑥𝑦 which represents rate of angular deformation for lines with our long x and y axis.
So, every instant you always considering two perpendicular, two perpendicular lines and
what is happening to the angle between them, that is what we have seen, ok, rate at which
they have come together.
So far we have been looking at analytical expressions, this example gives us a chance to
understand the values numerically, ok; and also like to mention that what you see here thus
the fluid flows, you are marked; you are marked two lines and then remember the fluid is
continuously flowing and this two marked lines are also let us say they are flowing along the
fluid but what you see is the representation of all the effects put together.
What is that? Normal strain rate of course, it is 0 and this particular case and so, it is a
combined representation of normal strain rate, shear strain rate and rotation rate. What you
see it is a combined effect. You do not see individual effects there because we calculated
them using the velocity field, something equivalent to calculate using the velocity gradient
tensor not using strain rate tensor or the rotation rate tensor.
What you have calculated is use; is equivalent to calculating using the velocity gradient
tensor. Hence, what you see is a representation of the rate of deformation and the rate of
rotation. That should be kept in mind.
793
Lecture – 69
Strain Rate : Example 2
Let us take another example. So, now, let us take an example, exactly which has the other
component namely the normal strain rate, but does not have shear strain rate and rotation, that
is a use of that is objective of this example. So, velocity field is given by
v = Axi − Ayj
Represents flow in a corner that is what we shown here in quadrant 1 and quadrant 2. Let us
take quadrant 1 for easy understanding and A = 0.3 second inverse and the coordinates are
measured in metres.
Now, just like you marked a two perpendicular lines in the earlier example, in this case we
will mark a region a square is marked in the fluid as shown at t = 0. Evaluate the new
positions of the four corner points, something like what we did in the earlier case after 1.35
seconds after some time interval.
794
Evaluate the rates of linear deformation in the x and y directions rates of linear defamation is
nothing is another way of saying rate of normal strain or normal strain rate in the x and y
directions. And then compare area a’b’c’d’ at 1.35 seconds. And then we have to compare
with that area with area a, b, c, d at t = 0; whether it will change or not we will see that. And
then comment on the significance of this result. So, you have flow over a corner and then, we
are in this region you are let us say marked some red colour dye this is square region and we
are tracking that.
Now, tracking a particular point is something similar to what we have done earlier. If you
track a particle is equivalent to finding the path line of that particular particle. So, find
position of particles. So, we have four particles a, b, c and d; we will have to evaluate that
position after some time interval which is nothing, but finding the path line. If you want to
show the progress of these points then we draw the path line. Or if you want the only
endpoint in the end point of the path line will give you the final position. So, we will find out
the path line so that at any time t we will know the position of a, b, c and d.
So, let us find a general expression. So, we will have to recall what we discussed when we
did examples on path lines. When we discussed the theory for path lines, so the velocity field
v = Axi − Ayj
795
We used the velocity of the fluid to find the path line; velocity of the fluid that is Eulerian
description which is equal to the velocity of the particle given by rate of its displacement in
the present case in the x direction.
dxp
v x = Axp = dt
And this we have used when we derived substantial derivative when we discussed path line
same cost of concept is being used here. The Eulerian velocity field is equal to velocity of the
particle which happens to at that which happens to be at that particular location, which is
given by the rate of change of its displacement the present case x direction.
So, now, because our coordinates are x I am going back to x, but that is the physical principle
ok. So,
x t
dx
dt
= Ax→ dx
x
= Adt→ ∫
xo
dx
x
= ∫ Adt → ln ln
0
( )
x
x0
= At→x = x0 eAt
Now, let us do the same exercise for the y direction, we will equate the y component of
velocity to the rate of change of y displacement of the particle.
dy p
v y =− Ay p = dt
And,
y t
dy
dt
=− Ay→ dyy =− Adt→ ∫
yo
dy
y
= ∫ − Adt → ln ln
0
( )
y
y0
=− At→y = y 0 e−At
So, integration rearrangement gives you this equation relating the y coordinate of the particle
as a function of time. So, at any time t you can calculate the x co ordinate and the y
coordinate and in this particular case we are asked to calculate the coordinates. If you want to
track this region as you progress then you can substitute for different values of time and get
the x and y coordinates. This example what we are asked to do is to find the coordinates at t
equal to 1.35 seconds.
a b c d
t=0 (1,1) (1,2) (2,2) (2,1)
796
t = 1.35 (3/2, 2/3) (3/2, 4/3) (3, 4/3) (3, 2/3)
So, in this table the first row shows the coordinates at time t = 0. Second row shows the
coordinates how do I obtain I just substitute at t = 1.35.
So, the second row gives x and y coordinate of a, b, c, d after time interval of 1.35 seconds.
Now, see the concept of path line were discussed sometime back and we have now used it
and interpreting in a different way. What we have actually calculated is only path line but
now, we are going to analyse in terms of what happens to this region and what is the
implication of the velocity field on this particular region.
So, let us show the old and new position of the corner points. So, the this is the square region
marked at time t = 0 and it has become a; it has become a rectangle at t = 1.35 seconds. These
are the coordinates of a’, b’, c’ and d’ and it has become a rectangle. So, let us see how do we
understand this.
797
Now, the velocity field was given by
v = Axi − Ayj
So, rates of linear deformation let us calculate them the normal strain rates
∂v x
∂x
= A = 0.3 s−1
The value is 0.3 second inverse, which means that there is elongation in the x direction. Now,
let us evaluate the normal strain rate in the other direction which is
∂v y
∂y
=− A =− 0.3 s−1
This means that there is shortening in the y direction. And that is what we have seen if you
see compare b, c and b’c’, there is elongation which is for line segment along x direction.
And if you compare a, b and then a’b’ there is a shortening in the line segment which was
along the y direction.
So, for line segment along x direction there is elongation as shown by the value of 0.3 second
inverse line segment along y direction there is decrease in that length and given by the − 0.3
second inverse. So, keep in mind that as we have discussed earlier, this tells about rate of
elongation and also rate of change of length per unit length.
Now, the rate of angular deformation is
∂v y ∂v x
γ̇ xy = ∂x
+ ∂y
=0
798
So, in this case there is no change in angle; when I say no change in angle, if you take 2 line
segments perpendicular to each other they remain as such that is what you see here also. The
angle b a d is 90 degrees the angle b’a’d’ also 90 degrees there is no change in angle at all.
That is why I said earlier example we had angular deformation and of course, rotation in this
example angular deformation is 0 we will see rotation is also 0. But, we have normal strain
rates.
So, rate of rotation
ω̇ xy = 1
2 ( ∂v y
∂x
+
∂v x
∂y )=0
Such a flow is called irrotational where, you do not have any rotation such a flow is called
irrotational and that is what you see this animation. Now, for showing this animation I
calculate the coordinates at every instant of time this a’b’c’d’ tells you the coordinates after
sometime t equal to 1.35 seconds. But now, for this animation I can find out the path line
equations substitute t equal to 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 whatever time interval and then calculate the
position and plot them and the region covered by a, b, c, d is shown as red so that we see it as
a region moving.
And as you see it also represents the flow around the corner, if we have seen the streamlines
where we had flow around the corner and that is also represent there is also represented by
this region which we are tracking ok. And we can see that the square becoming a rectangle
how the square gradually becomes rectangle this was one initial square. And then let us say a
final rectangle a t equal to 1.35 here you see how the square evolves gradually to the
rectangle. And of course, remember it is continuously deforms that will always should be
kept in mind we said fluid continuously deforms.
So, as long as the flow as long as you track this will continue to deform of course, for the
sake of simulation we have stopped and replaying it again, but otherwise continuously
deforms ok. So, in the earlier example no normal strain rates only angular deformation
rotation were present in this particular in this example normal strain rates are present angular
deformation and rotation are absent. This is relatively simpler case compared to the earlier
case, when you have angular deformation rotation it becomes little difficult to analyse in
terms of the what you see.
799
And what we analyse remember when we said in the earlier example what we see is a
summation of all the effects. Here because no angular deformation and rotation whatever you
see is representing what are we calculated in terms of normal strain rates. Earlier it was
representing both the combined effect of both the deformation and the rotation.
Now, let us calculate the volumetric strain rate. So, the volumetric strain rate we start with
the velocity field, which is
v = Axi − Ayj
We have seen how to express volumetric strain rate which is that fractional rate of change of
volume. And we have seen that can be expressed in terms of
∂v x ∂v y
∇.v = ∂x
+ ∂y
= A − A = 0.3 − 0.3 = 0
What does it tell you, there is no change in volume, rate of change of volume, or fractional
rate of change of volume is 0; the volume of the element does not change with respect to
time.
So, in this present case it is not volume it is area because we are considering 2D. So, let us
verify that numerically, the area of the initial square both the sides are 1 unit so area is 1
meters. So, the final area should also be 1 metre square.
800
Let us calculate that what is the final area a’b’c’d’; if you consider points a’d’ the length of
the line a’d’ which is difference in the x coordinate of a’d’ which is (3 − 3
2 ) . Now, the
difference in the y coordinate of, let us say a’b’. So, it is ( 43 − 23 ) so,
Area of a’b’c’d’ = (3 − 3
2 ) ( 43 − 23 ) = 1 m2
So, we have theoretically proved that the volume or area cannot change based on our
calculation also we have proved that the area does not change. So, no change in volume of
fluid element; why is it happening? Two rates of linear deformation are equal and opposite
the normal strain rate in the x direction is positive because length is increasing. And normal
strain rate in the y direction is negative because, the length is decreasing they are equal and
opposite hence there is no change in the area. Whatever increase in area because of the
increase in length along x direction is compensated by the decrease in area because of the
decrease in length along the y direction. Of course, such a flow is incompressible that is what
we have seen.
I like to discuss another view point remember ∇.v we discuss the significance in two
different ways; the present way is that fractional rate of change of volume. Now, what is the
earlier way it was relating to a Eulerian view point, present view point is Lagrangian the
earlier view point is Eulerian. And remember these terms where derived as part of the
∂v x
continuity equation where you took as control volume like this. Let us say if you take ∂x
how did it come? We took the mass flow leaving through the right face mass flow entering
∂v x
the left face and then we took the difference and so, ∂x
represents.
So, let us say we have rho there it represents net mass flow leaving the x direction per unit
volume for the moment leave per unit volume. So, just represent something like net mass
flow leaving in the x direction. Because there is no rho it tells net rate at which volume leaves
∂v y
in the x direction and what about ∂y
that tells you net rate at which volume leaves in the y
direction of course, per unit volume.
Now so, if you look from a Eulerian viewpoint if you take a small location what happens is
∂v x
that because, ∂x
is positive which means that there is net flow leaving in the x direction.
∂v y
And then because ∂y
is negative, which means that there is net inflow in the y direction they
compensate each other and hence the net rate of flow volume through all the control surfaces
is equal to 0.
801
So, that is two different view points for ∇.v , this example does not require the second view
point, but because we have discussed the 2 viewpoints for ∇.v . And numerically we can see
in this example that there is net outflow in one direction the x direction net inflow in the y
direction and hence if you sum up all the through all the directions is 0 other way of looking
at it.
When we almost began the course. We introduced what a fluid particle is and we defined a
fluid particle as a small deforming volume and then, we took this example and showed that
the fluid particle should represent whatever is happening to the flow field. And then we said
along the flow field the particle elongates becomes smaller etcetera in the direction etcetera.
802
And we also showed this animation where we said the earlier title was demonstration of fluid
particle is same example now, I say call it as a flow through a converging nozzle. And then
we had simulations in 2 scales one when I just ran we were tracking the fluid particle. And
then we said should be very small and then we said for the same time interval it travels longer
distance as it approaches to as it travels along the length of the channel.
Because, it is a converging channel the velocity increases along the direction of flow then
what we discussed was we zoomed this region small this region. And then that is what we
saw in there right animation, where we can clearly see that the fluid for the fluid element the
length of the fluid element increases and then the height decreases. And then the statement
which I made at that point of time was that the length increases because, the velocity
increases along the flow direction. And I said correspondingly there is a decrease in the
height of the fluid element. Now, they need not be accepted as such.
Now, we can by theory based our discussion we can explain those statements, I will just
repeat earlier. We have looked at this element fluid element or fluid particle and said that its
length increases along the flow direction and height decreases along the flow direction. We
explain saying that the length increases because the velocity increases along the flow
direction. Correspondingly, I said the height decreases. Now, we can physically reason out
these two statements that is what we will do in the next slide.
803
Now, what is the velocity field for a converging nozzle is given by
v = A (1 + x) i − Ayj; A = 0.3 s−1
But, the way in which we should view is that x velocity is a function of only x and the y
velocity is a function of only y. That is how we should view for our purpose for calculating
rate of normal strain shear strain the x component of velocity depends on x. Then as we have
∂v x
calculate in the previous example, we have a nonzero value of ∂x
and that is positive why?
The x component increases along the x direction. That is also is line with the physics of the
geometry because of the reduction area the x component should increase. Now, what about
the y direction? It is − A and we have a − 0.3 second inverse and there is reduction in the
height of the fluid element.
So, because of this only when we run the simulation because of this only this tells you that
there is elongation in the x direction. Now, this clearly justifies our earlier statement that
because the velocity increases along the x direction there is elongation of the fluid element
earlier we made as a qualitative statement. Now, we can quantitatively establish in this
statement.
If you look at the normal strain rate in the y direction it is negative and that is why you see a
decrease in the height of the fluid element. Now, we made a statement that accordingly or
correspondingly there is a decrease in the height of the fluid element how do you explain that.
Before that like in the previous case there is no angular deformation there is no rotation
because, v x depends on x only, v y depends on y only.
804
If you calculate ∇.v like in the earlier case you get a value of 0; that this explains y
accordingly or correspondingly because it is incompressible flow ∇.v should be 0. And so,
when there is increase in length along x direction it should be compensated by decrease in
length along the y direction. That is why we said increase in length along x direction because
of increase in velocity correspondingly there is a decrease in length along the y direction why
their correspondingly? Because, ∇.v = 0 for incompressible flow.
So, when one direction there is rate of increase in length, there is a decrease in rate of length
in the other direction, we are kind of connected we have seen this in the previous example, in
terms of concepts just want to connect this example with the simulation which have seen
earlier where we introduced the concept of particle.
So I think that brings us to the close of our this lecture, where we I have discussed fluids
strain rate in fluids analogous to strain and solids. So, in terms of a journey to the Navier
Stokes, we have derived the differential form of linear momentum balance with a viscous
stresses in the right hand side we said we need to express that in terms of the velocity
gradients to understand velocity gradients.
We took a diversion to solid mechanics understood normal strain, shear strain, displacement
gradient rotation. You also understood how to decompose or split differential displacement in
terms of deformation and rotation. And now, we have analogously explained for the case of
fluids, but everywhere we had rate.
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So, everywhere we had rate so, normal strain rate shear strain rate and velocity gradient and
then the differential velocity is sum of deformation rate less rotation rate. Superficially we
say just addition of rate, but we discuss that based on the difference between the behaviour of
solids and fluids ok. And of course now, we will go back once again to solid mechanics to
relate stress and then strain.
We need to relate viscous stress and velocity gradients and we said instead of velocity
gradients, we will relate only to the rate of defamation. But, before doing that we will go to
the solid mechanics once again to understand and relate stress and strain. So, that when we
come to fluid mechanics we can easily extend and relate the viscous stress and strain rate of
course, this we will understand as we go along.
To summarise, we started with the distinction between solids and fluids in terms of response
to a tangential force. And we understood say deformation for solids is rate of deformation for
fluids and rate of deformation could be normal and shear strain rate one is rate of change of
length other is rate of change of angle. And we also discussed that they are material
derivatives of strain ok, we also discussed about rate of rotation, we discussed about
volumetric strain rate and the volumetric strain rate is represented by the divergence of
velocity field.
And so, we understood two ways or physical significance of the divergence of velocity in two
different ways and based on that we express the equation of continuity from the material
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particle view point. We discussed the velocity gradient tensor analogous to the displacement
gradient tensor for solids. And then we related the strain rate to the velocity gradients and we
also discussed the decomposition of fluid motion which is expressing the velocity gradient
tensor as sum of strain rate tensor and rotation rate tensor.
807
Continuum Mechanics and Transport Phenomena
Lecture – 70
Stress Strain Relation : Introduction
So, we will get started. We derived the differential form of linear momentum balance and we
are proceeding towards the Navier-Stokes equations. And during that path to understand total
stress and fluids, we took the first diversion to solid mechanics. The first time we travel in
this through is arrow mark, and then discussed stress in solid mechanics, came back to fluid
mechanics and understood total stress. Then we need to understand strain rate.
So, once again we took a diversion to solid mechanics, understood strain and extended that to
strain rate in fluids. Now, we are going to take once again diversion to solid mechanics, the
third and the last time. What is the reason? We need to relate viscous stresses and the strain
rate or the velocity gradients through the Newton’s law of viscosity. But before doing that we
will relate stress and strain through Hooke’s law by going to solid mechanics for the third and
last time. So, objective of this lecture is to discuss about Hooke’s law. We are going take a
diversion to solid mechanics, discuss about Hooke’s law and then of course, followed later on
by coming back to fluid mechanics.
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So, in terms of the journey to the Navier-Stokes, we derived the differential form of linear
momentum balance, we had surface forces on the right hand side, understand that we took the
first visit to solid mechanics, understood stress vector, stress tensor and came to fluid
mechanics, understood total stress in terms of pressure and viscous stresses. Then, we could
complete the differential form of linear momentum balance including the right hand side with
the viscous stresses, with the viscous stress terms.
Now, those viscous stress terms had to be expressed in terms of velocity gradients, that is
where we discussed closure. To understand velocity gradients need to understand about
displacement gradient, so we made a second visit to solid mechanics, understood strain,
displacement gradient and then the strain tensors. Then extended that knowledge to fluid
mechanics, understood normal strain rate, shear strain rate, velocity gradient and the strain
rate tensor or the deformation rate.
Now, we need to look at the actual relationship between the viscous stress and the velocity
gradients which is what going do here in Newton’s law of viscosity. But before that like in
the previous cases we take a third visit to solid mechanics, discuss this block which says
Hooke’s law which is the relationship between stress and strain relationship. Once we
understand that the analogous relationship of fluid is stress and then strain rate that is the
overall idea.
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So, third visit to solid mechanics. In terms of titles first we discussed about internal forces
and stress; second visit, we discussed about deformation and strain and third, in this visit we
are going to discuss about Hooke’s law which relates stress and strain.
What is a outline? First we discuss about assumptions and then derive the 3D version of
Hooke’s law. Hooke’s law in a simpler form should be very well known to most of us. We
will derive the 3D version of Hooke’s law
810
Now, what is the overall objective? I have a solid body as subjected to some force and I am
interested in seeing the response of that body, which is called the mechanical behavior of the
solid object. I need equations that describe the mechanical behavior of the material, and
moment we talk about a material we need to bring in properties of the material. When we first
came to solid mechanics, we discussed about surface forces, stress vector, stress vector in
terms of stress tensor, and through the discussion we never focused on what material we are
discussing about. We just discuss it could be a plane inside a solid object, and then we
characterize that intensity of force in terms of stress.
Then we came to strain where we discussed about change in length, change in the angle
which we called as deformation, quantify that in terms of strain, there again we did not
discuss about the material at all. We discussed in terms of quantification of the deformation.
And now, we have to relate this stress and strain, and when they are going to relate the stress
and strain then the property of the material has to be brought in. So, while stress and strain
can be discussed without reference to any material, the stress-strain relationship becomes
material dependent, and that is why we are discussing about the assumptions. When we say
assumptions the stress-strain relationship, which are going to discuss is limited to that
particular set of assumptions.
If you recall back about stress and strain independently we hardly had any assumptions
throughout our discussion they were all exact relationship. But when we discussed stress and
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strain it is with reference to a particular material and that is where assumptions are brought
in.
Now, we can derive the form of the expression, but when you derive there are some constants
which we called as material properties. One material property which is known to you is
Young’s modulus. But that Young’s modulus has to be determined by experiments. So, the
stress strain relationship that with the actual values the parameters is determined by
performing experiments in the laboratory. And hence, the stress strain relationship is
empirical; when I say empirical it is based on experimental observation because was an
experimental evidence.
And what is that more importantly we are doing? We are relating immeasurable quantity with
a measurable quantity and that is the key, that is why highlighted here. When we discussed
about the stress it is certainly a very physically meaningful quantity, no doubt about it, they
had a surface, what is the force acting on the surface, stress vectors, stress tensor etcetera.
Perfectly very much meaningful, but we cannot measure components of stress.
But remember, when we came to strain we said we have a plate, there are some coordinates,
difference in coordinates and then we analytically derived the expression for different normal
strain, shear strain, which means that you can measure strain and then quantify strain based
on measurements. Even the questions if you recall back some coordinators were given initial
coordinates, final coordinates are given, which means they are measurable value, so strain is
measurable. So, strain is measurable and stress is immeasurable by finding a relationship
between stress and strain, we are expressing an immeasurable quantity in terms of a
measurable quantity and that is the key.
Stress is not directly measurable by expressing in terms of strain it becomes indirectly

measurable. You can determine stress, you can calculate stress, but not directly measure
stress, and that is the key here. So, to summarize this while stress and strain discussion is
independent of the material, the relationship between stress and strain depends on the
material. Because the response depends on whether for example, if we take a solid, if it is
made of steel it has my response, if it is nylon some other response. Let us say aluminum, it
has some other response. So, properties of the material have to be brought in and that is
where we discuss assumptions.
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So, what are the assumptions? When I say assumptions, the stress strain relationship is valid
only under this set of assumptions. We never had this restriction when we discussed about
stress separately and strain separately. Of course, for strain we said it is infinitesimal strain
that was a small assumption when we discussed for solids and when we went to fluids even
we said that is not even assumption.
● The first assumption is that the material is homogeneous
What does that mean? If you take a let us say a solid object, these the properties which are
going to experimental determine. When I say properties I mean material properties. What are
the material properties? We will come across few material properties one which is very well
known to us is the Young’s modulus. So, if you take every point in the body, the value of the
material property for example, Young’s modulus is same. So, look at the definition of a
homogeneous material, same material property at all points in the body. So, any point you
take in the body has the same value of material property. What is shown in this diagram is
just magnified view of steel. So, if we zoom in and zoom in of course, there can be
non-homogeneities. But on a macroscopic scale, if you look at steel assets then you say that
the properties are same at every point. So, that is still level we are looking at. We are not
magnifying; magnifying, and saying going to say that there can be non uniformities from
point to point. We are not going to go to that level of magnification. If you are given let us
say steel block like this and you say at every point it has a material property. So, material is
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homogeneous means same material property at all points in the body. So, that is a first
assumption. So, the Hooke’s law which I going to derive is for a homogeneous material.
● Second assumption, material is isotropic.
What is isotropic? Let us read the definition. Same material property at a given point in all
directions, the key is at a given point in all direction. When we discussed about homogeneity
we said same property at different points, at all points in the body. When you discuss about
isotropic assumption the same material property you are at a given point, but in let us say
x-direction, y-direction, z-direction, all the directions you have the same material property for
a for example, Young’s modulus.
So, independent of the direction, the material is assumed to have the same material property.
And which means that exhibits the same behavior at a given point in all directions. Why do
we say this? The property determines the behavior, so when the property is same in all
directions, exhibit same behavior and got a given point in all directions.
And the other way of putting this is no preferred direction. When I say that at a point the
property is same in all directions, there is no question of talking about direction at all. When
do we have a preferred direction? When the property is different along different directions
then there is a question of talking about a preferred direction, but because the property is
independent of directions there is no preferred direction.
What is shown here is an example for anisotropic material; the one of the examples for an
isotropic material is wood. Now, what is shown here are fibers and the wood let us say a
block of wood is subjected to tensile force. Now, the mechanical behavior of wood will
depend whether the tensile forces are aligned along the fibers or they are perpendicular to the
fibers.
Even if you look at let us say just make a simple Google search if you say Young’s modulus
for steel, you will be given one value of Young’s modulus. But if you let us say search for
Young’s modulus of wood, you would get Young’s modulus of wood along direction,
tangential direction, longitudinal direction which means that the Young’s modulus depends
on the direction. Such kind of materials are called an isotropic materials.
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The Hooke’s law which we are going derive is not applicable for an isotopic materials. But
anyway we are safe that, remember we will see shortly that isotopism is a very convenient
assumptions. If you do not do that we will have really lot of difficulties. So, but in general we
can for our scope we are most of the cases we can assume the material to be isotropic.
So, just to summarize, homogeneous refers to same material property at all points throughout
the, its means throughout the body. Isotropism refers to direction, you are in the same point
the material property same in the all directions. That is why the terminology says isotropism,
no preferred direction.
● The third assumption is that the material is elastic.
What is the meaning of that? At any given point in the material, there exists the direct
relationship between stress and strain and that is what is shown here. You have a some
relationship it could be non-linear or linear. What is shown here is a stress on the y-axis,
strain on the x-axis and you have some functional relationship τ as a function of ε . So, at
any given point in the material there exists a direct relationship between stress and strain,
which means that τ is a function of ε .
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Prof. T Ranganathan
Lecture – 71
Material Properties
In the previous case we said relationship exists between stress and strain. Now we said could
be of any form now we are going to restrict further saying that it should be linear. So,
homogeneous, then we said isotropic, then we said elastic, but not general elastic it should be
linear elastic. So, material is linear elastic not any general elastic what does it mean?. So, we
will discuss this linear elastic with respect to normal stress and shear stress those the two
graphs shown here. The first graph plots normal stress versus normal strain a general
relationship is shown here as a curve here.
But the relationship is linear up to a point τ𝑥𝑥,𝑃 that is a limit within which τ𝑥𝑥 is the normal
stress is linearly related to the normal strain beyond that it becomes non-linear. So, our limit
of applicability of Hooke’s law is within that region where the stress strain relationship,
normal stress normal strain relationship is linear. Now how do we experimentally get this
data, remember we said, we are going to find the constants the material properties by means
of experiment. As I told you,
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τ𝑥𝑥 ∝ ϵ𝑥𝑥
τ𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸ϵ𝑥𝑥
And the proportionality factor is the Young’s modulus which is E, but you determine this by
experimentation, we are not going to predict young’s modulus, we are going to experimental
determine Young’s modulus. So, let us see how do we do this we consider let us say rod and
then subjected to Uniaxial stress. What do I mean by Uniaxial stress? You apply a normal
stress along only one direction, that is why it says Uniaxial stress.
Material subjected to only normal stress tau xx and then all other stress components are zero.
We have τ𝑦𝑦, τ𝑧𝑧, τ𝑥𝑦 there are no other normal stresses there are no other shear stresses also;
that is what we mean by Uniaxial stress. There is only one normal stress along one particular
direction in this case we are considering τ𝑥𝑥. Now how do we carry out the experiment you
apply a force and then and divide by the area of cross section you get this stress. So, which is
your y axis and for every force applied you determined the change in length by original
length which will give you the strain and you plot this graph.
So, you take the let us say a rod apply a tensile force and express the force as stress dividing
with the cross sectional area and measure the change in length and change in length by
original length will give you the strain. Now when you plot as we have discussed we will
restrict only to the linear portion of the curve and where τ𝑥𝑥 ∝ ϵ𝑥𝑥 and the proportionality
factor or in this the slope of this curve is E; which is a Young’s modulus. So, as we proceed
we will express stress in terms of strain and strain in terms of stress. So, we also express the
this relationship as
τ𝑥𝑥
ϵ𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸
E is the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus which is very well known. In fact, the
Hooke’s law which is very well known to everybody is this is this form of the Hooke’s law is
very well known to us, we are going to extend this to three dimensional case. This is for a one
dimensional case subject to only Uniaxial stress there is only subjected only normal stress.
There are no other normal stresses, there are no normal stresses in other direction there is no
shear stress, we are going to extend this a three dimensional case where there are normal
817
stresses acting in all the three directions and shear stresses as well. So, that will give you an
idea of what is it you are proceeding towards. Now we will discuss analogously for pure
shear stress. We discussed the case where there is only normal stress along only one direction
we will discuss now for the case of pure shear stress. Now what do we mean by that the
material let us say you have a plate.
What do we mean by pure shear stress, we have a material and then we subjected to pure
shear stress of course, something like squeezing this. So, material subjected to only shear
stress and all other stress components are zero. So, we have only τ𝑥𝑦, other stresses like τ𝑦𝑧,
τ𝑧𝑥 they are not there and the normal stress as τ𝑥𝑥, τ𝑦𝑦, τ𝑧𝑧 they are also not there. Taking a
plate and subjecting it to only shear stress, let us say the xy plane.
Now let us say you apply the force express per unit area and that is the shear stress on the y
axis and you measure the change in angle, remember we defined the γ𝑥𝑦 as the difference
π
between 2
and the angle in the final state. So, you measure this angle which is the shear
strain and that is the x axis. So, you plot a graph between these two that is the shear stress
which you have applied and the shear strain which you measured and you get a relationship.
Now just like the graph between normal stress and normal strain you get a general
relationship which could be non-linear, but like in the previous case we restrict to a point
where the shear stress shear strain relationship is linear and that relationship is expressed as
τ𝑥𝑦 ∝ γ𝑥𝑦
τ𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺γ𝑥𝑦
The proportionality constant is denoted by G, which is the modulus as of rigidity also called
us shear modulus.
So, in terms of understanding Young’s modulus very well known to us which relates normal
stress and normal strain, G is a modulus of rigidity or shear modulus which relates shear
stress and shear strain. Just like we express the previous relationship for normal strain we are
also express this relationship for shear strain.
τ𝑥𝑦
γ𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺
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First expression was for the shear stress in terms of shear strain, second expression is for
shear strain in terms of shear stress. As I told you as we go along will use both the
relationship few times. And in terms of significance let us say a material as very high
Young’s modulus what does it mean for the same.
Suppose let us say you subject two material to the same τ𝑥𝑥 the material will higher Young
modulus will have only a very small value of normal strain. Similarly if you have two
material and then subject to the same shear stress the material with higher modulus of rigidity
will show a smaller change in angle. So, that is the significance of E and G. Higher the value
lower the strain.
Now, we are discussed two material properties one is Young’s modulus, other is shear
modulus. We will discuss one more material property which is Poisson ratio. So, now, I think
it should be clear to you what we really meant by material property, when we discussed
homogeneous material and then isotropic material. We discuss about material property these
are the material properties Young’s modulus, shear modulus, Poisson ratio etcetera.
Now to explain about Poisson ratio we will once again consider let us say a cuboidal block, a
block is cuboid shape subjected to Uniaxial normal tensile stress. Uniaxial meaning there is
only one normal stress and in this case it is tensile stress ok; that is what is shown here. And
you are shown an element which is subjected to Uniaxial normal tensile stress.
819
And that is shown magnified here the length of the element is ∆𝑥, the height is ∆𝑦 and the
width is ∆𝑧. Now that is the those are the dimensions in the initial state. Now this object to
normal tensile stress and then it undergoes defamation in the final state the dimensions have
changed. Now let us look at the length there is an increase in length ∆𝑥 has become
(1 + ϵ𝑥𝑥)∆𝑥. How did I write that ∆𝑥 is the original length and ϵ𝑥𝑥 is change in length by
original length.
So, ϵ𝑥𝑥∆𝑥 will give you the change in length when you sum up will give you the final length,
just let me repeat. Express this as ∆𝑥 the first term which is the original length ϵ𝑥𝑥 is the
change in length by original length. So, the change in length is ϵ𝑥𝑥 into the original length
which is ∆𝑥. So, when you sum up these two you get the changed length or the new length.
Now what happens if you subject let us say a cuboidal to tensile stress along x direction there
is decrease in the height and the width along the perpendicular direction. So, will use two
terminologies; one is direction of stress other is proponent direction. So, in this particular
case there is elongation there is increase in length along the direction of stress, there are two
perpendicular directions one is y, other is z along those directions there is decrease in the
dimensions of the height and the width.
Let us see that if you look at the height the original height was ∆𝑦 and that has become this
height which is (1 + ϵ𝑦𝑦)∆𝑦 . Coming to the width the original width was ∆𝑧 and the new
width is (1 + ϵ𝑧𝑧)∆𝑧. These have been written similar to what I have explained here. So, to
begin with we had a cuboid dimension ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦, ∆𝑧. You applied a Uniaxial normal stress
along the x direction, the direction of stress and there was elongation along the x direction
increase in length.
Because of increase in length along x direction there was a decrease in the height and the
width along y and z direction. Now, what we had discussed is for the case where ϵ𝑥𝑥 > 0,
because increase in length; and ϵ𝑦𝑦 < 0 and ϵ𝑧𝑧 < 0 other case are is also possible. For
example, when you are applying let us say a com compressive stress ϵ𝑥𝑥 < 0 and other two
ϵ𝑦𝑦 & ϵ𝑧𝑧 can be greater than 0.
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The strains in the other two directions can be greater than 0, but throughout our discussion we
will consider the case where ϵ𝑥𝑥 > 0. That is what we are discussed extension in x direction,
contractions in y and z direction.
Now, for a linear elastic material it has been experimentally observed that the normal strain in
the perpendicular direction is proportional to the normal strain in the direction of stress.
ϵ𝑦𝑦 =− νϵ𝑥𝑥; ϵ𝑧𝑧 =− νϵ𝑥𝑥
What is the direction of stress; x direction epsilon xx is the normal strain in the direction of
stress. What is the perpendicular direction; y direction one of the perpendicular direction is y
direction.
So, left hand side is normal strain in the perpendicular direction. Experimentally it has been
observed that ϵ𝑦𝑦 ∝ ϵ𝑥𝑥 what is the proportionality constant is ν which is the Poisson ratio.
Now we have seen that when ϵ𝑥𝑥 is positive and ϵ𝑦𝑦 is negative. So, to account for that, we
have a negative sign here. So, that the material property which is Poisson ratio is positive.
We do not want a material property which is negative. We have a positive Young’s modulus,
you have positive shear modulus, so we do not want to have a negative Poisson ratio. So, we
take that into account in writing the relationship itself. So, just to repeat this we said stress
strain relationships are empirical. Why? Because it is based an experimental observation, we
cannot derive this linear relationship. Only based an experimental observation right this linear
relationship and the proportionality factor ν has to be found by doing experimentation.
So, both the form of the expression and the constant is based on experimental observation.
And so to put this in statement, ν is a Poisson ratio. So, strain in a direction perpendicular to
an applied stress is proportional and of course, opposite sign to the strain in the direction of
this stress.
So, in this particular case strain in the direction of the stress is ϵ𝑥𝑥, strain in the direction
perpendicular to applied stress is ϵ𝑦𝑦 they are proportional and the proportionality constant is
ν. Negative sign is introduced to take care of one undergoes extension other undergoes
contraction. Or when you have extension in one direction there is contraction other direction
ok. Similarly you can write for the normal strain in the z direction is proportional to the
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normal strain in the x direction along which you applied the stress proportionality constant is
ν.
And remember we said isotropic material, see we have use the same ν for both the
relationship we have not a given two different ν which means that we are assuming ν the
Poisson ratio to be independent of direction. If we would had depending then we should use
different ν here because we are assuming material properties to be independent of direction.
Because we are assuming material is isotropic we are using the same ν.
Now suppose if we subject body to a Uniaxial normal stress what are all the strains. Along
the direction of stress we can write
τ𝑥𝑥 τ𝑥𝑥 τ𝑧𝑧

ϵ𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸
; ϵ𝑦𝑦 =− ν 𝐸
; ϵ𝑧𝑧 =− ν 𝐸
I told you we will use both form of the relationship, we will write stress in terms of strain also
strain in terms of stress. So, this is the relationship which you have seen in the previous slide
writing normal strain in terms of normal stress.
So, this is the normal strain along the direction in which the stress has been applied. Now
τ𝑥𝑥
there are two perpendicular directions. So, the normal strain along y direction is − ν 𝐸
.
Similarly, you can write for the z direction which is the which is the another perpendicular
τ𝑧𝑧
direction. So, strain in the z direction is equal to − ν 𝐸
.
So, what is the meaning of the statement; if you have a let us say cuboidal element and
subjected to Uniaxial normal stress along x direction, then the normal strain along x direction
is given by this expression and normal strain along y and z directions are given by these two
expressions. So, that is the meaning of the last statement.
So, to summarize the last two slides we discussed what we mean by linear elastic material.
We said linear elastic material is a material which has a linear relationship between stress and
strain. We discussed the linear relationship for normal stress and normal strain also for shear
stress and shear strain. These two introduced two material properties namely Young’s
modulus and shear modulus.
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Now we discussed another material property namely Poisson ratio which relates strain in the
direction of stress to the strain in the perpendicular direction ok. And what we have seen this
line the equations here are the new subject body to a Uniaxial normal stress. What are all the
strains in the three directions; one strain along the direction of stress and strain along the
perpendicular directions.
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Prof. T Ranganathan
Lecture – 72
Hooke’s law – Strain-stress Relation
Now, we will start deriving the Hooke’s law. Look at the first bullet, it lists all the
assumptions we are discussed so far, it summarizes all the assumptions we are discussed so
far. So, when I say Hooke’s law, it is valid only under these assumptions that is why we
discussed. When we talk of a relationship between stress and strain, then assumptions are to
be discussed. Hooke’s laws is such a relationship and so, this limits the scope of Hooke’s
law.
So, the assumptions are:
● Homogeneous; properties are the same at any point now we know what properties are.
We are seen looked at three material properties Young’s modulus, shear modulus,
Poisson ratio
● Isotropic; at the point material properties are same in all directions
● Linear elastic solid; elastic a different relationship between stress and strain. When we
say stress and strain applies both for normal stress, shear stress and then normal strain
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shear strain. And linear tells you the relationship between them between the stress and
strain is linear.
And what we do is we are consider a body subjected to a general three dimensional stress.
What do I mean by that? I have a body subjected to normal stress along x direction and y
direction and z direction. Now to for easy discussion, we will consider a two dimensional
case and that is what is shown here. We have a plate in the undeformed configuration before
the force is being applied before the stress is being applied.
And the length of the sides are ∆x and ∆y . And the first figure what is shown is it is
subjected to normal stress along x direction τ xx , and it is shown to be ten tensile here. Now
the changed length or the changed length of the sides are also shown (1 + τ xx )∆x and the
length of along the y direction has changed to (1 + τ yy )∆y .
For this condition there is elongation along the x axis so, τ xx > 0 ; there is contraction along
the y axis so, τ yy < 0 . Now what is shown in the second diagram is the same plate subjected
to normal stress along y direction. Please note the point we are subjecting the plate to both
normal stress along x direction and normal stress along y direction. And so, the second figure
shows the plate subjected to normal stress along y direction. Now there is elongation along
the y direction so, the original length along y direction is ∆y . The new length increased
length is (1 + τ yy )∆y .
Now, there is contraction along x axis which is the perpendicular direction and the original
length is ∆x and the new length is (1 + τ xx )∆x . So, for this condition τ yy > 0 elongation
along y axis and contraction along x axis so, τ xx < 0 . Now what is that the third figure
represents? We are applying both the normal stresses together that is what is shown here; τ xx
and then τ yy .
We are applying both the tensile stresses together the first figure shows the plate subjected to
normal stress along x axis, second figure shows normal stress along y direction, third
represents the plate subjected to normal stress along x direction and y direction.
Now, let us say there is no normal stress along y direction momentarily; let us take there is no
normal stress along y direction. Then because of normal stress along x direction what would
τ xx
be the normal strain along x direction? This given by E this would have been the let us say
825
increase in length along x direction. If that two dimension element has been subjected to
normal stress along x direction only. But because there is normal stress along y direction
there is some decrease in length along the x direction, there is some nor negative or
contraction along the x direction what is that value, how do you find out that.
For the normal stress along y direction, the relationship between connecting τ yy and εyy is
given by the equation, τ yy = E εyy that is like we are seen earlier for x direction. So, this
relationship relates normal stress along y direction to normal strain along y direction by the
Young’s modulus. Remember once again we are taking the same Young’s modulus
independent of direction because it is a isotropic. I write that relationship for normal strain
τ yy
along y direction εyy = E .
Now my direction of stress is along y direction so, x becomes the perpendicular direction. So
how do we write normal strain along the perpendicular direction is − ν times is normal strain
τ yy
along the direction of stress. So, when we substitute for εyy in terms of E , we get the
expression for normal strain along x direction due to normal stress along y direction is that.
τ yy
So, the this is to be a negative there is a decrease in length which is − ν E .
τ yy
So, the contraction is − ν E . If there were no normal stress along y direction, this would
have been the increase in length. But because there is normal stress along y direction, there is
some contraction. So, the net increase in length is only so much that is what is shown here.
τ yy
The total is shown here E and the contraction because of τ yy we shown here the net is
shown here. So, in terms of equation there is shown geometrically in terms of equation, the
τ xx
let us call the effective normal strain along x direction is equal to E . If there were no
normal stress along y direction only this would be the value, but because they are normal
τ yy
stress along y direction it cause the contraction along the x direction which is − ν E . And so,
this two terms put together is the net normal strain along the x direction due to τ xx and τ yy .
The first term represents contribution from τ xx which is let us say along which is elongation.
Second term tells a contribution because of τ yy which is contraction and for the sum together
you get the net normal strain. So, what does it we have done? We have considered a body
subjected to all the three normal stresses for the present case, we are considered only two
dimensional case subjected to only τ xx and τ yy and seen what is the normal strain along x
direction.
826
Now, based on this let us come discuss this table. What this table shows us that the column
headings are the normal stresses along x direction, y direction, z direction. What are the row
headings? The normal strain along x direction, y direction and z direction.
τ xx τ yy τ zz
τ xx τ yy τ zz
εxx E
−ν E
−ν E
τ yy τ zz
εyy − ν τExx E
−ν E
τ yy τ zz
εzz − ν τExx −ν E E
Let us take the first column. What is the first column? The direction of stresses along the x
τ xx
axis, direction of strain along the same x axis and they are related by simply E . Now for
when the stress is along x direction y and z are the perpendicular directions and they are
related by − ν τExx . Similarly the strain along the z direction which another perpendicular
direction is − ν τExx .
So, what is the significance of the entries in the first column? You applied a normal stress
along x direction and the three rows represent normal strain along x direction, normal strain
827
along y direction and normal strain along z direction. This is what we are seen in the slide
previous to the earlier slide. Similarly if we apply normal stress along y direction, the normal
τ yy
strain along y direction is E because it is the same direction as the stress. Now the
τ yy
perpendicular directions are x and then z. How do we represent − ν E . Similarly for the z
τ yy
direction − ν E . Similarly we can write for the case where you apply normal stress along z
direction.
Now let us analyze particular row what we have seen is column wise, let us analyze one
particular row, let us take the first row. Now what is the significance of the first row? It says
normal strain as the row heading. It tells the contribution to normal strain because of normal
stress in x direction, normal stress in y direction, normal stress in z direction and this is what
we have seen in the previous slide and that is what is shown here.
We have seen the first two terms here. Look at the first row in the first row, the first column
τ xx τ yy
entries E . Second column entries − ν E and because it is three dimensional case, you have
τ zz
one more entry − ν E . The significance of the different terms in the first row are
contribution to normal strain along x direction because of normal stress in x direction, normal
stress in y direction, normal stress in z direction is it. So, now if you sum up all of them, you
get the normal strain in a x direction because of normal stresses in x, y and z direction that is
the significance.
So, what does this table about? We can discuss both column wise and row wise. The entries
in the column are the effect of stress in one direction on strain in three directions. If you
consider row wise, it is effect of stress in three directions on strain in one direction ok. So,
similarly we can discuss for εyy and εzz .
828
Because all the relationships are linear we just superimpose the effects of the three normal
stresses. What we have written first column is because of normal stress in x direction second
because of normal stress in y direction. Similarly, normal stress in z direction and each
individually tells you what is the normal strain in the x direction. Now we are just going to
add when is it possible because they are linear relationship and that is why we are able to just
add them or more formally, we can say superimposed. So, that is why since all relations are
linear, superimposed effects of τ xx , τ yy , τ zz that is the meaning of this addition. So, the εxx
represents the normal strain
τ xx τ yy
εxx = E −ν E − ν τEzz = 1
E [τ xx − ν (τ yy + τ zz )]
This addition is possible or super position is possible because the relationships are linear.
When you look at that expression what should come to your mind the way in or the way in
which we should we should interpret that is the first term represents the effect on normal
strain due to normal stress in the same direction. Other two the effect on normal strain
because of normal stress in the two other perpendicular directions that is what we should
understand. So, the effect of normal stress in all three directions are brought into this equation
or summed up in this equation.
Similarly you can write for other directions as well which means I am summing up the entries
in the second row and summing up entries in the third row as well. So, second row tells the
normal strain in the y direction because of once again three normal stresses
829
τ xx τ yy τ zz
εyy =− ν E + E −ν E = 1
E [τ yy − ν (τ xx + τ zz )]
and third row tells normal strain in z direction because of normal stress in three directions.
τ yy
εzz =− ν τExx − ν E +
τ zz
E = 1
E [τ zz − ν (τ xx + τ yy )]
So, for we have discussed about normal strain. So, now, let us discuss about shear strain. We
introduced the shear modulus based on the linear relationship between τ xy and γ xy . We said
τ xy versus γ xy is linear and the proportionality constant is shear modulus.
Same expression is written, but for shear strain we have been the previous slide we wrote
expressions for the normal strain. Now we are going to write expressions for the shear strain.
So, the shear strain in the x y plane γ xy is
τ xy
γ xy = G
Now remember we discussed about the strain tensor where the components were εxx , εyy
and then εxy was the component of the strain tensor.
So, we can write an expression for εxy which is the component of strain tensor. We have seen
that
γ xy τ xy
εxy = 2
= 2G
830
Remember the graph is between τ xy and γ xy not εxy , the experimentally measure is γ xy not
εxy . So, the G connects τ xy and γ xy . Why are we interested in εxy because that is the
γ xy
component which appears in the strain tensor and εxy is related to γ xy as 2 .
τ xy
So, we can relate γ xy and τ xy also which is 2G . Similarly we can write expressions for γ yz
as,
τ yz
γ yz = G
You can write expression for εxy also as,
γ yz τ yz
εyz = 2
= 2G
Similarly,
τ zx
γ zx = G
γ zx τ zx
εzx = 2
= 2G
Now, we should note one difference between the way in which you wrote normal strains and
then shear strain. Now when we an expression for εxx on the right hand side, we took into
effect of τ xx , τ yy and τ zz . So, normal stresses acting on x along x direction, y direction, z
direction had effect on normal strain along x direction.
But now look at the expression for shear strain γ xy is returned to be depending only on τ xy .
So, one quick rough way of understanding is that you have a plate, you apply shearing stress
the change in angle depends on the this shear stress alone. This shear strain along x y plane is
not going depend on stress along y z plane and z x plane. So, that way these relationships are
I would say simpler compared to the relationships for normal strain, they just depend on the
shear stress in that plane only. So, any shear strain component is proportional to only
corresponding shear stress component and independent of normal stress components also, we
have not even considered effect of normal stress also.
So, any shear strain component let us say γ xy is proportional to only corresponding shear
stress competencies which is τ xy and independent of normal stress components. We have not
considered dependency have γ xy on let us say τ xx , τ yy , τ zz . That way these relationships
are like the standalone relationship straight away, you can get shear strain in terms of shear
stress and later on will express shear stress in terms of shear strain also.
831
Those are the stress tensor and the strain tensor. So, those are the assumptions which have
discussed homogeneous, isotropic, linear, elastic, solid. We can now summarize all the
relationships which have discussed so far for normal strain and shear strain. So, we have seen
as the expression for normal strain along x axis, analogously we can write an expression for
normal strain along y axis; similarly normal strain along z axis.
τ xx τ yy
εxx = E −ν E − ν τEzz = 1
τ yy
εyy =− ν τExx + E
− ν τEzz = 1
τ yy τ zz
εzz =− ν τExx − ν E
+ E
= 1
E [τ zz − ν (τ xx + τ yy )]
We are also written expression for the off diagonal elements namely εxy , εyz and then εzx .
γ xy τ xy
εxy = 2
= 2G
γ yz τ yz
εyz = 2
= 2G
γ zx τ zx
εzx = 2
= 2G
So, how did we write? We wrote them in terms of the components of the stress tensor. So, 6
scalar relations between 6 independent stress and strain components. Remember we discussed
the stress tensor has 9 components, but only 6 are independent. Similarly for the strain tensor
there are 9 components, but only 6 are independent, εxy = εyx we are not even shown εyx
here because we have taken εyx to be equal to εxy .
832
So, 6 independent stress tensor components 6 independent strain tensor components and there
are 6 scalar relations between the 6 independent stress and strain components and that is the
three dimensional form of Hooke’s law.
τ xx
Where is a Hooke’s law known to you. That is εxx = E that is where what we already know
very well known to is one simplified form of what we are discussed so far ok. We are rarely
discussed more general form of Hooke’s law a three dimensional version of Hooke’s law
even what we are discussed is under this assumption homogeneous, isotropic, linear elastic
ok. What we already know very well known to us most of us are the Hooke’s law given by
τ xx
εxx = E .
What we are seen is a more generic version these are applicable for a three dimensional case
and remember the Hooke’s law is written for εxy and not for γ xy . Why is it? Because εxy is
the component of the strain tensor not γ xy .
The reason is I am we are writing expressions for components of strain tensor in terms of
components of stress tensor that is why, but the original experimentation is between τ xy and
γ xy because there is some experiment. We measured straightaway change in angle that is
why the x axis there is γ xy , but we need a relationship for εxy that has to be kept in mind.
833
Now, if you look at the equations and even if you look at the way in which we are discussed,
there are three material properties. What are they? The Young’s modulus E and then the shear
modulus G, the Poisson ratio ν ; there are three material properties ok, but only two of them
are independent. One depends on the other, one of them depends on the other, you cannot
there cannot be three independent material properties.
We can show that there is a relationship between E, ν and G resulting in only two
independent material properties and that is our next objective what is the relationship
between the three material properties. So, we will derive the relationship between three
material properties because the Hooke’s law under these assumptions can have only two
independent material properties. So, we have proceeding towards deriving a relationship
between E, G and ν .
834
Lecture – 73
Relation between Material Properties
Now, we will derive relationship between the Young’s modulus E, the shear modulus G and
the Poisson ratio ν from this different books follow different ways of deriving it following
from this book by Ugural and Fenster, Advanced Strength and Applied Elasticity. Only for
this part I have referred this book because it was in line with what we have discussed. First I
will give an overview of what you are going to; however, we are going to proceed, we will
take a two-dimensional element, it could be a plate or region inside a solid and subject to pure
shear stress. So, to subject only shear stress that is a point to be noted.
The two-dimensional elements subjected to pure shear stress is shown here and our usual sign
convention is adopted, on a positive face positive force. So, all shear stress components are in
the positive sense and negative face negative direction of force. What we are going to do is,
consider the diagonal and then derive expression for normal strain along the diagonal in two
different ways and equate. What do we mean by that, when you apply this shear stress that
the diagonal elongates. So, which mean there is a normal strain along the diagonal and we are
835
going to derive expression for this normal strain in two different ways and equate it that is
overall idea.
For deriving the first relation, I would suggest you to recall these slides which I discussed
earlier, I just shown here for a purpose of recall. We discussed this, when we discussed the
components of difference in displacement due to normal strain, shear strain and rotation. Our
attention our relevance right now is this case where they are component, where we discussed
components of displacement because of shear strain only.
836
So, just show the slides just for recall we considered a plate subjected to only shear strain,
and in the case of shear strain these angles are same, ok. Earlier they were just α and β , but
when you subjected to pure shear strain they become equal and they are just α .
And when they are discussed what are the difference in displacement in x direction, y
direction etcetera.
837
Now, as I told you we consider a two dimensional element subject to pure shear stress and
pure shear stress results only in pure shear strain. That is the first statement, pure shear stress,
when I say pure shear stress there are no normal stresses acting only shear stresses are acting
results only in pure shear strain so, there is no normal strain. So, no normal strain along x and
y axis we are considering only two-dimensional case.
Now, if you look at the title of this slide and this pure shear strain it may look contradicting.
This title says normal strain along diagonal, first line says pure shear strain, when we say a
pure shear strain it means that there are no normal strain not along any direction along the x
and y direction. So, when I say pure shear strain I mean there is no normal strain along x and
y axis not along any direction.
εxx = 0; εyy = 0
There can be normal strain along other directions for example, there is normal strain along
the diagonal that is the meaning of these statements ok. Pure shear strain means no normal
stain along x direction and y direction can be along let us say the normal direction and there
is normal strain, Now this diagram is similar to the diagram which you have seen earlier in
the previous slide in the recall slide.
The red boundary shows the initial state and subjected to a pure shear stress and results in the
final state given with the blue boundary and as we have discussed earlier, it is symmetric and
the angles are same they are both α .
Now, the diagonal PQ becomes PQ’. So, which means there is normal strain along the
diagonal, let us write an expression
P Q′ −|P Q| QQ′
εP Q = | |P| Q| = ||P Q||
Usual definition of normal strain change in length by original length, what are the changes in
length, length of a PQ’ minus length of PQ divided by length of PQ.
Now how to find length of QQ’. So, that let us consider the triangle as we have discussed
earlier also when α is very very small. So, it can be approximated to a triangle, when you
consider that triangle and take tan( α ) approximately equal to α .
838
So, the whatever is magnified and shown, the increase in length QQ’, that increased length is
shown here and the vertical length is α∆x and the horizontal length is α∆y . Now we can find
out the length; the increase in length QQ’ is
√
|QQ′| = γ xy
| | (α∆y)2 + (α∆x)2 = α |P Q| = 2
|P Q|
QQ’
Now, what we want is, length of PQ that is what exactly we have derived here and bring to
the left hand side
|QQ′| γ xy
|P Q|
= 2
So, physical significance of this statement is the normal strain along the diagonal is equal to
γ xy
the shear strain by 2, 2 .
Now, we will use Hooke’s law, when I say Hooke’s law there are 6 equations we are using
one of the equations, what is that
τ xy
γ xy = G
So,
γ xy τ xy
εP Q = 2
= 2G
So, we have related normal strain along the diagonal to the applied shear stress τ xy and the
material property shear modulus G.
So, we have derived one relationship for normal strain along the diagonal. We will have to
derive one alternate relationship and equate both of them, because let us say a plate subjected
to shear stress, that normal strain should be same whatever way you look at it, we derive
alternate expression and equate both of them.
839
What is the second relationship? Now we have a recall our discussion on stress element and
then stress tensor, we represent the condition in terms of a stress element subjected to only
pure shear stress. So, in terms of a stress tensor the diagonal components are 0.
S tress tensor = τ = [0 τ xy τ xy 0 ]
Now I want to consider a plane which is at an angle θ with the horizontal and I consider a
vector along this plane and that is the tangent vector to that particular plane and which I
denote it as S based on our usual nomenclature and the vector is
S = cosθi + sinθj
So, we are considered a plane at an angle θ with the x axis and the, you have a plane and the
unit vector tangential to the plane is given above. Now I consider a unit normal which in our
nomenclature is n vector and we know that this vector should be perpendicular to the tangent
vector. So, what is the expression for this vector is,
n =− sinθi + cosθj
If you simply take a dot product n with S you get 0. So, we know that normal vector should
be perpendicular to the tangent vector. So, what is it we have done, we are represented the
condition of pure shear stress in terms of a stress tensor and wrote down expression for a
840
plane at an angle theta with the x axis wrote an expression for the tangent vector an
expression for the normal vector.
Now we will find the expression for a stress vector. We have seen that it is the dot product of
the unit normal vector with the stress tensor or in simple terms matrix multiplication of the
normal vector and the stress tensor.
tn = n.τ = [− sinθ cosθ ] [0 τ xy τ xy 0 ] = τ xy cosθi − τ xy sinθj
A simple matrix multiplication will give us this vector. Now, once you have found out the
stress vector we have already seen examples we can you know how to find out, what is the
shear stress, what is the normal stress etcetera acting on the plane. So, let us find out what is
the shear stress, what do you do, it is adjust the projection of this stress vector along the
tangential direction. So, take a dot product of the stress vector with the unit tangent vector
τ nS = tn .S = (τ xy cosθi − τ xy sinθj) .(cosθi + sinθj)
Now, do a simple dot product we get
τ nS = τ xy (θ − θ )
This is the expression for the shear stress. Now, I want to find out a plane where there is no
shear stress, shear stress free plane you will understand why do you do that. To find out that
plane what should I do, I should equate the shear stress to 0 and that is what I have done here
τ xy (θ − θ ) = 0
Now τ xy cannot be 0 because we are applying that it is a given constant value. So, what is
the condition that depends on θ ; so,
θ − θ = 0; θ = 450 or 1350
So, θ = 450 is diagonal, θ = 1350 is perpendicular to the diagonal, that is why we are
interested in a plane on which there is no shear stress. Because remember where are we
proceeding we are going to proceed we are proceeding towards getting another alternate
expression for normal strain along diagonal that is why we said we will identify a plane along
which there is no shear stress.
841
So, along this plane there is no shear stress, there is only a normal stress and then on this
plane also which is 900 along that plane also there is no shear stress there is only normal
stress.
Now, let us find out what are the normal stress values along those planes; how do you find
normal stress? Just take dot product of the stress vector with the unit normal vector
τ nn = tn .n = (τ xy cosθi − τ xy sinθj) .(− sinθi + cosθj)
And if you take the dot product you get
τ nn =− 2τ xy cosθsinθ =− τ xy sin2θ
Now, let us evaluate further two planes.
θ = 450 you get τ nn =− τ xy
θ = 1350 you get τ nn = τ xy
Now, this represents the rotated stress element, why rotated because one plane is along the
diagonal other plane is 90 degrees left of the diagonal. Now we have considered this plane
and now we are found out the normal stress to be − τ xy which means it is acting along this
direction and now because I am indicating the force on the other side opposite side I am
842
indicating in this direction. Remember we discussed, if you have a surface the normal stress
acting on opposite sides are equal in magnitude opposite in direction.
So, what we have done is that, we had a stress element subjected to pure shear stress when
you rotate it 45 degrees to the left that is what we have done rotate 45 degrees to the left then
it is equivalent to a stress element subjected to only normal stresses. There are no shear
stresses that is what you see here when you look at this a dashed boundary which represents
the rotated stress element there are only normal stresses. Those normal stresses are been
expressed in terms of τ xy values, but in this rotated configuration there are only normal
stresses and the new axis are denoted as x’ axis and y’ axis.
So, along the x’ direction it is a tensile and along the y’ axis it is compressive that is what you
see here, τ xy in one direction is tensile and in other direction τ xy is the normal stresses
which are compressive. So, original element subjected to pure shear stress equivalent rotated
element subjected to pure normal stresses that is what we have done now. Why are we doing
all this our final objective is to get an expression for normal strain along the diagonal, what is
the axis now x dash axis that is what we will do now.
Now we will apply Hooke’s law in this rotated plane x’y’ plane, where only normal stresses
are present. Remember we wrote 6 equations for Hooke’s law I am writing here one of the
expressions for normal strain with along x direction.
843
ε xx = 1
E [τ xx − ν (τ yy + τ zz )] = E1 [τ xx − ν τ yy ]
We are considering 2 dimensional case so, there is no τ zz . So, this is the simple expression
for the present case. Now we have to apply this along the x’. So, normal strain along the
diagonal now the x’ axis and diagonal are coinciding along with each other. So,
ε x′x′ = 1
E [τ x′x′ ]
− ν τ y′y′ = 1
E [τ xy + ν τ xy ] =
τ xy
E
(1 + ν )
So, we have got another expression for the normal strain along diagonal a second
relationship, which once again remember relates to the applied pure shear stress and material
properties ν and then Young’s modulus. So, just to summarize this slide first what we did
was in the previous slide, we had a stress elements subjected to pure shear stress we proved
that that is equivalent to an element which is rotated by 45 degrees subjected to pure normal
stress.
So, we considered that rotated element and applied the Hooke’s law along x dash axis which
coincides with the diagonal of the original element, and then applied the Hooke’s law along
that diagonal.
So, now becomes very simple equating alternate relations for normal strain along diagonal,.
First we found out
τ xy
εP Q = 2G
844
Second time we got
τ xy
ε x′x′ = E (1 + ν )
Though two different nomenclatures for the two relation significance is same normal strain
τ xy τ xy
along in the diagonal, first time 2G , second time E (1 + ν ) both should be same.
τ xy τ xy
E (1 + ν ) = 2G
So, when you equate these two you get the relationship as
E
G= 2(1+ν)
That is what we were proceeding towards, we wanted a relationship between E, G and ν , and
they are not independent, the middle properties are dependent. Just like to mention we have
derived this for a specific condition take a plate two dimensional case subject to pure shear
stress, but remember these are relationship between material properties. So, they should be
valid under any general condition, we cannot take a very general condition rather that
becomes difficult. So, we took a very simplified geometry and derived the relationship, but
they are valid for any condition since their relationship between material properties.
So, now we can write the Hooke’s law in terms of two material properties. So, the first line
represents the relationship between G, E and ν , which I derived in the last slide and the six
equations which I have written earlier are written here again, but now instead of G, I can
845
write in terms of E and 1 + ν . So, now, these set of equations have only two material
properties which are E and ν , it is for us to replace any one material property in terms of the
other two, here I have replaced G in terms of E and ν . So, these set of equations I have only
two material properties namely E and then ν .
846
Lecture – 74
Hooke’s Law – Stress-strain Relation
We have discussed so far are the assumptions behind Hooke’s law namely homogeneous,
isotropic, linear, elastic solid. So, under these assumptions Hooke’s laws valid. We
introduced material properties namely Young’s modulus, shear modulus, Poisson’s ratio and
then we expressed the Hooke’s law in the form of a strain as a function of stress. And we also
saw that there are three material properties they are dependent on each other and we proved
that only two independent material properties are there. Now what is that we are going to do
now? Express Hooke’s law in the form of stress as a function of strain.
So, conceptually nothing new it just involves some mathematical rearrangement. So, let us
start doing that. So, let us list down the equations for Hooke’s law expressing strain in terms
of stress all the six equations
τ xy
εxx = 1
E [τ xx − ν (τ yy + τ zz )] εxy = 2G
τ yz
εyy = 1
E [τ yy − ν (τ xx + τ zz )] εyz = 2G
τ zx
εzz = 1
E [τ zz − ν (τ yy + τ xx )] εzx = 2G
847
Then for starting the mathematical rearrangement we will sum all the normal strain
εxx + εyy + εzz which means summing all the equations listed here. So,
εxx + εyy + εzz = E1 [τ xx + τ yy + τ zz − ν (τ yy + τ zz ) − ν (τ xx + τ zz ) − ν (τ yy + τ xx )]
Now let us simplify this
εxx + εyy + εzz = E1 [τ xx + τ yy + τ zz − 2ντ xx − 2ντ yy − 2ντ zz ]
Now if you look at the sum of normal stresses which is common so, let us take that out
1
εxx + εyy + εzz = E (τ xx + τ yy + τ zz ) (1 − 2ν)
And we will write this for sum of normal stresses the previous equation is for sum of normal
strain we will right this as an expression for some of normal stresses just simple
rearrangement we will give,
E
τ xx + τ yy + τ zz = (1−2ν)
(εxx + εyy + εzz )
These two equations either of them or both of them nice relationship why because they relate
sum of normal stresses to the sum of normal strains in terms of property E and Poisson ratio,
ν . So, that way a good relationship under these assumptions whatever we have done these
equations both the equations relate sum of normal stresses to sum of normal strain that is a
physical viewpoint of this equation, let us proceed further.
848
So, now let us write down the equation for the normal strain along x direction
εxx = 1
Let us expand the equation
τ xx τ yy
εxx = E −ν E − ν τEzz
And then, I will subtract ν τExx and add τ xx

E ,
τ xx τ yy
εxx = E −ν E − ν τEzz − ν τExx + ν τExx
So, let us simplify this,
1+ν
εxx = E τ xx − Eν (τ xx + τ yy + τ zz )
So, we have already seen the relationship between sum of normal stresses and sum of normal
strain in the previous slide which is written down here,
E
τ xx + τ yy + τ zz = (1−2ν)
(εxx + εyy + εzz )
So, that I will use this relationship here,
1+ν ν
εxx = E τ xx − (ε
(1−2ν) xx
+ εyy + εzz )
What we have done essentially is that in this expression, we had a normal strain on the left
hand side and then three normal stresses were present on the right hand side. We want one
equation in one unknown we want only one of the normal stresses by doing these steps in this
equation there is only one normal stress present.
So, that we can rearrange and get an expression for normal stress that is was that was the idea
behind all these steps, well. Let us do a simple rearrangement
τ xx = E
1+ν [ε xx + ν
(1−2ν)
(εxx + εyy + εzz ) ]
Now the sum of normal strains, we can express that in terms of the gradients of displacement
field we can express as
∂ux ∂uy ∂uz

εxx + εyy + εzz = ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
= ∇.u
So, let us in a more little more simpler way,
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τ xx = E
1+ν [ε xx + ν
(1−2ν)
∇.u ]
Whenever you come across this divergence of displacement field in the future slides it is
nothing, but either in terms of gradients the sum of these gradients or sum of these normal
strains. So, we said we are going to express normal stress in terms of strains and that is what
we have done here and of course, another way of representing that.
Now, we will do some more rearrangement,
τ xx = E
1+ν [ε xx + ν
(1−2ν)
∇.u ]
E E ν
τ xx = ε
1+ν xx
+ 1+ν (1−2ν)
∇.u
Then we have seen the relationship between G, E and ν which we have derived already
E
G= 2(1+ν)
So,
τ xx = 2Gεxx + λ∇.u
E ν
We put all terms λ = 1+ν (1−2ν) as one other property , why is it a property because E, ν are
properties. So, λ is a combination of those properties so, λ is another property. So, of

course, this looks much simpler and we are going to use this form of the stress strain
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relationship for further discussion even when you later on go to Newton’s law of viscosity it
looks similar to this only.
The G and λ are call lame’s constants and what we have done is, normal stress in terms of
normal strains. On the right hand side you have εxx and ∇.u has the sum of all the normal
strains. So, on the right hand side you have all the normal strains and for the case of a shear
strain shear stress relationship we have seen
τ xy
εxy = 2G
Now, it becomes very simple just rearrange and write
τ xy = 2Gεxy
In the case of normal strain and normal stress it involved some steps the reason is the
expression for normal strain εxx involved all the three normal stresses. That is why we have
to do some rearrangement and express τ xx in terms of the normal strain. But in this case
epsilon for the case of shear strain shear strain depends on the shear stress in that plane only.
So, simple rearrangement is sufficient to express the shear stress in terms of shear strain.
So, now let us extent these two other directions that is what we have seen now. So, let us
write this analogously for other directions.
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τ xx = 2Gεxx + λ∇.u τ xy = 2Gεxy
τ yy = 2Gεyy + λ∇.u τ yz = 2Gεyz
τ zz = 2Gεzz + λ∇.u τ zx = 2Gεzx
And we should know that εxx is the normal strain, but if you say as normal strain the purpose
is not solved because we will have to express in terms of displacement gradient then only it is
complete. So,
∂ux ∂uy ∂uz

εxx = ∂x
; εyy = ∂y
; εzz = ∂z
And what about, εxy , remember it is
εxy = 1
2 ( ∂uy
∂x
+
∂ux
∂y ); εyz = 1
2 ( ∂uz
∂y
+
∂uy
∂z ); εzx = 1
2 ( ∂ux
∂z
+
∂uz
∂x )
Why do we express this, we do not express τ xy in terms of γ xy we express τ xy in terms of
εxy what is the reason? Our objective is to relate components in this stress tensor to the
components in the strain tensor. What is appearing in the strain tensor is εxy not γ xy that is
why in this relationship relate τ xy and then εxy . Though the actual in terms of measurement
is γ xy .
Now to connect to what we have done earlier, we can identify that the terms written here in
the right handed expressions in terms of gradients all these six terms are nothing, but the
components of the strain tensor which you have discussed earlier.
Now, to just to connect and then to have a recall as some few recall slides here this was a
strain tensor this was the rotation tensor, what we will do now is we will connect this and
recall also what we have discussed earlier.
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This was discussed when we discussed strain under solid mechanics, what did we do we
derived a relationship between dux , duy , duz and dx , dy , dz in two ways. First way is this
in more mathematically which resulted in the displacement gradient tensor, the second one
was more analytically more geometrically where we considered displacement due to a
difference in displacement due do normal strain, shear strain, rotation only and wrote these
two equation.
These two expressions are also relationship between dux , duy , duz and dx , dy , dz these
were written in a more analytical way geometrical way. Now, based on the first equation and
the second or third equation we said that this displacement gradient tensor is equal to sum of
these two tensors that is what we discussed.
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The displacement gradient tensor is sum of the strain tensor and the rotation tensor, what is
the significance of the first tensor that includes the normal strain and shear strain, the second
tensor includes the rotation contribution. And we said strain tensor is symmetric, rotation
tensor is anti-symmetric and the names given where strain or deformation tensor, because it
involves contribution from normal strain, shear strain. Second tensor was called as rotation
tensor because it involves contribution from rotation. And we concluded that translation and
rotation which are rigid body motion and normal strain, shear strain which are deformation
all contribute to displacement.
854
Next what we discussed was more importantly this particular slide. In fact, this was a
concluding slide then what we said was rigid body motion which is translation and rotation it
is not related to stress. Deformation which is normal and shear strain is only related to stress.
Strain tensor are not displacement gradient tensor related to stress tensor, what did we say
stress has to be related to the strain tensor not to the displacement gradient tensor this also is
not connected to the stress.
Look at the last line, relate stress tensor to displacement not displacement gradient, but strain
tensor and that is what exactly we are done now. After several classes we put forth the
question then saying that we have to relate stress to the components of strain tensor that is
what exactly we have done in today’s lecture, related the stress left hand sides are all stress
right hand sides are all components of the strain tensors.
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So, let us look at it again now it becomes very clear this slide the, what we have on the left
hand side are all the components of stress tensor and as we have seeing here the normal
stresses and the shear stresses. In the right hand side what you have are all components of the
strain tensor components of the strain tensor alone, not the displacement gradient tensor, not
the rotation tensor, only the strain tensor.
So, whatever appears on the right hand side, we know ∇.u is nothing, but sum of all the
normal strains. So, whatever you have on the right hand side are all components of the strain
tensor.
So whatever was our objective we have achieved here relating stress to strain more precisely
components of stress tensor to the components of strain tensor or deformation tensor, only the
normal strain, shear strain result in stresses that is why we have done this.
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So, let us put them more compactly in the form of a tensor this is the stress tensor,
[τ xx τ xy τ zx τ xy τ yy τ yz τ zx τ yz τ zz ]
At this point when we introduced stress tensor it was a very much physically meaningful
quantity. We said if you give me the stress tensor I can find out stress vector acting on any
plane, just take do matrix multiplication of this n vector with the stress tensor you get stress
vector acting on any plane so, very physically meaningful quantity and useful quantity as
well.
But it is not measurable, it is a variable of physical interest physical meaning, but moment we
write this as where in the previous slide it becomes expressed in terms of measurable.
[τ xx τ xy τ zx τ xy τ yy τ yz τ zx τ yz τ zz ] = [2Gεxx + λ∇.u 2Gεxy 2Gεzx 2Gεxy 2Gεyy + λ∇.u 2Gεyz 2Gεzx 2Gεyz 2G
All the terms εxx , εxy where all in terms of at the components of the strain tensor they are all
expressible in terms of displacement gradient and hence stress tensor has been expressed in
terms of measurable. Remember that was one of the main point we started off saying that we
are going to express an immeasurable in terms of a measurable and that is what we have done
here.
That is a key point here as long as this is written it is a nice physical quantity where which
physical meaning as well, but it is immeasurable, moment you express in this way it becomes
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a measurable and of course, you have the property G and then λ they have to come from
experiments. That is why we said stress strain relationship is empirical we cannot
theoretically get G and λ , we are only going to make some measurements and find out, what
is G and λ ?
Just like to mention what is the advantage of the isotropic assumption we said we have
derived the Hooke’s law for homogeneous, isotropic, linear elastic solid. We will keep all the
assumptions suppose we say it is non - isotropic, what would I be in the situation we are not
going to derive just discuss that. So, that we will appreciate the really significant advantage
of assuming isotropic condition.
Now this is the equation of course, relating normal stress to the normal strain and shear stress
to the shear strain. Now if you look at τ xx , the way in which you have derived depends only
on εxx , εyy , εzz . Similarly if you take τ yy , τ zz it depend only on εxx , εyy , εzz , if you take
τ xy depends only on εxy , τ yz depends only on εyz .
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Now, what would be the more general scenario, what can be the general scenario? Right now
this τ xx depends only on εxx , εyy , εzz but in general it can depend on all these components
when I say all these components, 6 components there are 9, but 6 are independent. So, τ xx
can dependent all these 6 components similarly τ xy can also depend on all these 6
components, that is what we are going to write here. So, stress tensor as 6 independent
components, strain tensor as 6 independent components. So, every independent component in
the stress tensor can depend on all the 6 independent components in the strain tensor.
Let us write one equation for a sample. So,
τ xx = C 11 εxx + C 12 εyy + C 13 εzz + C 14 εxy + C 15 εyz + C 16 εzx
Now look at the constants, you have, 6 constants here, now likewise I can write for all the 6
independent stress tensor components which means I will have totally 36 constant or 36
properties will be there. When I say constants remember these constants are nothing but
properties, but you can prove that 15 are dependent and only 21 are independent constants,
out of 36 you can prove that 21 independent constants are there.
So, if you are saying you are going to derive a stress strain relationship for a homogeneous
anisotropic linear elastic material then we would end up in 21 material properties, because in
all our relationship been into write the properties depending on direction, but moment you
take isotropic condition as we have done here we will result only in 2 constants or 2 material
properties that is the luxury I would say by assuming isotropic condition. That is why we
discussed assumptions to begin with itself the whole scope of our stress strain relationship is
limited to those assumptions homogeneous, isotropic, linear elastic solid.
859
Lecture – 75
Hooke’s Law: Examples
Before we look at some applications like to discuss one more material property; obviously,
this cannot be independent material property, it should depend on the previous material
properties only. What is that material property? Bulk modulus of volumetric expansion. In
one way analogues to what I discussed strain, we had a discussed normal strain, shear strain
and then volumetric strain and analogously here we have discussed Young’s modulus, shear
modulus and now Bulk modulus. So, in that way they are parallel so, normal strain, shear
strain and then volumetric strain, analogously here we discussed Young’s modulus, shear
modulus and now Bulk modulus.
How do we derive that? We consider the unit cube under triaxial compression. What is
triaxial compression? Unit cube meaning cubes of unit side and triaxial compression, we have
the cube is subjected to compressive stresses, normal stresses and all of them are equal
magnitude ok. And that is what is shown here we have the normal stresses in x, y and z
direction which are all of same magnitude. So,
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τ xx = τ yy + τ zz =− P
− P because it is a compressive stress, all of them same magnitude and compressive as well
and there is no shear stress. So,
τ xy = τ yz = τ zx = 0
Now, let us see how the equations get simplified, we will start the expression for a normal
strain in terms of the normal stresses these are the equation which you have seen
εxx = 1
Let us substitute,
τ xx = τ yy + τ zz =− P
So, if you simplify and you get
P
εxx =− E (1 − 2ν)
Same would result for other directions as well because the stresses are same.
P
εxx = εyy = εzz =− E (1 − 2ν)
So, the normal strain in all the directions are same. Now how did we define volumetric strain,
fractional change in volume, change in volume by original volume and that we related to the
some of the normal strains
∆V
V = εxx + εyy + εzz = 3 −P
E (1 − 2ν)
Now, how do you define Bulk modulus? Bulk modulus is denoted by capital K is the applied
stress which is − P divided by the fractional change in volume. So, applies the stress is − P
and a fractional change in volume is 3 −P
E (1 − 2ν) if you simplify you get
P P E
B ulk modulus = K =− ∆V =− 3 −P
= 3(1−2ν)
V E (1−2ν)
That is the expression for Bulk modulus as I told you it cannot be independent property, the
Bulk modulus is depending on E and ν there can be only 2 independent properties.
And more formal name Bulk modulus of volumetric expansion or elasticity if you want more
formal name for K and what are the significance if K is very large for the same stress the
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volume change will be very less same like our Young’s modulus and shear modulus also.
What did we say if our Young’s modulus is very large for the same normal stress, the normal
strain is very less.
Similarly what do we say for G for the same shear stress material with the larger G will have
a very small shear strain, similarly here for the same applied stress the material with higher
Bulk modulus will have very small volume change. So, for the case of Young’s modulus
higher Young’s modulus lower normal strain, higher shear modulus lower shear strain and
higher Bulk modulus lower volumetric strain.
What we will do now is, look at some applications of the equations which we have discussed
and derived some numerical simple numerical applications, they are not conceptually difficult
I would say just simple substitution examples only, but they will help us to get a feel for what
the equations are how are they used etcetera.
And some range some idea of the range of numbers some idea of the range of the values for
the different variables which have which we have come across. So, what are the applications?
The same equations will be used in different ways. So, first application is to use these
equations to determine material properties, once again same set of equations to find strain,
same set of equations to find stress.
862
So, now let us read the example an element of a nylon is subjected to triaxial stress I think we
have come across this triaxial stress few times now which means only normal stresses are
applied. Find the material properties for the nylon if the following stress and strain data is
known.
The normal stresses are a given τ xx =− 4.5 M P a , τ yy =− 3.6 M P a , τ zz =− 2.1 M P a all of

them are compressive and normal strains in the x and y directions are given εxx =− 740x10−6
and εyy =− 320x10−6 are given to us.
Solution:
So, what are the properties we are going to determine Young’s modulus, Poisson ratio,
Rigidity modulus, Bulk modulus in fact, all the properties which I have discussed can be
determined.
So, let us write the equation for the normal strain in the x direction in terms of the three
normal stresses
εxx = 1
− 740x10−6 E =− 4.5 + 5.7ν
Let us write down the equation for the normal strain in the y direction
863
εyy = 1
− 320x10−6 E =− 3.6 + 6.6ν
So, now, we have got 2 equations in 2 unknowns E and ν the two properties Young’s
modulus and Poisson ratio. So, solving simultaneously we get
E = 3000 M P a = 3 GP a; ν = 0.4
And once you get two properties we know that we can get all other properties we have only 2
independent properties you have solve further two independent properties. So, we know the
relationship
E
G= 2(1+ν)
= 1.07 GP a
We can also find out the Bulk modulus, we know
E
K= 3(1−2ν)
= 5 GP a
A very simple example based on experimentally applied forces expressed as per unit area
which are the stresses here and the experimentally measured strains we are able to determine
the material properties in fact, all the material properties Young’s modulus, Poisson ratio,
Rigidity modulus and Bulk modulus.
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So, next example is for determination of strains. So, we have an element of steel the form of a
rectangular parallelepiped of dimensions 300, 150, 150 mm that is what is shown here a is
300 and b and c are 150 mm. It is subjected to triaxial stress as we had discussed earlier and
here again all the stresses are compressive, τ xx =− 60 M P a , τ yy =− 40 M P a ,
τ zz =− 40 M P a and they are acting on the x, y and the z faces and what does it we have to
determine?
Determine the changes in the dimensions of the element once we find a strain then you can
find the change in dimension and also find the change in volume. To proceed further we need
to be given the properties, two properties are given any two properties can be given what is
usually measured and reported is the Young’s modulus very well known property to all of us
and Poisson ratio. That is why typically you will see Young’s modulus and Poisson ratio
being given as the data to us so E = 200 GP a and ν = 0.30
So, let us write down all the data given in the question first the dimensions of the block,
a = 300 mm, b = 150 mm, and c = 150 mm
Next, the normal stresses and the material properties,
τ xx =− 60 M P a , τ yy =− 40 M P a , τ zz =− 40 M P a
E = 200 GP a ; ν = 0.30
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To find out the change in dimensions, we will have to find out the normal strains. So,
εxx = 1
So, all the values there available as I told you these examples are not conceptually difficult
simple substitution examples. So, simply substitute we will get
εxx =− 180x10−6
Of course, all the stresses are compressive we have a contraction in the dimension and to find
out the decrease in the length we will have to multiply εxx with the dimension. So, the
dimension along x direction is a so,
∆a = aεxx =− 0.0540 mm
So, similarly let us do for the y. So, write the expression for the normal strain along y
direction simple substitution will give you the normal strain along y direction
εyy = 1
E [τ yy − ν (τ xx + τ zz )] =− 50x10−6
And,
∆b = bεyy =− 0.0075 mm
And similarly,
εzz = 1
E [τ zz − ν (τ yy + τ xx )] =− 50x10−6
∆c = cεzz =− 0.0075 mm
So, these are much smaller than our usual scale dimension the least count of a usual ruler
scale to find out the change in volume we will have to find out the fractional change in
volume, which is some of all the normal strain.
∆V
V = εxx + εyy + εzz
So, we have found out all the three normal strains when you sum up of course,
∆V
V
= εxx + εyy + εzz =− 280x10−6
Now, to find out the change in volume we will have to multiply this fractional change in
volume or the volumetric strain with the original volume which is
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∆V = (εxx + εyy + εzz ) V =− 1890 mm3
So, what does it mean? If you subject this cuboid to these normal stresses they are
compressive these are the decrease in dimensions along the x, y, z direction and this is the
decrease in volume. Remember when we started off we said we are going to look at solids
which are not perfectly rigid they are deformable solids and we have an example here when it
is subject to this body to these forces a force per area usually you may not observe any
change, but there is decreased in dimensions along the 3 direction and a corresponding
decrease in volume of the whole object. That is why we have discussed deformable solid
bodies not if you are discussing a rigid body, then these dimensions will not at all change that
of course, is an ideal condition more realistic condition is where there is change in length and
volume as well.
The last example where we are going to do, remind the stresses. So, a cube of granite, but
sides of length 75 mm is tested in a laboratory under triaxial stress gages mounted on the
testing machine show that the compressive strains in the material are εxx =− 720x10−6 and
εyy = εzz =− 270x10−6 the normal strain along the x, y, z axis are shown. These gages are
called strain gages they can give us the strain they can be used to measure this strain that is
why we said strain is measurable ok, determine the normal stresses on the x, y and z faces of
the cube. So, once again we need to be given the material properties E = 60 GP a and
ν = 0.25 .
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Solution:
So let us find out the Lame’s constants G and λ . So,
E
G= 2(1+ν)
= 24 GP a
E ν
λ= 1+ν (1−2ν)
= 24 GP a
So, G is 24 GPa, λ is also 24 GPa. The expression for stresses involved the divergence of
displacement field which is some of the three normal strains and so,
∆.u = εxx + εyy + εzz =− 1260x10−6
We are given the values of the normal strains. So, simple substitution we will give you this
value for the sum of normal strain which is same as divergence of displacement field.
So, once I got these values simple substitution we expressed the normal stress in terms of the
normal strains. So, simple substitution you found out the value of G found out the value of λ
so, we will get
τ xx = 2Gεxx + λ∇.u =− 64.8 M P a
And similarly for y,
τ yy = 2Gεyy + λ∇.u =− 43.2 M P a
And similarly for z,
τ zz = 2Gεzz + λ∇.u =− 43.2 M P a
Of course, all of them are compressive and remember the unit is mega Pascal. Usually the
stresses as we have seen in all the cases are in terms of mega Pascal the property E, G
etcetera are in terms of giga Pascal.
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To summarize what we have done is discussed Hooke’s law which is the stress strain
relationship. Why did we discuss that? We want to express this viscous stress in terms of the
velocity gradients or the strain rate, which is the Newton’s law of viscosity. But to understand
that we took a diversion to solid mechanics the third time in the last time and discussed the
stress strain relationship so that you can extend that to stress strain rate relationship.
And in terms of summary we discussed the relationship between stress tensor and strain
tensor that was an objective or the component of stress tensor and components of strain
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tensor now we can understand that statement much better. But that relationship is material
dependent that is where we started off ok, because it is material dependent been had to
discuss the assumptions.
The assumptions are homogeneous, isotropic, linear elastic solid and we also discuss different
material properties namely Young’s modulus, shear modulus, Poisson ratio, Bulk modulus.
Then we derived the Hooke’s law, strain in terms of stress, then stress in terms of strain and
what is it we achieved expressed stress tensor are the components of stress tensor in terms of
measurable which are the strain or still more in terms of the displacement gradients ok. That
is a major I would say objective and achievement what we have done here expressing
immeasurable in terms of measurable quantities.
Also finally, looked at some applications very simple applications in terms of determination
of material properties, strain, stress same sort of relationship, something is given, something
is not given and we found out what is not known to us.
870
Lecture – 76
Stress Strain Rate Relation: Introduction
We are going from the linear momentum balance to the Navier-Stokes equation and we have
shuttle back and forth fluids and solids few times. To understand total stress we went to solid
mechanics, understood stress, came back to fluid mechanics. To understand strain rate once
again we went to solid mechanics, understood strain and then came back.
Now, to understand Newton’s law of viscosity, we once again went to solid mechanics,
discussed Hooke’s law there as a previous lecture now we have come back to fluid mechanics
discuss Newton’s law of viscosity that is where we are in the overall outline.
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So, in terms of our journey looks like we are almost close to the end and first time we went to
solids to understand forces, stress etcetera, second time to understand strain and we are now
visiting third time. What was the whole objective we wanted to relate the viscous stress to the
velocity gradients or the strain rate, which is the Newton’s law of viscosity, we just went to
solid mechanics to understand Hook’s law and now we have come back to fluid mechanics to
almost write down the Newton’s law of viscosity.
I would not say we can derive you will see that, we will we understood Hooke’s law very
clearly. We already discussed the analogy between solid and solids and fluids so, we will use
this use that analogy to almost write down Newton’s law of viscosity which is the
relationship between the viscous stresses and strain rate ok. This is what we want to do for
quite some time and that we will achieve in today’s lecture.
872
In terms of outline, this is the outline. If you look at this outline, this analogous to what we
discussed for Hooke’s law. It is said Hooke’s law outline, here we have Newton’s law of
viscosity outline; there we said assumptions, here also assumptions; there we said Hooke’s
law, here we have Newton’s law of viscosity. So, this slide is analogous to what we have done
what we have discussed for or what we have seen for solids.
Now, just to quickly recall the next few slides are recall slides. It is better to recall the
difference between solids and fluids. So, I would suggest you to go to the earlier discussion
873
where we have discussed the difference in detail. We will just recall them major difference
now.
Solids deform and stop deforming. Fluids continue to deform and the difference can be nicely
explained using the cylinder example. If you take a solid material inside, the force required to
turn the cylinder depends on how far the solid is deformed from some initial state.
But, if we have a fluid in between the two cylinders the force required to rotate the cylinder
depends on how fast you are rotating, how depends on the rate of deformation. The first case
was force depended on deformation how far you are from initial state. Second case for the
case of fluids depends on the rate of deformation how fast you are rotating.
And, we looked at the difference between solids and fluids and we highlighted this difference
when we discussed about strain rate for fluid mechanics. Force depends on deformation for
solids; force depends on rate of deformation.
874
For the case of fluids we also discussed this table which brings the analogy between solids
and fluids. We had deformation for solids, rate of deformation for fluids; and we had
translation, rotation, normal strain, shear strain for solids and just we added rate for fluids. Of
course, we know the actual significance, but quickly understand we said translation rate,
rotation rate, normal strain rate, shear strain rate. We had displacement field displacement
gradient for solids and velocity field, velocity gradient for fluids.
And, then more importantly the normal strain was related to gradient of displacement for
solids, and normal strain rate related to the gradient of velocity for fluids. So, if you recall
this it will be easier to understand what we are going to discuss now.
875
So this slide is also analogous to the slide for solids. What is the first slide? why we should
discuss about assumptions. Same reason stress strain rate relation depends on the fluid. When
we discuss about total stress for fluids, we discussed about stress under hydrostatic condition,
additional stress because the fluid is moving and during the entire discussion on a stress
vector, stress tensor whereas, no necessity to discuss about the material at all. It is applicable
for any fluid, the whole discussion is applicable for any fluid.
When we came to strain rate, we discussed that strain rate as a material derivative of strain
and we discussed about normal strain rate, shear strain rate once again the whole discussion is
applicable for any fluid be at air, be it water, be it any oil etcetera. But, now we are going to
relate stress and strain rate and that depends on the material, in this case the material is a
fluid, exactly this is what we discussed for stress strain analogously.
This relationship is determined by performing experiments in laboratory to determine the

mechanical behavior; there it was mechanical behavior of solids now it is mechanical
behavior of fluids. Hence, stress-strain rate relationship is empirical it is experimental you
cannot derive theoretically, but can only empirically relate these two.
And, as we have done for solids we are going to relate an immeasurable quantity namely
stress in terms of the measurable quantity, there it was strain now it is strain rate that is all.
Strain rate is measurable why? Strain rate is in terms of velocity gradients. Velocities are
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measurable, velocity gradients are measurable that is why stress which is immeasurable is
expressed in terms of strain rate which is measurable.
Look at the flow just analogous to what we discussed for solids, we are now going to discuss
about assumptions. Of course, quickly we can go through because we have discussed in detail
assumption for solids.
● The first assumption is that the material is homogeneous. When I say material here it
is a fluid material. What does it mean? Same material property at all points in the
body. Viscosity is the material property which is known to us. So, let us say viscosity
is same at every point in the fluid; every point in the fluid.
● Second, material is isotropic same significance. Same material property at a given
point in all directions. We are not going to say viscosity depends on direction it is all
independent of direction. So, exhibits same behavior so, the fluid is going to exhibit
same behavior at a given point in all directions.
● No preferred directions, that is why we say it is isotropic.
Now, these two terminologies are same both for solids and fluids; homogeneous solid
homogeneous fluid; isotropic solid, isotropic fluid. Now, there is a difference in
nomenclature.
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● We said material is elastic when we discuss about solid. Now, we are going to say
material is viscous. So, we should say material is viscous. What does it mean? At any
given point in material, there exist direct relationship between stress and strain rate.
Earlier it was stress and strain for the case of solids, now it is stress and strain rate for
the case of fluids.
● Now, next we said material is linear elastic for the case of solids, now it is linear
viscous for the case of fluids. Of course, this terminology in fact, also same both for
solids and fluids. Only the terminologies which are same are homogenous isotropic
and linear the terminology which is different is whether it is elastic solid or viscous
fluid.
Now, we went on to explain what do we mean by linear elastic condition or linear elastic
relationship. Now, for linear viscous fluid the stress and strain rate are linearly related; earlier,
we said stress and strain are linearly related now we are going to say stress and strain rate are
linearly related. That is why it is very advantageous to discuss about solids, so that we can
easily extend to fluids that we have been maintaining throughout our discussion.
Now, let us put this more mathematically or in form of a expression. For the case of solids we
discussed the relationship between shear stress and shear strain and we took a linear
relationship between shear stress and shear strain and that is written here.
τ𝑥𝑦
τ𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺γ𝑥𝑦; γ𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺
This for the case of solids a linear relationship between shear stress and shear strain and the
proportionality constant or the property was the modulus of rigidity of the solid or shear
modulus of solid. We also expressed that as an expression for shear strain as shear stress by
G.
Now, what is the analogous relationship for the case of fluids and that is the graph that is
shown here, where we have plotted τ𝑥𝑦 the shear stress as a function of shear rate. That is
why we discussed the comparison between solids and fluids in the previous three slides as a
recall, we said whatever is strain for solids, it is strain rate for fluids. So, now, we can
understand the x-axis should become strain rate or more precisely shear strain rate.
And, now we take a linear relationship between shear stress and shear strain rate
878
τ𝑥𝑦
τ𝑥𝑦 = µγ˙𝑥𝑦; γ˙𝑥𝑦 = µ
Now, the proportionality constant is µ which is the viscosity of fluid. So, the role played by
viscosity for fluid is the same as the role played by G for the case of solids. G and µ are
analogous properties; G is for solids, µ is for fluids.
But, remember left hand side is force or force per area, right hand side for solids it is shear
strain, but for fluids it is shear strain rate. We said force depends on deformation for solids
and for the case of fluids we said force depends on rate of deformation and that is reflected in
the stress-strain relationship also for the case of solids and stress-strain rate relationship for
the case of fluids. Of course, we can write that as an expression for strain rate also
shear-strain rate as the shear stress divide by µ. So, this nicely compares the analogous
relationship between elastic solid and viscous fluid.
879
Lecture – 77
Newton’s Law of Viscosity: 1 D Form
Now, before writing down the 3 D form of Newton’s law of viscosity; we will discuss the 1
dimensional form of Newton’s law of viscosity. So, that you can easily understand the 3 D
form. We will consider for the 1 D form of Newton’s law of viscosity is the flow between two
parallel plates which we have come across several times; the bottom plate is fixed, the top
plate is set in motion at a constant velocity.
And now we require a constant force, you are keeping the bottom plate and then top plate set
in motion; which means, some force is required to keep this plate in motion.
𝐹 𝑣𝑝
𝐴
=μ ℎ
Now, this force required to keep the top plate in motion is experimentally found to be
proportional to the area; obviously, larger the area more force is required.
1
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒∝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦; 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒∝ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
880
That is what is expressed by the equation; force proportional to area, so area has been brought
to the left hand side, force per area is proportional to the velocity. So, 𝑣𝑝 is on the numerator
inversely proportional to the distance between the plates, the distance between the plate is h
and that is in the denominator. And what is the proportionality constant is viscosity; it is a
material property of the fluid.
The constant of proportionality is a property of the fluid defined to be the viscosity. So, how
𝐹
do you write little more formally, this 𝐴
is the stress; because it is tangential force, it is shear
stress. Because the force acts along the x direction, on a plane whose normal is y axis so it is
τ𝑦𝑥 so,
𝑑𝑣𝑥
τ𝑦𝑥 = μ 𝑑𝑦
How do you write little more generally, the shear strain rate is given by the expression which
we have seen already
∂𝑣𝑦 ∂𝑣𝑥
γ̇𝑥𝑦 = ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
So, what we have is; one of the terms, because there is no y component of velocity, so,
∂𝑣𝑥
γ̇𝑥𝑦 = ∂𝑦
So, if you want to write this more generally
τ𝑦𝑥 = μγ̇𝑥𝑦
So, what we have seen is in fact a 1 dimensional form of Newton’s law of viscosity. We
derived three 1 dimensional form of Newton’s law of viscosity, but the second one is very
much specific for this case; the most frequently written form is this one. This is the form,
moment you come across 1 dimensional Newton’s law of viscosity you will come across this
𝑑𝑣𝑥
form of the equation, τ𝑦𝑥 = μ 𝑑𝑦
.
881
𝑑𝑣𝑥
Now, what it says is the shearing force per unit area that is a left hand side is proportional to
velocity gradient ok. In the first time we said, force proportional to area, proportional to
velocity inversely proportional to the distance, all of them are put together in one simple
statement saying that the shearing force per unit area proportional to the velocity gradient and
of course, that is what the Newton’s law of viscosity says, of course in the 1 dimensional
form.
And we used a word saying that experimentally observed. This 1 dimensional Newton’s law
of viscosity is found to be valid for all gasses and all liquids at molecular weight less than
5000; it is a simple liquids and all the gasses this found to be valid and that itself is a quite
wide range of fluids. The units of viscosity is Pascal second.
Let us look at some numbers or viscosity to get a rough idea what is a magnitude at 20 degree
−5 −3
centigrade, for air it is roughly about 10 Pascal second, for water it is 10 Pascal second
much more viscous than air. If you take glycerol it is 1 Pascal second, still more viscous. So,
in term of increasing viscosity it is air, water, then glycerol and the graph shown here
represents viscosity as a function of temperature and for gasses it increases and for liquids it
decreases with temperature .
882
So, viscosity depends on temperature and pressure; of course, pressure dependency is not so
significant, but temperature dependency is significant. So, whenever we look up for value for
viscosity, we should be careful about the temperature. Look at the steep decrease in viscosity
for liquids, so we should pay attention to the temperature at which we are taking the viscosity
data.
Let us look at some examples of the simple 1 D Newton’s law of viscosity. The first example
is the flow between two parallel plates. So, two parallel plates are 10 centimeter apart, the
bottom plate is stationary, the fluid between the plates is water which has a viscosity of 0.001
Pascal second. Calculate the force per unit area necessary to maintain the top plate in motion
at a velocity of 30 centimeter per second.
Solution:
So, very simple application of the 1 dimensional form of Newton’s law of viscosity, we have
to keep the top plate moving at 30 centimeter per second. So, let us write down the Newton’s
law of viscosity in the differential form,
883
𝑑𝑣𝑥
Now, replace this differential in terms of difference, substitute the values, (Given data μ =
0.001 and velocity difference is 0.3, because the bottom plate is stationary and distance is
0.1m)
∆𝑣𝑥 0.3−0 𝑁
τ𝑦𝑥 = μ ∆𝑦
= 0. 001 0.1−0
=+ 0. 003 2
𝑚
This velocity is velocity of the fluid clinks to the top plate. So, velocity of the fluid is same as
velocity of the plate. And so, you get a value of 0.003 Newton per meter square that is a force
required to keep the plate moving at 30 centimeter per second. And this value is constant
between the two plate, does not depend on the distance between the two plates.
Now, how do you interpret this, shear force per unit area required to maintain motion of top
plate. So, we have to apply a force on the top plate in the positive x direction, we have to pull
the plate; and so, force acting on the plate in the positive x direction is 0.003. Now when top
plate will try to pull the liquid along the positive x direction; at the bottom plate what you
have is, this fluid will try to pull the plate in the positive x direction.
So, shear force per unit area exerted by the fluid on the bottom plate is 0.003 and that is what
this positive sign indicates. At the top, force is exerted by the top plate on the fluid. So, top
plate tries to pull the fluid to the right, force is exerted by the top plate on the fluid in the
positive x direction. At the bottom, force is exerted by the fluid on the bottom plate along the
positive x direction.
So, sign convention is important; in this case if it is by the fluid, then it will be negative x
direction and if it is on the fluid, it will be in the negative x direction. Here we are interested
in what is the force on the plate? So, that is on the positive x direction.
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Let us look at another example, a very practical example of measurement of viscosity. Before
even going to the example, like to explain the significance of a geometry; what the geometry
here? The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of two 40
centimeter long concentric cylinders. So, we have two cylinders, two concentric cylinders
and that is our configuration.
Now, why are we interested in this configuration. Now what I have shown in right hand side,
is similar to the example which we have seen earlier; but here the top plate is stationary, the
bottom plate is kept in motion. Now this configuration is very simple for two reasons;
number one the velocity profile is linear, we always like to have some simple velocity profile,
the simplest velocity profile is linear velocity profile.
And then the shear stress, as we have seen in the previous case which is derivate depends on
the derivative of velocity is a constant; it does not vary between the two plates. So, one of the
simplest configurations is this, the flow between two parallel plates; that is why throughout
our discussion we have been taking this example.
We have used this to explain the difference between solids and fluids; that is example we
took remember, we took this example to illustrate difference between solids and fluids. We
also took this example to illustrate the 1 dimensional form of Newton’s law of viscosity. So,
in that way very nice example to for such discussion; but now if you want to realize this
configuration in lab, it is very difficult. Imagine you have a plate here, another plate here and
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there is fluid in between and we are setting the plate in motion; how do you realize this in lab
that is difficult.
So, that is why we have a configuration where there are two cylinders and there is fluid
between the two cylinders and you are rotating the inner cylinder and that is why I took this
case, the bottom plate to be set in motion. Now the fluid set in motion between these two
cylinders is analogous to the fluid flow between these two parallel plates. But when is it
valid?
It is valid when the gap between the two cylinders is very small and it is very small, then you
can ignore the curvature and take it that to be equivalent to the flow between the two parallel
plates. And you use this arrangement for measuring measurement of viscosity and when you
make such measurements, the gap is very small, so that you can assume the velocity profile to
be linear. And that is what is shown here, the velocity profiles are shown to be linear here;
when is it valid? The gap between the two cylinders is very less.
So, now let us continue the example, the viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a
viscometer; viscometer is instrument used to measure viscosity. See actual viscometer can
have different configuration, were the principle is this; constructed of two 40 centimeter long
concentric cylinders. The outer diameter of the inner cylinder is 12 centimeter and the gap
between the two cylinders is 0.15 centimeter. Look at the value 0.15 centimeter is a gap, but
the diameter is 12 centimeter.
The inner cylinder is rotated at 300 rpm and then you are measuring the torque which is 2
Newton meter this is a torque meter to measure the torque. Determine the viscosity of the
fluid. A very practical example, which illustrates the use of 1 dimensional form of Newton’s
law of viscosity; more importantly we have discussed how to realize this flow in a laboratory
by having two coaxial cylinders.
First step what we should do is, check really whether the gap is very small. How do you do
that? You divide the gap with the radius, to find out the value
𝐺𝑎𝑝 0.15
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
= 6
= 0. 025≪1
886
So, we can conclude that the curvature effects are negligible; then only we can apply the
simple 1D Newton’s law of viscosity. Velocity profile can be approximated to be linear that is
a conclusion, because the curvature effects are negligible.
So, now, let us apply the Newton’s law of viscosity first in differential form and then we have
written in terms of difference.
𝑑𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑣𝑥
= µ ∆𝑦
So, let us put in terms of words becomes easier to proceed further; the shear stress that is a
left hand side is equal to µ into the velocity difference by the gap. Now we are measuring
torque, we have to find out viscosity. So, what we are going to do now is; find the
relationship between torque and then viscosity, we are proceeding towards that.
So, let us write an expression for torque
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑋 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑋 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Torque is force into the perpendicular distance. The force is the stress into the surface area.
We have related shear stress to the velocity difference in the previous equation. So, let us
substitute that equation, shear stress is equal to mu into velocity difference by the gap; when I
say gap, the distance between the two cylinders multiplied by surface area multiplied by
perpendicular distance.
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = μ 𝑔𝑎𝑝
𝑋 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑋 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
887
So, let us continue, the same expression is written here.
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = μ 𝑔𝑎𝑝
𝑋 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑋 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Now, when I say velocity difference, whenever you say velocity, we mean the linear velocity.
So, how do we convert the angular velocity to linear velocity
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ω𝑅 = 2π𝑛𝑅
So, let us substitute this, torque is denoted by capital T here,
3 2 3
ω𝑅−0 2π𝑅 ω𝐿 4π 𝑅 𝑛𝐿
𝑇 = µ ℎ
𝑋 2π𝑅𝐿 𝑋 𝑅 = µ ℎ
= µ ℎ
So, we have related torque and viscosity. So, let us rewrite this expression for viscosity,
because we have to find out the value of viscosity. So,
𝑇ℎ
µ= 2 3
4π 𝑅 𝑛𝐿
So, all the values are known; torque is measured, h is a gap between the two cylinders which
is 0.15 centimeter, R the radius is 6 centimeter; n the speed of rotation is 300 rpm. We have to
substitute as rps, so 5 rps; L is 40 centimeter, substitute all in terms of SI units and then if you
evaluate you will get
888
𝑇ℎ
μ= 2 3 = 0. 176 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠
4π 𝑅 𝑛𝐿
For water it is 0.001; which means, you really have a viscous liquid between the two
cylinders.
889
Lecture – 78
Newton’s Law of Viscosity: 3D Form
We have recalled the difference between solids and fluids, strain for solids strain rate for
fluids. And, we listed the assumptions for the stress strain rate relationship and we looked at
the one dimensional form of Newton’s law of viscosity and simple application. With all this
background, now we can almost write down the 3D form of Newton’s law of viscosity for
fluids.
Especially, having understood the difference between solids and fluids in terms of strain,
strain rate we will be able to do that very easily. So, let us do that. So, let us start with writing
the Hook’s law for solids moment we say Hook’s law, the assumptions follow immediately
homogeneous, isotropic, linear elastic solid.
So, let us write down all the six relationships expressing stress in terms of strain
890
Remember, we expressed Hook’s law both in terms of strain in terms of stress and stress in
terms of strain, what is relevant to us and what is important to us is stress in terms of strain.
Because, the Newton’s law of viscosity we want is stress in terms of strain rate. So, that we
can substitute in the linear momentum balance, so, that is why we take the Hook’s law which
expresses stress in terms of strain.
Now, let us write the other expressions also for the components of strain tensor. The
expressions for the components of strain tensor in terms of displacement gradients
∂ux ∂uy ∂uz

εxx = ∂x
; εyy = ∂y
; εzz = ∂z
εxy = 1
2 ( ∂uy
∂x
+
∂ux
∂y ); εyz = 1
2 ( ∂uz
∂y
+
∂uy
∂z ); εzx = 1
2 ( ∂ux
∂z
+
∂uz
∂x )
And,
∂ux ∂uy ∂uz

∇.u = ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
The first two lines expresses in terms stress in terms of the strain, but we have to express
finally, in terms of the displacement gradients, because they are the measurable ones.
Now, let us write down the Newton’s law of viscosity. We did a small derivation to arrive at
the Hook’s law of solids, but for the case of Newton’s law of viscosity having understood the
difference between solids and fluids I would say analogy between solids and fluids, we know
what variables to be replaced. So, let us write down the Newton’s law of viscosity for fluids.
So, moment we say Newton’s law of viscosity assumptions follow, homogeneous, isotropic,
linear viscous fluid. In the case of solids it is elastic solid, in the case of fluids; it is viscous
fluid. So, let us write down the expression analogously for Newton’s law of viscosity.
τ xx = 2με˙xx + λ∇.v τ xy = 2με˙ xy
τ yy = 2με˙ yy + λ∇.v τ yz = 2με˙ yz
τ zz = 2με˙ zz + λ∇.v τ zx = 2με˙ zx
So, these expressions are for the viscous stress, total stress if we recall it has two components
hydrostatic stress and viscous stress. These are the expressions for the viscous stress; we will
have to just add the pressure part as hydrostatic part.
891
So, now left hand side is viscous stress components or viscous stress tensor and right hand
side what are the replacements we have done, we know that for solids it is strain for fluids it
is strain rate, because strain rate plays the same role for fluids as strain plays for solids. So,
replace the normal strain with the normal strain rate and then what else I have replaced we
know that so, the displacement field, we have the velocity field here.
So, this term represents some of the normal strains instead of that here we have ∇.v which
is divergence of velocity and it represents some of the normal strain rates, or some of the
diagonal components of the strain rate tensor. What other changes are made? The property G
is for solids the analogous property for fluids is viscosity, μ .
So, G relates shear stress and shear strain, μ relates shear stress and shear strain rate. So, that
is why we replace G with μ . So, if you make these replacements you get the equations for
the Newton’s law of viscosity for fluids. So, now, what we have done is expressed the normal
viscous stresses and viscous shear stresses in terms of the strain rates.
Now, these set of six equations constitute the Newton’s law of viscosity for fluids in the three
dimensional case. For one dimensional case, we looked at only the one equation. Now, we
got a three dimensional case so, we got six equations relating six components of viscous
stress tensor to the six components of strain rate tensor.
So, now as I told you have to express the components of strain tensor in terms of
displacement gradient that is what we have done for solids. Similarly, here we have to
express the components of strain rate tensor, in terms of the velocity gradient.
ε̇xx = ∂x
; ε˙ yy = ∂y
; ε˙ zz = ∂z
ε̇xy = 1
2 ( ∂v y
∂x
+
∂v x
∂y ); ε˙ yz = 1
2 ( ∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z ); ε˙ zx = 1
2 ( ∂v x
∂z
+
∂v z
∂x )
And,
∇.v = ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
Now, like we did for solids, let us connect this with what we have discussed earlier.
892
So, we have a recall slide here, what we discussed earlier was we derived or we I would say
wrote down the expression relating dvx , dvy , dvz and dx , dy , dz in 2 different ways; one by
the first equation. Secondly, either this or this equation.
First was in terms of one velocity gradient tensor, second case we wrote it as some of in
second case we wrote in terms of the strain rate tensor and the rotation rate tensor ok. So,
based on these two different ways of expressing the relationship between dvx , dvy , dvz and
dx , dy , dz . We concluded that this velocity gradient tensor is a sum of strain rate tensor and
rotation rate tensor. Of course, here we have expressed in terms of the velocity gradients.
893
So, once again I recall slide expressing the velocity gradient tensor, in terms of a strain rate
tensor and rotation rate tensor. And, in terms of a nomenclature L (Velocity gradient tensor)
and then D (Strain rate tensor), and then W (Rotation rate tensor).
Now, we also discussed that and this was in fact, once again the last slide, when we discussed
strain rate for fluids. We said rigid body motion of fluid namely translation of fluid, rigid
body rotation of fluid is not related to viscous stress, rate of deformation of fluid which
includes normal and shear strain rate, that only is related to the viscous stress.
And, strain rate tensor not velocity gradient tensor is related to viscous stress tensor. So, you
said relate viscous stress tensor to velocity more precisely velocity gradient still more
precisely components of strain rate tensor, and that is what we have done today. We have
related the components of viscous stress tensor, to the components of strain rate tensor.
894
So, let us look at it again in a more little more detailed way components of viscous stress
tensor in terms of components of strain rate tensor. So, we are writing expression for the six
independent components of stress tensor here. And, we are writing that in terms of the six
independence components of strain rate tensor, that is what we set forth as our objective and
that is what we are doing in today’s class.
So, let us write down the expression these expressions are same as what we have seen two
slides back just rewriting them. So, that now you can look at them as relationships connecting
stress viscous stress tensor and strain rate tensor.
τ xx = 2με˙xx + λ∇.v τ xy = 2με˙ xy
τ yy = 2με˙ yy + λ∇.v τ yz = 2με˙ yz
τ zz = 2με˙ zz + λ∇.v τ zx = 2με˙ zx
They are all in terms of the components of strain rate tensor. So, now, we will have to express
the components of strain rate tensor in terms of velocity gradient.
ε̇xx = ∂x
; ε˙ yy = ∂y
; ε˙ zz = ∂z
ε̇xy = 1
2 ( ∂v y
∂x
+ ∂v x
∂y ); ε˙ yz = 1
2 ( ∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z ); ε˙ zx = 1
2 ( ∂v x
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂x )
And,
895
∇.v = ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
So, now we will substitute these expressions in the six equations ok. And, express the viscous
stresses in terms of the velocity gradients.
τ xx = 2μ
∂v x
∂x
+ λ∇.v τ xy = μ ( ∂v y
∂x
+
∂v x
∂y )
τ yy = 2μ
∂v y
∂y
+ λ∇.v τ yz = μ ( ∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z )
τ zz = 2μ
∂v z
∂z
+ λ∇.v τ zx = μ ( ∂v x
∂z
+
∂v z
∂x )
Of course, divergence of v is also expressed in terms of the velocity gradients.
∇.v = ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
So let us put them all compactly in form of a tensor notation or a matrix notation
τ = [τ xx τ xy τ zx τ xy τ yy τ yz τ zx τ yz τ zz ]
This is a viscous stress tensor, has good physical significance, but when we introduced it was
a not measurable. Now, moment we expressed in terms of the components of strain rate
tensor,
τ = [2με˙xx + λ∇.v 2με˙ xy 2με˙ zx 2με˙ xy 2με˙ yy + λ∇.v 2με˙ yz 2με˙ zx 2με˙ yz 2με˙ zz + λ∇.v ]
896
And further expressed in terms of velocity gradients it becomes measurable. Because,
velocity is measurable velocity gradients are measurable.
[
τ = 2μ ∂v x
∂x
+ λ∇.v μ ( ∂v y
∂x
+
∂v x
∂y )μ( ∂v x
∂z
+
∂v z
∂x )μ( ∂v y
∂x
+
∂v x
∂y ) 2μ ∂v y
∂y
+ λ∇.v μ ( ∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z )μ( ∂v x
∂z
+
∂v z
∂x )
And, hence this equation, which expresses τ in terms of velocity gradients makes τ
indirectly measurable not directly measurable, but now we can calculate we can calculate the
viscous stresses. Of course, it has 2 properties namely viscosity and then λ .
Now, of course, nothing more discussed in this slide, because whatever we discussed in terms
of components has been put here in terms of some tensor notation. The viscous stress tensor
in terms of components of strain rate tensor, in terms of velocity gradients or in fact, in terms
of components of the strain rate tensor, expressed in terms of velocity gradients ok. Now, as I
told you there are 2 constants mu and lambda. Now, what we will see in the next slide is how
does this get simplified for the case of incompressible flow? We have seen that for the case of
incompressible flow ∇.v = 0 .
So, you what you see here? In the case of incompressible flow tau is equal to of course, there
is no change in the off diagonal elements, we had λ∇.v in the diagonal elements. So, that
does not appear here.
[
τ = 2μ ∂v x
∂x
μ ( ∂v y
∂x
+
∂v x
∂y )μ( ∂v x
∂z
+
∂v z
∂x )μ( ∂v y
∂x
+
∂v x
∂y ) 2μ ∂v y
∂y
μ ( ∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z )μ( ∂v x
∂z
+
∂v z
∂x )μ( ∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z )
897
Also like to emphasize that, when the flow is incompressible, there is only one material
property namely viscosity. We set for a homogeneous, isotropic, linear viscous fluid there are
two material properties, which were μ and λ .
Now, if you make one more assumption incompressible flow, then λ also is not required you
require only one material property namely viscosity. And, why are we simplifying for
incompressible flow, most of the flows are within our engineering curriculum can be simplify
to incompressible flow. So, more practical flow I would say.
Let us take out 2 μ and you get as this tensor.
τ = 2μ [ ∂v x 1
∂x 2 ( ∂v y
∂x
+
∂v x
∂y ) (
1
2
∂v x
∂z
+
∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v y
∂x
+
∂v x
∂y ) ∂v y 1
∂y 2 ( ∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z ) (
1
2
∂v x
∂z
+
∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z ) ∂v z
∂z ]
Now this is the strain rate tensor. And, which we denoted as capital D, that is why I also
recall the nomenclature.
τ = 2μ X Strain rate tensor
τ = 2μD
So, viscous stress tensor expressed in terms of the strain rate tensor. And, this is what we
exactly we wanted to do express viscous stress tensor in terms of strain rate tensor.
898
Now, having expressed the viscous stress tensor in terms of measurables, we can also extend
that for total stress tensor, total stress tensor in terms of components is given by
T = [T xx T xy T zx T xy T yy T yz T zx T yz T zz ]
And, of course, once again at this point it is not measurable, then we express the total stress
tensor in terms of a hydrostatic stress tensor and viscous stress tensor. In terms of
components this is how it looks like.
T =− pI + τ
[T xx T xy T zx T xy T yy T yz T zx T yz T zz ] =− p [1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 ] + [τ xx τ xy τ zx τ xy τ yy τ yz τ zx τ yz τ zz ]
Left hand side you have components of total stress tensor, the hydrostatic stress how do you
express you have minus p into identity tensor or unit matrix in simple language and that is
what is written here.
And, then this tau is represented here as components of the viscous stress tensor at this
moment you express this way the first term is measurable, because pressure is measurable,
still second term is not measurable and that is what we have done in today’s class.
T =− pI + 2μD
So, moment you express in terms of 2μD , D is the strain rate tensor that is measurable. So, at
moment you write in this way now total stress tensor has been expressed in terms of
measurables that is the key.
[
τ = 2μ
∂v x
∂x
μ ( ∂v y
∂x
+
∂v x
∂y )μ( ∂v x
∂z
+
∂v z
∂x )μ( ∂v y
∂x
+
∂v x
∂y ) 2μ ∂v y
∂y
μ ( ∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z )μ( ∂v x
∂z
+
∂v z
∂x )μ( ∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z )
This expression we have seen for tau in terms of the velocity gradients and so, let us
substitute very simple just − p gets added to the diagonal elements that all happens. Because,
hydrostatic stress, remember we discussed for a fluid under static condition, there are no
shear stresses, there are only normal stresses and that normal stresses pressure and is
compress compressive in nature hence -p.
[
T = − p + 2μ
∂v x
∂x
μ ( ∂v y
∂x
+ ∂v x
∂y )μ( ∂v x
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂x )μ( ∂v y
∂x
+ ∂v x
∂y ) − p + 2μ
∂v y
∂y
μ ( ∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z )μ( ∂v x
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂x )μ
When you add, − p gets added only to the diagonal elements, because you have only normal
stresses under fluids under static condition for a fluid under static condition. So, which is the
899
pressure and of course, − p, because it is compressive. So, that is the expression for total
stress tensor in terms of measurables.
Now, once again to relate what we have discussed long time back, we have found the answer
for a long standing problem namely the closure problem. Let me recall after deriving the
linear momentum balance with the viscous stresses on the right hand side, we did a degree of
freedom analysis. What did we do? We write down the differential form of total mass balance
and of course, the 3 linear momentum balance equations and the equation of state.
900
And, then we counted
the number of independent variables = 11
the number of equations = 5 and we said
Degree of freedom = 11 – 5 = 6
So, 6 variables are unknown, and what are the 6 variables they are the components of the
viscous stress tensor. And, then we said to close the problem, what does closing the problem
means expressing these unknown variables in terms of the known variables, which are
existing in the equation already.
We said we need to express viscous stress tensor in terms of velocity gradients and that is
what exactly we have done today, which means that we have closed the problem we have
solved the closure problem. We have closed the set of equations.
Now, if you do a degree of freedom analysis. You will have,
The number of independent variables = 11 and then
the number of equations = 5 + 6 = 11 (6 more equations for every component of τ )
Degree of freedom = 11 – 11 = 0
That is what we mean by closing a set of equations. So, we have solved the closure problem,
which has been therefore, several classes.
Now, like to introduce one nomenclature here called constitutive equation. The stress strain
rate relationship, which in our case is the Newton’s law of viscosity is a example for a
constitutive equation. What we have derived here are all conservation equations. We
conservation of mass, conservation of momentum etcetera, but when you write there are
some variables, there are some let us say unknowns and we have to give expressions for those
unknowns, in terms of already known variables and that relationship is the constitutive
relationship.
901
So, the constitutive equation relate unknown variables in terms of known variables in the
conservation equations. In this particular case τ or the unknown’s variables, the velocities
are the known variables, we express τ in terms of velocity.
What do they do? They help to close the conservation equations; otherwise they are not
closed. Close meaning we have seen reducing the degree of freedom to 0. Otherwise, we have
degree of freedom more than 0. And, these constitutive equations are mostly or always
experimentally obtained, we have seen that a Newton’s law of viscosity is experimentally
observed relationship. And, then μ is a proportionally factor etcetera.
And, correspondingly they describe behavior of a material. In this particular case, what
behavior in this particular case they describe the mechanical behavior of fluids, stress strain
rate. Later on we will see that we will come across few more constitutive equations, one in
energy balance, one in species balance, they help to describe the thermal behavior or
diffusion behavior etcetera.
So, constitutive equation is a very general name. They are empirical; they help to close the set
of equations. Mostly they describe a behavior, even when you will see in species balance that
the rate equation the kinetic equation is also a constitutive equation. So, mostly they represent
material behavior, but that could be other constitutive equations also.
902
So, in terms of summary of course, we have discussed the Newton’s law of viscosity. Almost,
we wrote down the Newton’s law of viscosity I would say, because we derived the Hook’s
law relating stress and strain, we will have to just do a few replacement of variables we could
get the Newton’s law of viscosity relating viscous stress and strain rate. And, so, now, we are
ready to substitute this viscous stress strain relationship here and get the Navier strokes
equation.
903
So, in terms of summary we discussed a constitutive relation. I used a more formal
terminology a constitutive relation between viscous stress tensor and strain rate tensor and we
emphasize that it is material dependent. And, so, we discussed the assumptions just like for
Hook’s law; namely, homogeneous, isotropic, linear viscous fluid.
And, we discussed the Newton’s law of viscosity for 1 dimensional case and 3 dimensional
case, we express the viscous stress tensor in terms of strain rate tensor or velocity gradients
that is a Newton’s law of viscosity. And, finally we expressed viscous stress tensor in terms
of measurables and that is a big thing we have done.
904
Lecture – 79
Navier Stokes Equation
Having understood, total stress, strain rate, Newton’s law of viscosity, by going back and
forth between solid mechanics and fluid mechanics. Now, we are ready to derive the Navier
Stokes equation we have gathered all the background knowledge. So, writing Navier Stokes
equation are almost writing the Navier Stokes equation, just 2 steps or 3 steps of derivation
and we will be at the Navier Stokes equation.
905
And, and terms of our journey to the Navier Stokes, because very obvious we are at the last
station. Namely, writing down the Navier Stokes, deriving the Navier Stokes equation using
the stress strain rate relationship just derived. Of course for a change there is no outline
reason is there is only one line which is Navier Stokes equation.
So, let us do that. The starting point is the linear momentum balance equation. So, our
starting point is the linear momentum balance equation of course, there are 3 equations one
for each direction, let us write down the equation for the x direction.
906
∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
= ρg x − ∂x
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
Just to recall left hand side you have transient term, the convection term, right hand side you
have all the forces, the body force because of gravity. And, then you have surface forces
namely pressure and then the viscous stresses.
So, now we will have to express this τ xx , τ yx , τ zx in terms of the strain rates or the velocity
gradients. So, we will use the Newton’s law of viscosity, which is the constitutive equation,
when at this stage of linear momentum balance equation, it is an exact theatrical equation. Of
course, in terms of body forces we have included only that due to gravity. Other than that
there is hardly any assumption of course, the viscous stress tensor is symmetric even that is
almost universally valid.
So, in that way, the linear momentum balance equation is the theoretical equation. Moment I
go to the next step; so many assumptions have to be made that has to be emphasized. So,
moment I substitute Newton’s of viscosity, that equation is applicable only for homogeneous,
isotropic, linear viscous fluid, that has to be kept in mind.
On top of that we are going to restrict only to incompressible flow, the Newton’s law
viscosity what we have written there was a term for compressible flow as well, but we are
considering only incompressible flow. So, one more assumption added to the above list.
So, now let us write down the Newton’s law of viscosity for incompressible flow.
τ xx = 2μ
∂v x
∂x
; τ xy = μ ( ∂v y
∂x
+ ∂v x
∂y ); τ zx = μ ( ∂v x
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂x )
So, out of six equations we require now only three of them. So, now, what we will do, take
the three terms which represent the net viscous force per unit volume in the right hand side.
And, then simplify because all other term there is nothing to discuss nothing to simplify also.
We will have to take three terms substitute the Newton’s law of viscosity and then simplify.
Let us do that, they represent net viscous force per unit volume.
So, let us write down them and then substitute.
∂τ xx
∂x
+
∂τ yx
∂y
+
∂τ zx
∂z
= ∂
∂x (2μ ) + [μ (
∂v x
∂x
∂
∂y
∂v y
∂x
+
∂v x
∂y )] + [μ ( ∂
∂z
∂v x
∂z
+
∂v z
∂x )]
907
So, let us simplify this equation. So, same equation is being written here.
∂τ xx
∂x
+
∂τ yx
∂y
+ ∂τ zx
∂z
= ∂
∂x (2μ ) + [μ (
∂v x
∂x
∂
∂y
∂v y
∂x
+ ∂v x
∂y )] + [μ ( ∂
∂z
∂v x
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂x )]
In this equation μ is inside the special derivative. So, this equation can account for spatial
variation of viscosity and why should viscosity vary as a function of space, because of
probably change in temperature.
But, now we will make one more assumption that viscosity is a constant, so that I can take μ
out of the derivative, which means that the equation, which I going to write after this cannot
be used, if viscosity is varying as a function of space. So, let us take out μ then let us expand
the derivatives.
=μ ( ∂ 2 vx
∂x2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂x2
+
∂ 2 vy
∂x∂y
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂y 2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂z 2
+ ∂ 2 vz
∂z∂x )
So, now let us collect few terms together and, then from the remaining terms we will take out
∂
∂x and what is left out are
=μ ( ∂ 2 vx
∂x2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂y 2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂z 2 )+μ ( ∂
∂x
∂v x
∂x
+
∂v y
∂y
+ ∂v z
∂z )
Of course, the second term is the divergence of velocity field and we are considering
incompressible flow which mean this is 0.
908
∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
So, we are left with only the first three terms alone .
∂τ xx
∂x
+
∂τ yx
∂y
+
∂τ zx
∂z
=μ ( ∂ 2 vx
∂x2
+
∂ 2 vx
∂y 2
+
∂ 2 vx
∂z 2 )
So, the three terms which represented the net viscous force on the right hand side, get
simplified to this term.
So, this only matter of replacement,
∂(ρv x )
∂t
+ ∂(ρv x v x )
∂x
+
∂(ρv y v x )
∂y
+ ∂(ρv z v x )
∂z
= ρg x − ∂p
∂x
+μ ( ∂ 2 vx
∂x2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂y 2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂z 2 )
The left hand side is same and, right hand side the body force and pressure term is also same,
earlier we had the in terms of derivatives of the viscous stresses and now we have simplified
them to this term. And, similarly other directions, we know that we had linear momentum
balance one for each direction.
∂(ρv y )
∂t
+
∂(ρv x v y )
∂x
+
∂(ρv y v y )
∂y
+
∂(ρv z v y )
∂z
= ρg y − ∂p
∂y
+μ ( ∂ 2 vy
∂x2
+
∂ 2 vy
∂y 2
+
∂ 2 vy
∂z 2 )
∂(ρv z )
∂t
+ ∂(ρv x v z )
∂x
+
∂(ρv y v z )
∂y
+ ∂(ρv z v z )
∂z
= ρg z − ∂p
∂z
+μ ( ∂ 2 vz
∂x2
+ ∂ 2 vz
∂y 2
+ ∂ 2 vz
∂z 2 )
So, similarly we have the Navier Stokes equation also for one for each direction. And, of
course you can put in a vector notation
909
∂(ρv x ) ∂p
∂t
+ ∇.ρvv x = ρg x − ∂x
+ μ∇2 v x
So, that way this equation is more compact, how to understand this? If, we had ρv x , ρv y ,
ρv z alone, then it would have been divergence of ρv vector, that is what appeared in the
continuity equation or differential mass balance equation, we have an additional v x here.
Similarly, we can write in the other directions, y direction and z direction.
∂(ρv y ) ∂p
∂t
+ ∇.ρvv y = ρg y − ∂y
+ μ∇2 v y
∂(ρv z ) ∂p
∂t
+ ∇.ρvv z = ρg z − ∂z
+ μ∇2 v z
And, now we can compare the differential total mass balance and the linear momentum
balance equation,
∂(ρ) ∂(ρv x ) ∂(ρv y ) ∂(ρv z )

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
that is a differential total mass balance equation. And, the differential linear momentum
balance equation, in terms of the Navier stoke equation is what I have derived just now.
∂(ρv x )
∂t
+
∂(ρv x v x )
∂x
+
∂(ρv y v x )
∂y
+
∂(ρv z v x )
∂z
= ρg x −
∂p
∂x
+μ ( ∂ 2 vx
∂x2
+
∂ 2 vx
∂y 2
+
∂ 2 vx
∂z 2 )
So, to compare we have the transient term in both and, we have here the convection term in
both. Of course, there the terms where for mass, here it is for momentum, right hand side we
had just 0 for the case of mass balance, but for momentum, we have all the forces. The body
910
force and the surface forces; surface force due to pressure and then viscous stresses, and that
is the comparison between these two. And, we will build on the slide after we derive
differential balance for energy and then species mass also, you know that all equations can be
compared.
The Navier Stokes equation can also be put in the material particle view point, we have
already done this for linear momentum balance,
∂(ρv x )
∂t
+ ∂(ρv x v x )
∂x
+
∂(ρv y v x )
∂y
+ ∂(ρv z v x )
∂z
= ρg x − ∂p
∂x
+μ ( ∂ 2 vx
∂x2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂y 2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂z 2 )
What we had done earlier is. The right hand side when it was in terms of the stresses, for the
linear momentum balance we took the left hand side expressed in terms of D/Dt.
We already done that to tell you in short, we just expand we just use product rule and express
all the derivatives. And, collect terms in terms of ρ and then v x . So, left hand side becomes
ρ Dv
Dt
x
right hand side of course,
ρ Dv
Dt
x
= ρg x −
∂p
∂x
+μ ( ∂ 2 vx
∂x2
+
∂ 2 vx
∂y 2
+
∂ 2 vx
∂z 2 )
This is the more popular form of Navier Stokes equation. Though we have derived in this
way, the left hand side with ρ Dv
Dt
x
is a more popular form. And, in vector notation you can
represent still more compactly,
911
Dv x
ρ Dt
= ρg − ∇p + μ∇2 v
So, very compact notation of the Navier Stokes equation. Of course, we know
∂p ∂p ∂p
v = v x i + v y j + v z k; g = g x i + g y j + g z k; ∇p = ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
And, to summarize we have derived the Navier stoke equation, as I told you with all the
knowledge we have we just few steps to get the Navier Stokes equation, we took the viscous
stress tensor terms on the right hand side of the linear momentum balance ok. And, expressed
the those components of viscous stress tensor in terms of strain rate tensor or the velocity
gradients, moment we do that simple few steps we could get the Navier Stokes equation.
Now, in terms of our journey we have reached the destination and we just discuss the last
block here, which says Navier Stokes equation. Now, if you have a long journey after
you reach the destination you are happy. And, of course, whomever you people you meet you
recall whatever you experienced through the journey ok. It could be several people, we can
also see that here we met Reynolds we met somebody called stress, somebody called let us
say pressure, Cauchy we had somebody call strain, and then we had Newton of course, and
then Navier stokes.
So, we learnt lot of them from each of these people as well or if you make this analogous to
different places, may be you went to several places explored several places as you travelled.
And, so, you wish to recall all this. And, that is what we will do now, we will also recall
912
quickly our journey, we have repeated this several times I would say almost before every
lecture and in between lectures as well.
So, one last time you will go through this slide starting from beginning to the end and at
every stage we will have some few recall slides ok, that is how the summary is planned. So,
let us start with the Newton’s law for system that is where everything began, we applied the
Reynolds transport theorem and then we got the integral form of linear momentum balance,
and here are the slides.
Just only few summary slides from each so, this equation represents the Newton’s second law
of motion for a system, rate of change of momentum sum of forces acting on the system.
913
We applied the Reynolds transport theorem. So, the left hand side was expressed in terms of a
transient term and a convection term for the control volume, right hand side was still in terms
of system we took a coincident system and control volume. So, right hand side became that
for the control volume. And, that is the integral form of linear momentum balance equation.
So, we were here. Now, what did we do we took small control volume, applied the integral
linear momentum balance for a small control volume. And obtain the differential form of the
914
linear momentum balance, the left hand side and gravity on the right hand side and that is
what we will see now.
We took the integral form of linear momentum balance for a small fixed control volume.
And, then expressed the transient term and the convection term, as applicable to this small
control volume, and obtain the left hand side of the linear momentum balance, the transient
term and the convection term.
915
Now, we also on the right hand side we had the body forces and the surface forces at that
point of time we discussed only the body forces, that due to only the gravitational effect.
And, then we discuss the body forces rho into g vector. So, at end of this we were here, the
differential form of linear momentum balance the left hand side and gravity on right hand
side. We need to understand the surface forces, we need to express them, understand that we
took our first diversion to solid mechanics; we discuss this block stress vector and stress
tensor.
916
So, few slides from there, so the stress vector and the components of the stress tensor.
Then, we related these two the stress vector to the components of stress tensor using the
Cauchy’s formula.
So, we completed this block we extended this knowledge to fluids then we discussed these
two blocks, total stress, fluid under rest and pressure and viscous stress tensor.
917
Some slides from here. So, once again stress vector, but now components of total stress
tensor in terms of T.
Once again we related stress vector two components of total stress tensor by the Cauchy’s
formula.
918
Then to proceed further we discuss the difference between solids and fluids we said fluid
under rest cannot sustain shear stress.
Based on that, we discussed the stress in a fluid under static condition, which is normal
stress, which is pressure the thermodynamic pressure and is compressive hence − p.
919
So, we got the component of total stress tensor under hydrostatic condition.
So, we expressed total stress, in terms of hydrostatic stress and a viscous stress. So, and that
is what we discussed here, fluid at rest total stress tensor in terms of pressure and viscous
stress tensor.
920
So, having understood the surface forces, we could we substituted here and then completed
the differential form of linear momentum balance, gravity was already discussed we included
pressure and viscous stress on the right hand side and few slides from there.
So, now our attention was on the surface forces, specific attention was on the surface forces,
we express the surface force for pressure and for the viscous stress.
921
And, then we combined with our earlier transient term convection term and the gravity on the
right hand side, along with that we included the surface forces due to pressure and viscous
stresses represented by all this 4 I would say control volumes.
And, then we derived the complete form of the linear momentum balance. I would say we
completed the linear momentum balance, till this point we already derived, these two terms or
these two set of terms where newly added. At this stage we were here differential form of the
linear momentum balance with gravity pressure viscous stress on the right hand side.
Look liked we are almost there, but then we will have to know more to proceed further. It is
like reaching a big station and one station before you are put for a long time you do not get a
signal to proceed further. Something like that we are there, what was objective we did a
degree of freedom analysis and found that the viscous stresses are not known they are
unknowns. We will have to express in terms of the velocities of course, now we not the
velocity gradients.
922
Then, we took a the second diversion to solid mechanics, discussed about normal strain, shear
strain, express them in terms of the displacement gradients.
The normal strain in terms of displacement gradient, the shear strain in terms of displacement
gradients.
923
And, more importantly we discussed that the displacement gradient tensor a sum of strain
tensor and rotation tensor. And, we also said that the stress tensor has to be related to the
strain tensor. Now, at that point we have completed these two blocks. We will have to extend
that knowledge analogues to fluids, where we discuss the strain rate and strain rate tensor.
Few slides from there, we have once again discuss the difference between solids and fluids to
understand that it is strain for solids and strain rate for fluids. Force depends on stain for
solids and force depends on strain rate for fluids.
924
And, we discussed normal strain rate and shear strain rate, we said they are material
derivatives of normal strain and shear strain, and then we related the normal strain rate to
velocity gradient, shear strain rate to velocity gradient
925
And, once again more importantly we discussed, the velocity gradient tensor a sum of a strain
rate tensor and rotation rate tensor. Once again we said the objective is to relate viscous stress
tensor to the strain rate tensor.
So, at that point we had discussed these two blocks. Now, having understood stress and strain
and viscous stress and strain rate, next step was to relate these two for solids through Hooke’s
law and for fluids through Newton’s law of viscosity. So, once again we took a diversion to
solid mechanics and discuss the assumptions now, because they are material dependent.
926
And, came back to fluid mechanics just wrote down the Newton’s law. And, all those are
summarized in one slide here Hooke’s law of solids assumptions and for Newton’s law of
viscosity and the assumptions here. And, these six equations represent a Hooke’s law, by
change of variables we obtain 6 equations representing Newton’s law of viscosity and that
point we had completed these two blocks. So, now it is a matter of substitution of this here
and obtaining here and that is what we have discussed just now.
Took the linear momentum balance equation, then substituted the Newton’s law of viscosity,
few more assumptions we made and obtained the Navier Stokes equation.
927
And, that we reach the destination ok. It has been a long journey and that is why it has been
called as journey to the Navier Stokes. Also like to mention that usually derivations are
considered boring.
Now, we are seen a derivation we can say that we have been deriving from Newton’s law to
Navier Stokes over several hours, several lectures, derivation can be as challenging as
interesting as knowledge as knowledge gaining as we have seen ok. We have learned so,
many concepts so, many assumptions wherever required and so, derivation helps to know the
scope of application of a particular equation.
And, once we derive you also know the physical significance of each of the terms in an
∂v x ∂v x
equation. Otherwise, they are there is some term the ∂x
. But, now if you look at ∂x
you
know the physical significance of that particular term. Similarly, all other terms in the
equation.
Those advantages of doing a detailed derivation, fundamentals becomes very strong. So, now,
we will have to look at applications of the Navier Stokes equation, which we will discuss in
the next classes.
928
Lecture – 80
Fluid at Rest : Pressure Distribution
We have derived the Navier-Stokes Equation starting from the differential form of the linear
momentum balance. So, now, it is time for us to look at applications of the Navier-Stokes
equation and that is what is highlighted here. If you look at the words which are highlighted
says linear momentum balance and we are going to look at the application of differential
form of that, that is why that is also highlighted.
And then the differential form what you derived is the Navier-Stokes equation and that is
highlighted. We are going to look at application so, that is highlighted and of course, the
applications of differential balance equations that is the connection between the highlighted
words here.
929
Now, when we began and deriving the differential form of linear momentum balance, we
discuss the applications of that and we discussed very detail applications. I would say
research level applications both which are old and then new, very traditional applications and
then even contemporary applications and recent applications we discussed. But and then we
later on discussed this particular slide; so, it is a recall slide. We said though the applications
can be to any level of detail, we are going to restrict to simple applications.
So, this slide was discussed earlier. So, right time has now come to really look at this
application, solve this applications. So, what are the applications we will be looking at? The
first one is application for pressure drop measurement using U tube manometer, second one
you have a body of liquid translating; let us say water tanker lorry and what is what how does
the surface look what is the pressure distribution and what is the pressure distribution in a
converging nozzle.
And then of course, more importantly flow between two parallel plates; one in which one is
fixed, the top plate is moving other in which the two plates are fixed, but flow is because of a
pump. So, we have looked at this profile several times earlier, we have taken it as given to us
you know we always kept saying that towards end of fluid mechanics part we will be deriving
them. And, now as part of this applications, we will derive these velocity expressions and we
will also plot this profiles both for both the cases. So, that gives rough idea of what are the
applications which are in store for us.
930
Now, how do we classify these applications? We are going to look at applications

hierarchically, what does it mean? We are going to start from simple applications and go to
complex applications. In fact, we are going to start the simplest application, what could that
be fluids at rest. Not alone fluids at rest, but fluid moving in rigid body motion, what does it
mean? If you have a container and then fill with some fluid the entire fluid body motion that
is rigid body motion.
We interested in that is pressure distribution; so, we will take up first fluids at rest and in rigid
body motion and look at the pressure distribution, then slowly we evolve. We now allow for
the fluid to flow, but now consider the case where the viscous forces are not significant.
Those are called inviscid flows and where we will discuss the Bernoulli equation. And then
once again we evolve further, we allow for fluid to flow and also consider viscous forces.
They are called as viscous flows and that is where we discuss the flow between the parallel
plates and what are we interested now in the velocity profile or in the velocity distribution.
So, we hierarchically go from the simplest is just fluids at rest to flows with viscous effects.
931
So, now let us start with the first level of applications namely fluids at rest and in rigid body
motion. So, what is the outline? Fluids at rest first; look at the hydrostatic pressure
distribution; we will understand these terms as we go along and then fluids in rigid body
motion where the whole fluid body is subjected to motion and look at pressure distribution.
As we discuss we will understand these outline much more clearly.
So, let us start with fluids at rest; fluids at rest have a tube or a some container and you have a
full of liquid that is all is a fluids at rest. It could be gas, it could be liquid we are going to see
932
both of them. And, now we will have to recall back our discussion on fluids at rest. First, we
discussed about stress for solids and then we came to fluids back and discuss about total
stress and we said total stresses two components; the hydrostatic contribution and the viscous
contribution.
Now, we said fluid under rest has only hydrostatic contribution when it moves, there are
additional contribution namely viscous stresses. Now for the present case the fluids are at rest
and so, there are no additional contribution namely viscous stresses. So, that is why the first
bullet says, there are no viscous stresses both normal stresses and shear stresses.
Now, what is the only stress present in a fluid at rest? It is only the normal stress which is the
pressure which is thermodynamic pressure and the that is why it says pressure is a only of
course, normal stress and it is a surface force. Pressure is a only surface force to be
considered and that is a normal stress. Now let us see, how does the Navier-Stokes equation
get simplified for this condition. Now we have discussed the physics of fluids at rest it is a in
fact, recall we have already discuss that.
Now, we are going to simplify the Navier-Stokes equation for this particular condition. Now,
let us write down the equation

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
Now, when we derive the Navier-Stokes equation, we expressed this viscous stresses normal
in shear stresses in terms of velocity gradients using Newton’s law of viscosity and obtained
this Navier-Stokes equation.
( )
2 2 2
∂(ρ𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑥) ∂𝑝 ∂ 𝑣𝑥 ∂ 𝑣𝑥 ∂ 𝑣𝑥
∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
+μ 2 + 2 + 2
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
The linear momentum balance substituting the Newton’s law of viscosity for the viscous
stresses, we obtained the Navier-Stokes equation.
Now, the left hand side, we have seen can be expressed from a material particle view point.
( )
2 2 2
𝐷𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑝 ∂ 𝑣𝑥 ∂ 𝑣𝑥 ∂ 𝑣𝑥
ρ 𝐷𝑡
+μ 2 + 2 + 2
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
933
In fact, when we discuss the linear momentum balance we took the left hand side and
expressed as the material derivative in and then when we discussed about the Navier-Stokes
also. We quickly recalled that the left hand side can be written in terms of the substantial
derivative and that is a form we have taken. And remember when we discuss applications
almost all the times, we will take the last form of the Navier-Stokes equation.
The left hand side is in terms the substantial derivative of velocity and then these represent
the expanded form of the substantial derivative, the local component and then the convective
component or local acceleration and convective acceleration right hand side of course, the
same terms are present.
Now, for fluids at rest
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑧 = 0
So, the equation get simplified to
∂𝑝
0 = ρ𝑔𝑥 − ∂𝑥
+ 0
So, I have the pressure gradient in the x direction and of course, the viscous stresses terms
will not be present now because in the fluid is stationary and there are no viscous stresses. We
have taken the pressure gradient to the left hand side; the reason is that the variable of interest
for a fluid under rest is that is a pressure.
So, we express always the unknown in terms of the known and that is why the pressure term
or the pressure gradient term has been taken to the left and gravity on the right hand side.
∂𝑝
∂𝑥
= ρ𝑔𝑥
Similarly we can derive for the y direction and for the z direction.
∂𝑝 ∂𝑝
∂𝑦
= ρ𝑔𝑦 ; ∂𝑧
= ρ𝑔𝑧
So, now, the Navier-Stokes equation which was looked so formidable has become very
simple for the case of fluids at rest.
934
Now, to proceed further, we will have to discuss this slide which you have discuss at least
two times earlier which shows the different possibilities of coordinate axis. This is our usual
choice of coordinate axis x along horizontal y along vertical and z perpendicular to the slide
ok. And, we said that it is easy to reduce these two dimensional case looking at the front
view, but gravity now acts along y axis which is not so conventional; always we talk about z
as the vertical coordinate.
So, the choice now will be the third coordinate axis where y is along horizontal, z is along
vertical, x perpendicular to the slide and now advantage is that gravity acts along z direction
which is our usual vertical coordinate. And difficulty we said to reduce to 2D, it is little
difficult. Now what is the view we are going to take? We are not going to take the top view
we are not going to take that. We are going to take this view so, your z axis is going to be
vertical that no doubt about it and x axis going to be the horizontal axis.
So, if you look from this direction, then y is horizontal z is vertical. Now we are going to look
at this direction so, x is going to be horizontal axis z is going to be vertical axis. Why is it
required? In the previous slide, we have written ρ𝑔𝑥, ρ𝑔𝑦, ρ𝑔𝑧, 𝑔𝑥, 𝑔𝑦, 𝑔𝑧 are components of
the g vector. To proceed further we should know the orientation of the coordinate axis that is
why we are discussing this choice of coordinate axis.
935
So, now as I told you this is going to be our axis, x is horizontal. z is vertical and y
perpendicular to the slide. Now having identified the coordinate axis, let us see how do we
proceed.
∂𝑝 ∂𝑝 ∂𝑝
∂𝑥
= ρ𝑔𝑥 ; ∂𝑦
= ρ𝑔𝑦 ; ∂𝑧
= ρ𝑔𝑧
So, these are the equations from the previous to previous slide. Now taking z as the vertical
upward direction and once you take that there is no component of gravity along x direction
so, 𝑔𝑥 = 0. There is no component of gravity along y direction. So, 𝑔𝑦 = 0. Now, the gravity
acts towards the negative z axis and so, 𝑔𝑧 =− 𝑔.
∂𝑝 ∂𝑝 ∂𝑝
∂𝑥
= 0; ∂𝑦
= 0; ∂𝑧
=− ρ𝑔
When I write this g has a value of 9.81 magnitude of g and that is what is shown here. Here
𝑔𝑧 there is the z component of g vector when I write like this, I have taken care of the minus
sign. So, g is just 9.81 or just magnitude of g vector because g acts towards the negative z
axis.
How do you physically interpret this? If you have a fluid pressure does not depend on x
direction, y direction and of course, pressure does depend on the z direction. In fact, depends
only on the z direction.
936
∂𝑝 ∂𝑝 𝑑𝑝
0 = ρ𝑔𝑧 − ∂𝑧
; − ρ𝑔𝑧 = ∂𝑧
; − 𝑑𝑧
= ρ𝑔𝑧
𝑑𝑝
Also like to mention we have written as 𝑑𝑧
, the reason is to begin with we said p can depend
on x, y, z. But now after taking the vertical direction to be along z and x and y are on
horizontal plane and now p depends only on z. So, the partial derivative becomes the total
derivative. Now how do you interpret this is equation or in terms of words how do you put?
𝑑𝑝
What is − 𝑑𝑧
? Net pressure force per unit volume please recall back our discussion on
physical significance of the linear momentum balance.
𝑑𝑝
All the terms in the equation are per unit volume basis. So, right hand side we have − 𝑑𝑧
which represents net pressure force which is the surface force per unit volume and what is
this ρ𝑔𝑧 of course, in the momentum balance, it was on the right side again. And what was
the significance of that? It is gravitational force per unit volume both are per unit volume. So,
one is a surface force other is a body force the surface force is the pressure force and the body
force is the gravitational force.
So, for a fluid under rest these two forces balance that is what is shown here. The net pressure
force per unit volume is equal to the gravitational force per unit volume that is a physical
interpretation of this simple equation. What is a working equation or how do usually write
what is shown here that is how you write.
𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑧
=− ρ𝑔𝑧
This tell you that pressure decreases as we move upward in a fluid at rest. If you are here if
you have still filled with liquid and if you are moving up the liquid there is decrease in
pressure.
So, this tells you that z is upward. So, this tells you pressure decreases as we moved upward
in a fluid at rest. So, like to mention that this equation would be discussed almost in the
second chapter of any fluid mechanics book. Now where we have discussed is almost
towards end of fluid mechanics.
What is the reason? You have fluid mechanics book first talks about fundamentals; the first
chapter, then slowly they evolve starting from fluids at rest. So, their second chapter is fluids
at rest where they consider gravity as a body force and pressure is a surface force and arrive
937
at this relationship. What we have done based on the scope of this course, we started from the
law of physics for the system expressed that for control volume using Reynolds transport
theorem.
We got the integral balance and then we expressed and started from that got the differential
balance. While doing so, we accounted for all the terms I would say we derived all
encompassing Navier-Stokes equation. What do we mean by that? We have transient term the
convection term; we took all the forces into account the body force both the surface was we
are taken into account pressure and viscous stresses.
And now we are simplifying without considering whatever terms which do not play a role
now and we have arrived at the same equation. The equation is same the path in which we
have arrived with this equation is different. Straightaway this equation is derived a second
chapter of fluid mechanics book considering pressure has the only surface force, they will not
consider viscous forces because it is too early to discuss about viscous forces in the second
chapter.
So, only pressure is considered as a only surface force of course, gravity is the body force.
Now we are considered all the terms and then taken out the terms do not contribute and arrive
at the same equation. So, this connection should be clearly understood because we have a
different approach and we should know we are arriving at same equation from a more general
approach to a more specific case. And, that is why I said we are going to start discussing the
application starting from the simpler application not even simpler, simplest application. So, in
this form does not even look like Navier-Stokes.
938
Lecture – 81
Hydrostatic Pressure Distribution in Liquid
How are we going to apply this equation? the main application of this equation is to find out
the pressure distribution in a fluid, more precisely the word is Hydrostatic Pressure
Distribution. Why is hydrostatic? The pressure distribution in a fluid under static condition is
call hydrostatic pressure distribution, that is why we said for a fluid under rest there is only
normal stress because of pressure.
So, that pressure distribution is call hydrostatic, also like to mention which I will discuss later
also. When we discuss for a fluid under rigid body motion, there again we will discuss
pressure distribution, but we will not call as hydrostatic pressure distribution, we will call as
pressure distribution. Only when the fluid is under rest alone that distribution as hydrostatic
pressure distribution.
939
So, now we are going to use this equation to get simple expressions for the variation of
pressure in a liquid and gas also
𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑧
=− ρ𝑔
Now, that is the starting equation, we are going to used to find pressure variation along
height. When I say pressure distribution, it means that we are going to find out pressure
variation along height in a fluid at rest; remember still we are using the word fluid.
Now, two cases. What are the two cases? First case where we take for example, pressure
distribution in water in a liquid which is incompressible fluid. What does it mean? Density is
independent of pressure that is a first case simpler case and very practical case also. What is
the second case? We will consider the case of pressure distribution in a gas for example, air.
What is the example? Pressure variation in the atmosphere, we have some let us a
atmospheric pressure at the ground level and let us say you are travelling uphill, how does a
pressure vary and that is example we are going to take in fact, as a numerical example.
We will see what is the pressure variation from some level to some other level. In this case
what happens? Our fluid is air that is why we have here fluid, now we are disguising very
clearly liquid and then gas. Gas is the compressible fluid for which density is dependent on
pressure. So, that has to be taken into account, when you derive the expression for the
hydrostatic pressure distribution. So, we are going to consider two cases: liquid which is
940
incompressible and gas which is compressible fluid. One case density is independent of
pressure, other case density depends on pressure.
So now, let us take the case of liquid at rest, for a liquid at rest you are interested in finding
out p as a function of z. So, just integrate this equation,
𝑝 𝑧
∫ 𝑑𝑝 =− ρ𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑝0 𝑧0
So, let us keep pressure on the left hand side, z on the right hand side and let us integrate.
Now what are the limits? We will follow this figure from Fox and McDonald good
representation. At some datum level 𝑧0 the pressure is 𝑝0, that is what is one of the limits at
𝑧0 we have 𝑝0 and at some other z we have the pressure p.
So, remember when I integrate of course, g is constant I have taken ρ also the outside because
ρ is a constant here for the case of liquids. Now, let us do the integration very simple
integration
𝑝 − 𝑝0 =− ρ𝑔(𝑧 − 𝑧0)
Now, according to that nomenclature 𝑧 − 𝑧0 is negative. So, we will write as 𝑧0 − 𝑧 which
we will call as h which is the depth. So, 𝑧0 − 𝑧 is positive which we will call as h which is
the depth. So, this equation gets simplified as
𝑝 = 𝑝0 + ρ𝑔ℎ
So, we can call it as h as depth. Now, if 𝑝0 is atmospheric pressure, what does it mean? Of
course, here you have a closed box, assume it the box is open and you have the surface here
opened atmosphere and how does the pressure vary along the depth. So,
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + ρ𝑔ℎ
Of course, it is also to be known to us from our earlier physics classes, that pressure increases
along the depth and that is what is given by this equation.
941
This equation is known to you, the concepts also may be known to you. We are doing it more
formally starting from the all encompassing linear momentum balance or Navier-Stokes
equation, that is a difference I would say.
So, let us take a example I would say a very practical example. In fact, you will also use this
equation several times, you many you may also have a experiment based on this in your fluid
mechanics lab as well. What is the application? We have water flowing through a pipe and we
like to know the flow rate. One; one way of measuring flow rate is you have the pipe, let us
say you allow the water to collect in a let us say a vessel. And, find the time required for a
certain amount of volume to be collected, that is not always convenient because water may be
continuously flowing in a pipe.
So, in a lab it is possible, but in a industry or in other case, this method of measurement
where you take a vessel allow water to collect for sometime divide volume by time to get the
flow rate is not always practical. So, what we do is, we have some kind of restriction in the
pipe, different ways are possible; you will come across different kind of restrictions in your
next fluid mechanics course or in lab as well. What we have is a flow nozzle, in principle
what happens is that there is a flow restriction.
So, because of a flow restriction there is some pressure on the we call upstream side,
upstream meaning before the flow nozzle. After the flow nozzle the downstream side there is
a decrease in pressure because, of flow through a constriction through a restriction, there is a
942
drop in pressure. So now, this drop in pressure depends on the flow rate, if you measure the
pressure drop then you can relate that to the flow rate that is objective. Now, let us read part
of the question. The volume rate of flow through a pipe can be determined by means of a
flow nozzle located in the pipe as illustrated in figure.
You will come across orifice meters, venturi meters several examples, principle begin all of
them is that you cause a restriction in the flow. The nozzle creates a pressure drop and that is
what you have discussed, along the pipe that is related to the flow through the equation. As I
told you, if we measure the pressure drop we can calculate the flow rate. Of course,
𝑄˙ = 𝐾 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵
Where K is a constant depending on the pipe and nozzle size. These example we are not
going to calculate flow rate that is simple, if K is given you can multiply that with the root of
pressure drop and get the flow rate. What we are going to see is how are we going to measure
the pressure drop.
Now, how do you measure pressure drop? The pressure drop is frequently measured with the
differential U-tube manometer and that is what is shown here. This is the U-tube manometer
and you have the connecting tubes here. Also you have tapings on the pipe, we have water
column here and you have here is the manometric fluid. The manometric fluid chosen here is
carbon tetrachloride and usually you color it and you can also choose a mercury as well ok.
These are usual a manometric fluids, if the pressure drop is less you choose 𝐶𝐶𝑙4, the
pressure drop is high you choose mercury.
The fluid flowing through the pipe is water, with the density of 1000 kgm3, the manometric
fluid is 𝐶𝐶𝑙4 for the density of 1590 kg/m3;. Then what is given to us is the height ℎ1. Now, if
the pressures at A and B were same then the level of manometric fluid in both the limbs; we
call them a limbs of the U-tube manometer will be same. But, in this case the pressure at B is
less, because we say there is a pressure drop.
And, hence the liquid level here, when I say liquid the manometric liquid level in the right
limb is higher than that in the left limb and that difference is given as ℎ2. And ℎ1 = 1 meter,
the difference in the level of the manometric fluid the two limbs, ℎ2 = 0.5 meter or 50
centimeter. We are ask to find out the value of pressure drop. It may be a very simple
943
example and simple application of a very simple equation also, but very practical as well both
in lab, industry everywhere.
So, let us start this application, few steps only; the we have discussed the pressure
distribution in a fluid under rest. So, the fluid in the columns are under rest, but what is the
fluid that depends, here you have water, here 𝐶𝐶𝑙4, here again water. So, pressure variation in
the manometer tubes is hydrostatic that is a point, we have discussed hydrostatic pressure
distribution.
So, we can apply only for the case where the fluids are under static condition, though there is
flow here there is no flow in these columns. They are under static condition and we have seen
the relationship, their pressure increases with depth according to the relation that is a equation
we have derived.
𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑝 + ρ𝑔ℎ
Now, the way in which you do usual you will come across several such problems in fluid
mechanics book. The procedure is same for most of them, the way in which we start is we
started one end and reach the other end that is what we are going to do now; going through
the different columns. So, let us start doing that,
( )
𝑝𝐴 − ℎ1ρ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑔 − ℎ1ρ𝐶𝐶𝑙 𝑔 + ℎ1 + ℎ2 ρ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑔 = 𝑝𝐵
4
944
We start at A, 𝑝𝐴; now we will go to point 1, now we are going up the column of fluid, we are
going up the column of water column. So, there is a decrease in pressure. so, that is why a
minus sign in second term. The height is ℎ1 and the fluid is water. So, ρ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 into g,
remember g just 9.81.
Now, these two points 1 and 2 are the same level in the same fluid that is water. So, pressures
at these locations are same, now once again pressures are 2 and 3 are same because we are in
the same fluid, but now 𝐶𝐶𝑙4. So, pressure at 3 and pressure at 2 are same, now we will once
again move up the column. Now, what is the fluid? 𝐶𝐶𝑙4. So, once again there is a decrease in
pressure. What is the decrease in pressure? ℎ1ρ𝐶𝐶𝑙 𝑔, because the fluid is 𝐶𝐶𝑙4.
4
Now, pressure at 4 and 5 are same because, we are in the same fluid that is water; now we
will have to reach to position B. So now, we have to come down the column and the column
( )
of fluid is water now, now pressure increases. So, ℎ1 + ℎ2 ρ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑔 is equal to 𝑝𝐵. So, this
steps what you have followed can be applied for solving several problems in fluid mechanics
book based on manometer, different arrangements can be given.
Sometimes the manometric fluid could be inclined or you could use a manometric fluid is
density is lower than water let us say oil, different combinations are possible, but general
principle is this ok. Now, let us simplify
(
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = ℎ2 ρ𝐶𝐶𝑙 − ρ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔
4
)
So, the pressure drop depends on the difference in the levels of the manometric fluid and
depends on the density difference between 𝐶𝐶𝑙4 and water of course, gravity. Pressure
difference depends on difference in levels of manometric fluid and density difference

between the two fluids ok. Let us calculate
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 0. 5(1590 − 1000)9. 81 = 2. 89 𝑘𝑃𝑎
And, what is the other use of this equation? Looks like a very simple equation but helps us to
select a suitable U-tube manometer. What does it mean? Suppose the pressure drop is less and
let say you choose mercury, what happens? You will get a very small difference in the levels
of the manometric fluid and you will lose it on the accuracy. You like to have a reasonably
945
large difference in level, not very large not very small. If it is very small what happens? You
lose out on the accuracy, if it is very large you will have design a very long U-tube
manometer.
So, this equation also helps in the selection or design of a U-tube manometer. What is the
manometric fluid you should use or what could be the height of the limbs you should use? So,
you can use this simple equation to select a manometer as well. So, lower the density
difference larger is the ℎ2 which means better accuracy is there. And, that is why sometimes
you use to improve the accuracy, if the pressure drop is very less we use fluid which is lighter
than water for example, oil which will have density like around 900.
So, this density difference is roughly about 600 and if you use oil which has density about
900, the density difference is 100. So, you can 6 times increase the level difference between
the levels of manometric fluid in the two limbs. So, that is the use of this equation.
946
Lecture – 82
Hydrostatic Pressure Distribution in Gas
Now, we will look at Hydrostatic Pressure Distribution in a Gas. What does it mean? You
have a container filled with air and how does pressure vary? Now, of course, if you take a
small container like this and look at pressure distribution hardly any pressure distribution. So,
unless it is a very long column or the height is large there would not be any difference in
pressure.
So, the example which I going to take is at ground level the atmospheric pressure and then let
us say you are going up the hill what is the variation in pressure how does it pressure and
change and what is the practical significance of that; a very nice example of practical
example as well.
Let us start. We will derive the equation and see numerical application. For a gas at rest first
question what we like the answer is we said we are going to apply this for a gas at rest and we
said the gas is compressible. First question arises whether the equation which we derived the
947
balance of pressure and gravity force is it applicable for a compressible gas? First question is
that we should make sure that the equation applicable for gas for a compressible fluid.
Remember we said the Navier–Stokes equation what we derived is for incompressible fluid
only, that is not for a compressible fluid, but now we are going to apply of course, for a under
static condition and so, first we should check whether the hydrostatic equation balance of
pressure and gravity is it applicable for a gas at rest. So, for that let us recall back our
derivation of Navier-Stokes.

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
How did we derive? We took the linear momentum balance and then for the viscous stress
terms on the right hand side we substituted the Newton’s law of viscosity.
τ𝑥𝑥 = 2μ
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑥
; τ𝑥𝑦 = μ ( ∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑦 )
; τ𝑧𝑥 = μ ( ∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑧
+
∂𝑣𝑧
∂𝑥 )
When we substituted I have not taken the term which involves the ∇. 𝑣 which applicable for a
compressible fluid. So, these terms of course, would not change whether it is compressible or
incompressible. We had one λ∇. 𝑣 term by not writing that this Newton’s law of viscosity is
for incompressible fluid.
So, the way in which we derive is we took the viscous stresses on the right hand side and then
substitute the Newton’s law of viscosity. When we substituted we have not taken the term
here which was λ∇. 𝑣 which is for compressible fluids. So, this form of the Newton’s law of
viscosity is for incompressible fluids and of course, when we substituted we got the
Navier–Stokes equation.
( )
2 2 2
∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
+μ 2 + 2 + 2
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
So, which means that the assumption of incompressible fluid is restricted to the three viscous
stresses terms only that does not influence the left hand side nor the gravity force nor the
pressure force. The assumption of incompressible fluid plays a role only in this term; only
this term will change whether we are going to apply for an incompressible fluid or a
compressible fluid.
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We have already seen for a fluid at rest there are no viscous stresses and hence the equation
which I have written relating gravity and pressure is valid for compressible fluid also.
𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑧
=− ρ𝑔
So, let me just summarize we start with a linear momentum balance substitute the
compressible form of Newton’s law viscosity and obtain the Navier–Stokes equation for
incompressible fluid. But, we are now going to apply that for a fluid under rest condition for
with there are no viscous stresses at all. So, that assumption has no role to play here. We are
considering only the body force and the surface force due to pressure.
So, with respect to those two terms there is no question of incompressible assumption. So, the
hydrostatic equation which we derived is applicable and I say hydrostatic equation I mean
𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑧
=− ρ𝑔 is valid for compressible fluid also that is a starting point. Having understood that
it is applicable for compressible fluid let us proceed further.
This is our starting equation,
𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑧
=− ρ𝑔
Now, because the fluid is compressible the density depends on pressure and that comes from
a equation of state from our thermodynamics class. Now, the most simplest equation of state
is the ideal gas law.
𝑝𝑀
ρ = 𝑅𝑇
So, we will assume the ideal gas law to be valid and that is also because as I said we are
going to apply this for a case where there is around atmospheric pressure. The pressures are
not going to be very high. So, ideal gas law can be very well be used.
Also like to mention at R as the value of 8314, the unit of ρ is kg/m3; R in SI unit is 8.314
Joule per gram mole Kelvin, but because ρ is in kg/m3 , R should be substituted as 8314 Joule
per kg mole Kelvin.
So, it can be cause of confusion to like to stress that; even the problem you will see R as R is
substituted as 8314 and not as 8.314; if it is SI unit we should do substitute 8.314. Now, we
will substitute the expression for rho in terms of pressure in the hydrostatic equation.
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𝑑𝑝 𝑝𝑀
𝑑𝑧
=− 𝑅𝑇
𝑔
Now, we will have to integrate as we are done in the earlier case, but earlier for the case of
water rho was just a constant now rho depends on pressure. Now, to proceed further we need
to assume how temperature varies, whether temperature is a constant or temperature varies.
Now, to begin with for simpler case we will assume temperature is constant. Let us integrate,
𝑝 𝑧
𝑑𝑝 𝑔𝑀
∫ 𝑝
=− 𝑅𝑇
∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑝0 𝑧0
Now, very simple integration,
− ln 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑝
𝑝0
=−
𝑔𝑀
𝑅𝑇 (𝑧 − 𝑧0)
Let us write this. If 𝑝0 is a atmospheric pressure. So,
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 exp 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − ( 𝑔𝑀

𝑅𝑇 (𝑧 − 𝑧0))
So, what is use of this equation? If you know the atmospheric pressure at 𝑧0 you can find out
what is the variation of pressure with respect to z. Now, our interest as I told you is to study
the variation of pressure let us say across as we go up the hill and we know that in the
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atmosphere the temperature varies with z. So, the previous derivation where we assumed the
temperature to be constant is not exact. To have a better equation you will also take into
account the variation of temperature with z and that is what we are going to do now.
Where are we now? We are deriving equation for variation of pressure with height in a
column of gas. The present derivation what we have done is for the case where temperature is
constant. Now, we are going to account where temperatures varies with z and that is what we
are going to do now.
If temperature varies so, how does a temperature vary, we should know that. We will assume
the temperature varies linearly with distance and that information is given to us. If
temperature varies linearly with the distance
𝑇 = 𝑇0 − 𝑚𝑧
That is also in line with our application; I think this derivations can easily be understood if
we keep the application in mind. At the surface of the earth some the datum level the
temperatures 𝑇0 and as you go up temperature decreases that is why we have taken this
relationship.
So, now let us go back to our equation
951
𝑑𝑝 𝑝𝑀
𝑑𝑧
=− 𝑅𝑇
𝑔
Let us integrate
𝑝 𝑧 𝑧
𝑑𝑝 𝑔𝑀 1 𝑔𝑀 1
∫ 𝑝
=− 𝑅
∫ 𝑇
𝑑𝑧 =− 𝑅
∫ 𝑇0−𝑚𝑧
𝑑𝑧
𝑝0 0 0
Now, I cannot take T out of the integral sign, T is a function of z. Now, integrate from instead
of 𝑧0 to make it simple taken 0 to z. So, now simple integration
ln 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑝
𝑝0
=
𝑔𝑀
𝑚𝑅
ln 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑇0−𝑚𝑧
𝑇0 ) =
𝑔𝑀
𝑚𝑅
ln 𝑙𝑛 1 − ( 𝑚𝑧
𝑇0 )
We can also simplify this further as
𝑔𝑀 𝑔𝑀
( ) ( )
𝑚𝑅 𝑚𝑅
𝑚𝑧 𝑇
𝑝 = 𝑝0 1 − 𝑇0
= 𝑝0 𝑇0
So, now if 𝑝0 is atmospheric, then
𝑔𝑀 𝑔𝑀
( ) ( )
𝑚𝑅 𝑚𝑅
𝑚𝑧 𝑇
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 1 − 𝑇0
= 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑇0
Remember capital M is molecular weight, small m is slope of the relationship between T and
z. Though this tells you how pressure varies with z if you look at this relationship there is no
z explicitly, but T depends on z. If you look at this relationship z explicitly appears in the
equation the tells you how p varies with z.
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Let us look at an example I read the first line that will show the real practical significance of
this application. The maximum power output capability of a gasoline or diesel engine
decreases with altitude because the air density and hence the mass flow rate of air decrease
that is a practical relevance of application which I derived. What does it mean? that is
example going to see, let us say you have a truck and of course, which works on a gasoline or
diesel engine, mostly diesel engine and as it travels up a hill there is change in pressure.
Of course, there is a decrease in temperature there is change in pressure because of change in

pressure there is a change in density and because density changes mass flow rate changes and
you will see decrease in density as you go up the hill which means there is a decrease in mass
flow rate which means the maximum power output decreases.
So, that is a practical relevance, though it may look like a very theoretical example of
studying pressure as a function of height density depends on pressure. So, we are starting
density as a function of height, but density determines the mass flow rate that determines the
power output. So, that is a practical relevance.
Let us proceed further. The truck leaves place A elevation 1600 meters not really ground
level, but some other higher level on a day when the local temperature and barometric
pressure are 27 degree centigrade and 84 kilo Pascal. That is why the pressure is 84 kilo
Pascal, it is not 101 kilo Pascal which would have been the pressure at the ground level
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already this truck is starting at a higher elevation and that is why the pressure is 84 kilo
Pascal.
It travels through another place B whose elevation is 3200 meters, both the elevations are
from ground level usually elevations are given from ground level and the temperature is
lower there which is 17 degree centigrade. Determine the local barometric pressure at place B
and the percentage change in density. So, we are we like to know what is the pressure there
and since density depends on pressure what is the percentage change in density.
So, simple application, but very good practical relevance; once again from Fox and
McDonald that is why we derive the expression for pressure distribution a gas in under two
different conditions. First we took temperature is constant, but a more practical cases where
temperature is vary; that is why we did this derivation once again taking the variation of
temperature with height.
Assuming temperature varies linearly with altitude we will take this equation
𝑇 = 𝑇0 − 𝑚𝑧
The m is a slope. How do you find out the slope? We are given two locations, two
temperatures. So,
𝑇0−𝑇 27−17 −3
𝑚 = 𝑧−𝑧0
= 3200−1600
= 6. 25 𝑋 10 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐶/𝑚
Now, let us calculate the combination of parameters it is dimensionless
𝑔𝑀 9.81 𝑋 29
𝑚𝑅
= −3 = 5. 47
6.25 𝑋 10 𝑋 8314
Now, let us write the equation and substitute the values
𝑔𝑀
( ) 290 5.47
𝑚𝑅
𝑝=
𝑇
𝑝0 𝑇
0
= 84 ( )
300
= 69. 8 𝑘𝑃𝑎
That is the pressure at the higher elevation. There is a decrease in pressure from 84 kilo
Pascal to 70 kilo Pascal roughly. Now, what other objective one question is what is the local
barometric pressure at place B, that is what we have determined. More importantly to relate
to the effect on power output we will have to find out the change in density. So,
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ρ−ρ0 ρ
ρ0
= ρ0
− 1
𝑝
Now, ρ depends on 𝑇
both of them change. So,
ρ−ρ0 ρ 𝑝 𝑇0 69.8 300

ρ0
= ρ0
− 1= 𝑝0 𝑇
− 1= 84
𝑋 290
=− 14%
So, you see the 14 percent decrease in density and that will have a corresponding influence
on the maximum power output. So, theoretical equation and we have seen the practical
relevance of that and as we kept one of our objective is to look at engineering applications we
try to solve examples which are mostly engineering relevance.
955
Lecture - 83
Fluid in Rigid Body Motion: Pressure Distribution
Let us move to the next level of application. What do I mean by next level of application?
The previous case the previous level of application, the fluid was under rest under static
condition. Now, we allowed the fluid to move, but not in a general way as a rigid body. The
entire body of fluid should move, I have a container and let us say it is partly filled with
liquid we are going to discuss only liquid and it is moving.
Remember this we called as translation. It also be rotate also the entire body of fluid could
rotate also, there is also rigid body motion, but that will take us to cylindrical coordinates. So,
to avoid that we are only considering translation of the entire body of liquid as an example
for rigid body motion.
If, you look at books they had discussed both translation and rigid body rotation just to avoid
cylindrical coordinates, we will discuss only translation of the entire fluid body as an
example for rigid body motion, when you say fluid and rigid body motion it may look little
paradoxical also. Because, we are saying fluid, but rigid body also usually the word rigid
956
body is for solids, but here the entire body moves like a rigid body, that is a meaning of this
fluid in rigid body motion.
Now, what is the best example? Of course, the best example is during summer time, when
tanker lorries carry water from one place to other. Let us imagine the front of the lorry and
then it travels and then it carries water. This entire body of water travels along with the tanker
lorry. So, that is the best example which I initially visualize for this rigid body motion, need
not be water we can see on a daily basis tanker Lorries carrying milk it could be even
gasoline; so, any such liquid being transported as a best example for fluid in rigid body
motion.
The fluid alone cannot be existent and move in rigid body motion, it should be in some
container and that container moves as a rigid body. So, the fluid in the container also moves
as a rigid body that is what is shown here and we are interested in the shape of the free
surface.
Let us proceed. The entire mass of fluid moves like a rigid body that is a definition. We have
been telling rigid body several times and we said, we are discussed about rigid body when we
are discussed about strain for solids. We discussed about rigid body, when we discussed
about strain rate for fluids and we said rigid body motion includes translation, rotation, they
do not contribute to viscous stresses. Now, time has come where we can really understand
and have a practical example as well.
957
So, entire mass of fluid moves like a rigid body, example is fluid in a tank that translates we
have seen example for that. How do you now put more physically, we have described in
several ways let us get into the physics. Now, when the entire mass of liquid moves and see
the case what we are discussing is the fluid accelerates. And, which means that the every
particle in the liquid also has a same acceleration. Let us say the lorry accelerates, then every
particle, every fluid particle also has the same acceleration, that is why the sentence is each
particle has the same acceleration.
Now, what does it mean? If you consider two fluid particles there is no difference in the
velocity, both have the same velocity. And, you are having a fluid body and that is
translating, if you focus on let us say two fluid particles, they have the same velocity there is
no difference in velocity. So, no difference in velocity between any two fluid particles, which
means that there is no velocity gradient; obviously, if you take two particles which are nearby
each other, no velocity difference, no velocity gradient.
Now, what did we say for normal strain rate, shear strain rate to exist that should be velocity
gradient. In fact, we express the strain rates in terms of velocity gradients. Now, there are no
velocity gradients here, which means that there are no normal strain rates, there are no shear
strain rates, there is no defamation or more precisely there is no rate of defamation, because
of discussing fluids we should say there is no rate of defamation in this case, which means
that there is no viscous stresses.
Look at the hierarchy nicely we have discussed from rigid body motion to now viscous
stresses and this is what we had discussed earlier also rigid body motion does not contribute
to viscous stresses, only when there is normal strain rates, shear strain rate, it contribute to
viscous stresses.
So, let us quickly repeat this, I have a moving body of fluid, moving as a rigid body motion it
just translates. And, if you take any two fluid particles there is no difference in velocity, there
is no velocity gradient, there is no strain rate, either normal strain rate or shear strain rate,
because there is no velocity gradient.
And, because there are no strain rates there are no viscous stresses, normal viscous stresses
and shear viscous stresses also, no viscous stresses at all. Like to mention in the previous case
also there were no viscous stresses. This case also there is no viscous stresses, but there is a
difference.
958
The previous case there are no viscous stresses, because the fluid was under rest condition. In
this case there is no viscous stress not because of fluid is stationary, it is moving in a rigid
body motion. Because, it is moving in a rigid body motion, there are no velocity gradients no
strain rates, hence there is no viscous stress, that is why we put both these under the same
category.
Remember we said the title for the present section of discussion is fluid under rest and under
rigid body motion, what connects these two is no viscous stresses. So, if you ought to be
more formal title the first level of applications are where there are no viscous stresses. And
one in which, one in which the fluid is not at all moving other in which the fluid is moving
like a rigid body.
What are the governing equations? We are now discuss the physics let us look at the
governing equations. So, let us write the Navier Stokes equation
ρ Dv
Dt
x
= ρg x −
∂p
∂x
+μ ( ∂ 2 vx
∂x2
+
∂ 2 vx
∂y 2
+
∂ 2 vx
∂z 2 )
Now, when we derive the Navier Stokes equation, we expressed this equation in a compact
form, in a vectorial form as shown here. Please recall the discussion earlier under Navier
Stokes equation.
ρ Dv
Dt
x
= ρg − ∇p + μ∇2 v
959
First, we derive the Navier Stokes equation, then we expressed from a material particular
point of view and then express that vectorially as shown here.
Now, when the fluid is in rigid body motion, the entire body translates with uniform velocity,
that is what we said. If, you take two fluid particles there is no difference in velocity. What
does it mean? There is one velocity for the entire body of fluid, every point have the same
velocity and, that velocity we will take as
v = V (t)
Why is a new nomenclature introduced. v is the velocity of the fluid, we said every fluid
particle here as the same velocity that velocity we take as V(t). Remember this V vectors
imposed by us remember v is also a function of time. What is the best example? Let us say
the lorry starts and then it accelerates, that is V as a function of time.
Dv DV (t)
Dt
= Dt
=a
In this case, v = V(t), best example for V vectors a function of time is just imagine the lorry
DV (t)
starting from rest and then accelerating. And, now so, Dt
is the acceleration; acceleration
of the entire fluid body, which is equal to acceleration of the lorry. Please keep that in mind
and that acceleration is a known quantity or given quantity or imposed by us. Unlike the
acceleration due to gravity, which is the body force this acceleration is imposed by us, that
depends on how fast the velocity changes, how fast the velocity of the lorry changes, that
determines this acceleration.
So, the acceleration is a value imposed by us, the fluid body also accelerates at the same
acceleration as the lorry. So, having understood that, the acceleration of the fluid is same as
that of the lorry and that is denoted by a this is a given quantity, let us proceed further, we
have discussed that there are viscous stresses. So, let us see how does the equations simplify
ρ Dv
Dt
x
= ρg − ∇p + μ∇2 v
ρa = ρg − ∇p
Usually the given data is in terms of acceleration either directly or indirectly. So, left hand
side ρa , right hand side we have ρg and then of course, minus gradient of p. The third term
does not appear because there are no viscous stresses,
960
ρa = ρg − ∇p
Now, let us put this equation in component form the x component
∂p
ρax = ρg x − ∂x
; gx = 0
And the y component of that vectorial equation,
∂p
ρay = ρg y − ∂y
; gy = 0
and the z component of that vectorial equation
∂p
ρaz = ρg z − ∂z
; g z =− g
Now, to proceed further as we have done in the case of fluid in rest, we should decide the
coordinate axis. So, we will choose the same coordinate axis, which I have chosen earlier x is
horizontal axis, z is a vertical axis, and y is perpendicular to the slide. Now, once I have
chosen this coordinate axis g x = 0 , g y = 0 , and g z =− g same as what we have discussed
earlier.
That is where it is important to choose the coordinate axis; so, that we can assign values for
g x , g y and g z . So, let us rearrange this equation the way in which we rearrange this
equation is that the unknown here is pressure. So, we take all the gradients of pressure on the
left hand side and the known quantities on the right hand side. So, let us rearrange
961
∂p
∂x
=− ρax
And, similarly the y direction
∂p
∂y
=− ρay
And in the z direction,
∂p
∂z
= ρg z − ρaz =− ρ(g + az )
So, these are the three equations that described the pressure distribution in a fluid in rigid
body motion.
So, now let us proceed further let us see how do we use this equation to analyse further. Now,
we are going to consider the linear accelerating motion, what does it mean? The example is
open container of fluid translating along a straight path and constant acceleration. What does
it mean? let us take the lorry and it accelerates along x direction. Other example what we can
take is let us say you have a say body of fluid in a lift and the lift accelerates in the z
direction.
So, we are going to consider acceleration in the x direction, other possibility is acceleration in
the z direction. The example is container of let us say bucket of water in a lift which is either
accelerating up or accelerating downwards. We are not going to consider acceleration in the y
962
direction, just for simplicity, but we consider acceleration in the x direction and z direction as
well, both acceleration can also be there.
So,
ax ≠0; ay = 0; az ≠0
Now, the equation are,
∂p
∂x
=− ρax
∂p
∂y
=0
∂p
∂z
=− ρ(g + az )
Now, we will consider in this x z plane two points and look at the difference in pressure
between these two points. So, let us say one point is at (x, z) and the other point is at
(x + dx, z + dz) . Now, in this case pressure is a function of (x, z) depends on two
variables. So, the total differential dp can be written in terms of the partial derivatives
∂p ∂p
dp = ∂x
dx + ∂z
dz
So, we know that the total differential can be expressed in terms of partial differential
according to this equation.
Now, we will substitute for
∂p ∂p
∂x
=− ρax ; ∂z
=− ρ(g + az )
So,
dp =− ρax dx − ρ (g + az ) dz
Now, as we said we are interested in the shape of the free surface. What is free surface? Free
surface is one which is exposed to the atmosphere and along the free surface the pressure is a
constant.
So, along we will consider a line of constant pressure which means dp = 0 . So, when you
substitute dp = 0 , you can find the slope of the surface; a slope of the line as
dz ax
dx =− g+az
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So, what is the physical interpretation of this equation, let us say a lorry is accelerating in this
direction, ax is positive this equation tells you that the slope will be negative. And, that is
why in all the if you cause right from the beginning we have been seeing surface sloping in
dz
this direction, which has a negative slope, ax is positive dx which represent the slope of the
surface or the line is negative.
That is why we have drawn the surface in this orientation, which also tells you that to begin
with the liquid level will be a horizontal surface and the lorry is accelerating in this direction,
the on the backside the level will increase, on the front side the level will decrease. Of course,
this we have seen water milk gasoline in a tanker accelerating along the road that is the best
example which you can think of.
Now, also like to mention that suppose if the lorry is not accelerating. Then of course, ax = 0
the surface will be horizontal. Of course, we are in the more interesting case is where the
lorry is accelerating.
Now, let us take the other case, where you have a container in a lift, let us see what happens?
If, ax = 0 , because the lift travels only vertically up and down. So,
ax = 0; az ≠0
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Example is of course, water in a tank in an accelerating lift and that is what is shown here ok.
The acceleration is shown in the downward direction could be in the upward direction also.
So, now what happens to this slope
dz ax
dx =− g+az =0
We get the slope to be 0, which means the surface will be horizontal and that is why a
horizontal surface has been shown here. So, if you take a bucket of water put in an elevator
the surface will not have a slope, it will just be flat; fluid surface will be horizontal.
Now, the equations are
∂p
∂x
=0
∂p
∂y
=0
∂p
∂z
=− ρ(g + az )
Now, pressure varies only along the z direction. Pressure varies linearly with depth same
conclusion which I have discussed earlier, but now what is the difference, we have this extra
az term, pressure varies linearly with the depth.
Now, it has two contributions; one is gravity acceleration due to gravity and then other is a
externally imposed acceleration. Both of them together determine the variation of pressure
with the distance. So, pressure varies linearly with depth, but two contributions are there.
Acceleration due to gravity of course, that is natural and one externally imposed acceleration,
acceleration of the lift.
Now, what are the terminology? We do not call this as hydrostatic pressure distribution, We
call this as pressure distribution only, we do not use the word hydrostatic, we say pressure
distribution and it is not hydrostatic why?, only if it is due to gravity alone we call that as
hydrostatic, but now the pressure variation is due to acceleration due to gravity and external
acceleration. And, hence we do not call that as hydrostatic just pressure distribution.
This, what we discussed pressure distribution is determined by the combined effect of gravity
and external acceleration. I think you should understand the word external acceleration
meaning, that is imposed by external agency like the acceleration of the lorry.
965
Let us apply the equations for an accelerating tank, let us read the example we have a 80
centimetre high fish tank different user shown here of cross section 2 meter by 0.5 meter.
That is partially filled with water is to be transported on the back of a truck, we are given the
height as well 80 centimetre.
So, that is why in general this dimension is shown as b. So, we have that this tank partially
filled with water transferred to the back of a truck, the truck accelerates from 0 to 90 km/h in
10 seconds, that is why I have been telling you, the acceleration is externally imposed. Either
given directly or indirectly, in this case we are given indirectly in terms of change in velocity
over a time period.
If, it is desired that no water spills during acceleration, determine the allowable initial water
height in the tank to what level you can fill the water. And, that depends on the orientation,
would you recommend the tank to be aligned with the long or short side parallel to the
direction of motion, that is why both the configurations are shown. What does it mean, let us
say you have a truck, which is of course accelerating the x direction would you place this fish
tank in first configuration or in the second configuration.
The first configuration where the longer side is parallel to the direction of motion. And,
second case is where the shorter side is parallel to the direction of motion, that is why all
these configurations are shown.
So, once again theoretically equation lot of practical application, may not have commercial
importance, but still we use this to do a simple decision whether should my fish tank be kept
966
in first configuration or should be kept in second configuration and, then what is the level to
which I can fill the water so, that there is no spillage. Interesting question to answer based on
a theoretical equations, which we have discussed.
So, assumptions; no vertical acceleration constant horizontal acceleration, we have discussed

x axis and then z axis, we discussed acceleration along x and acceleration along z, we are
considering only x acceleration. So, no vertical acceleration constant horizontal acceleration,
that acceleration can depend on time that will make it more complicated; so, just constant
acceleration the constant value.
So, let us calculate the acceleration,
103
change in velocity 90 X 3600 −0
ax = time interval
= 10
= 2.5 sm2
We are given velocity changes from 0 to 90 km/h. So, let us convert SI units time interval is
10 second. So, you will find the acceleration as 2.5 m/s2.
Now, let us find out the slope of the free surface
ax
dz
dx
=− g+az
=− 2.5
9.8+2.5
=− 0.255 (θ = 14.30 )
What is that we have done? We have used the expression which I derived found out the slope
of this free surface and expressed that in terms of angle you get 14.3 degrees. Now, as we
have discussed earlier maximum vertical rise of free surface occurs at the backside at the rear
side, front side there is a decrease in level. The dotted line represent the level of water to
begin with, when the truck starts accelerating, the liquid level increases in the rear side
decreases in the front side.
And, now it so, happens that this vertical plane the middle plane is the access of symmetry.
So, you have a liquid surface and it goes this way something like tilts about the mid plane.
So, of course, that is what is shown here the liquid level to begin with and how it changes.
So, at the midpoint there is no change in water level. The vertical mid plane of symmetry no
rise or drop in level.
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What is the rise in water let us see what is the rise in water level and how do we decide the
orientation. Now, based on this triangle,
Rise in level
tan tan (θ) = Half width
Now, let us consider both the cases; first tank aligned along with the long side parallel to the
direction of motion this case, you have the truck and then the fish tank is kept this way. The
long side parallel to the direction of motion of course, the truck is moving in this direction.
Now, what is half width, because we have kept in this direction half width is
Long side 2
H alf width = 2
= 2
=1m
So, the rise in level from the previous equation is
Rise in level = tan tan (θ) X Half width = 0.255 X 1 = 25.5 cm
Now, let us take the other case tank aligned with the short side parallel to the direction that is
this one. The short side is now parallel to the direction of motion what is the half width now
Short side 0.5

H alf width = 2 = 2 = 0.25 m
Now, the rise in level is,
Rise in level = tan tan (θ) X Half width = 0.255 X 0.25 = 6.4 cm
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Now, becomes very clear, that we should choose this orientation, because the level in
increase in water level is only 6.4 centimetre.
So, tank should be aligned with it is short side parallel to the direction of motion. And, what
is the level up to which you can fill the water you can fill the water up to 80 − 6.4 = 73.6 cm
.
So, the initial water level is 73.6 and when the truck accelerates this will go up by 6.4
centimetre. So, it will be just up to the brim 80 centimetre, there would not be any spillage
here.
And, of course, remember this quantity is independent of the liquid density nowhere we
considered liquid density. Nowhere liquid density played a role. So, to conclude this example
a very simple example nice example, you would not imagine that this equation plays a role in
deciding whether to transport a fish tank this way or this way. Also tells you what is the level
up to which you can fill the water so, that there is no spillage. So, that is a very good
example.
So, let us summarize this part of the applications of Navier-Stokes and as a Navier-Stokes
one simple few terms in Navier-Stokes. And, what I discussed earlier, the rigid body in
motion is also discussed in the beginning chapters of a fluid mechanics book. Almost after
969
fluids under rest this discuss, we also discussed that way, but the path we have reached there
is different.
So, let us summarize this part of the application of Navier-Stokes equation, where we I
considered very few terms the simplest and very simple applications. And, we considered
first fluids at rest we considered we discussed the hydrostatic pressure distribution both for
liquids and gases. Then, we considered fluids in rigid body motion and where the whole fluid
body is subjected to motion and we discussed the pressure distribution.
Now, we can understand why hydrostatic pressure distribution here and pressure distribution
here. Of course, to begin with an outline do not have been clear now we can clear distinguish
why it is hydrostatic pressure distribution and pressure distribution here.
970
Lecture - 84
Flow Regimes: Laminar and Turbulent flow
We have been discussing about the applications of Navier stokes equation. We have been
discussing hierarchically from simple examples to complex applications simple applications
to complex applications and we have discussed the I would say the simplest class of
applications; namely fluids at rest and fluids in rigid body motion.
Now, we are going to go to the next level of application, what do you mean by that there is
going to be flow, but the viscous stresses are negligible. That is the level of application we
are going to discuss, and the title is inviscid flows for this class of applications. What is the
outline? We start with discussing the flow regimes and discuss the Euler equation and derive
the Bernoulli’s equation. So, as we proceed you will understand these titles better.
971
Now, the flow regime tells about characteristics of a flow and different regimes will have
different characteristics and they depend on the velocity of the fluid, the properties of the
fluid and the geometry as well. Now, we need to discuss about this flow regime now because
that will tell the scope of the present discussion namely inviscid flows.
So, how do we quantify flow regimes and that is what we are going to do now. We quantify
usually flow regimes in terms of some dimensionless numbers so, let us arrive at that number
now. To do that we will start with the x momentum balance or in general the Navier stokes
equation, here written for the x direction.
ρ
Dv x
Dt
= ρg x − ∂p
∂x
+μ ( ∂ 2 vx
∂x2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂y 2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂z 2 )
So, left hand side has been written in terms of the substantial derivative and right hand side
we have the body force surface forces due to pressure and viscous stresses, which is the
Navier stokes equation in the x direction.
Now, what we will do is consider the viscous forces on the right hand side. The left hand side
we have expressed as mass into acceleration per unit volume, density into acceleration of the
fluid. So, the last terms represent the inertial forces. They are all representation of inertial
forces.
So, what we are going to do now is take ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces. What
do we mean by that? Take terms on the left hand side when I say terms representative term
972
will be taken on the left hand side and the right hand side the viscous terms will be taken, and
the ratio will be taken. So, let us do that.
Inertial f orces density velocity velocity /length

V iscous f orces
= viscosoty velocity/length length
So, inertial force if you see you have density and of course, the expression is written in terms
of words rather than variables and we have velocity here and then we have gradient of
velocity which is expressed as velocity per length.
Now, coming to the viscous forces on the right hand side, we have viscosity and then we
have the second derivative of velocity. So, which is because it is a Laplacian, and which is
expressed as velocity by the lengths squared. So, what we have done is taken the inertial
forces on the left hand side, taken the viscous forces on the right hand side and taken the ratio
between these two forces.
Of course, one velocity term cancels and one length term cancels leaving us with velocity,
length, density in the numerator and viscosity in the denominator.
Inertial f orces velocity length density

V iscous f orces
= viscosoty
Now, let us look at the dimensions of these physical quantities.
−1 −3
velocity length density (LT )(L)(M L )
= = M 0 L0 T 0
viscosoty M L−1 T −1
If you simplify of course, you get a dimensionless number. That is not surprising because
these terms are being taken one from the left hand side one from the right hand side of a
conservation equation. Dimensions of all the terms on the left hand side and the right hand
side in a conservation equation should be same. That is why when you took the ratio of these
two terms we ended up in a dimensionless number and this dimensionless number is called
Reynolds number named after Osborne Reynolds a scientist and so, the Reynolds number Re
is equal to the inertial forces by the viscous forces.
Inertial f orces
Reynold′s number = Re = V iscous f orces
Now, how do we classify the regimes based on range of Reynolds number? We said, flow
regimes tells about characteristics of a flow different regimes have different flow
characteristics and we said we are going to classify flow regimes based on a dimensionless
number and that dimensionless number here in this case is Reynolds number.
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Now, let us say the Reynolds number is low. What does it mean? The inertial forces are less,
viscous forces are large, which means they dominate and we call such a flow as laminar flow.
When can it happen? The velocity is less, the length is small. What do you mean by length
here that tells about the dimension of the region through which the fluid flows for example, if
you have a flow through a pipe then the diameter is used as a length. More formally we call
as length scale velocity scale etcetera and velocity could be the average velocity of the fluid
through a pipe.
So, when can laminar flow happen? The velocity is less and the fluid flows through a channel
of small dimension and the density is less and viscosity is high. For example, it could be a
viscous oil; a very viscous oil flowing at low velocity through a channel of small dimension
can result in laminar flow. In fact, flow through all the microfluidic devices will be in the
laminar flow regime.
What happens at high Reynolds number? The inertial forces dominate, the numerator the
inertial forces dominate and we call the flow to be turbulent. When can it happen? The
velocity is high, the channel dimensions, let us say diameter is very high and density is also
high and viscosity is less. For example, could be flow of water which has relatively low
viscosity compared to oil and so, flow of water at high velocity through a large diameter pipe
will result in turbulent flow. Not could even flow of air at very high velocity through a
channel of large dimension.
So, at low Reynolds number we have laminar flow, at high Reynolds number we have
turbulent flow and viscous forces dominate a low Reynolds number, inertial forces dominated
high Reynolds number. Which means in the laminar flow we have viscous force is
dominating, turbulent flow inertial forces dominating.
974
Now, what are we going to discuss now, what are the characteristics of the flow? We said
different flow characteristics prevail in different flow regimes and that is what is shown here
the figures are taken from Cengel and Cimbala, very nice representation. So, let us start with
laminar flow, as we have discussed, we observed laminar flow at low Reynolds number.
What happens in laminar flow? The word laminae means layers fluid layers. Generally
lamina means layer and laminae means fluid layers. So, in this case that is why we have
termed this flow to be laminar flow. And in this case movement of fluid takes place in layers
and that is what is shown in the first photograph (top) of a laminar flows and you can easily
absorb the fluid to flow as in layer by layer.
Very nice flow behaviour and if you have flow between let us say it could be flow between
two parallel plates, it could be flow in a pipe etcetera. So, flow happens layer by layer. So,
moment of fluid in layer by layer and it is very orderly flow, often slow because Reynolds
number is less and steady as well.
Now, remember we discussed about different techniques of flow visualization. We discussed

about streamlines, path lines, streak lines and we said experimental if you want to visualize
flow we measure the streak lines. How do we measure streak lines by injecting a dye and that
is what is shown here a dye is injected and the streak lines are observed. So, in the flow is
laminar you get yeah smooth streak line without any disturbance that is what you see there.
So, that tells that the flow is laminar. So, if you want to visually see whether a flow is laminar
975
or not, inject a dye and if you observe defined line smooth line without any disturbance then
you can conclude the flow to be laminar.
Now, laminar flow is rare in nature and in engineering practice. So, let us look at the other
extreme. We will come back to transition shortly. We look at the other extreme namely the
turbulent flow, which happens at high Reynolds number, that is what we have seen. Now, this
turbulent flow is exactly almost opposite to the laminar flow behaviour. Why is it? It is
chaotic completely chaotic and disordered and unsteady.
Inherently turbulent flow is unsteady, always there will be velocity fluctuations. So, turbulent
flow is inherently unsteady and a photograph is shown of a turbulent flow, you can see the
difference between this photograph for laminar flow and this photograph for turbulent flow.
The flow here is chaos disordered and unsteady and look at the words, almost opposite
orderly and then disordered and this is steady and this unsteady and of course, here it is slow
here is of course, going to be at high Reynolds number.
Now, how do you visually observe? If you inject a dye look at the streak line there
completely zigzag, completely disordered; opposite to what you observed in laminar flow.
So, rapid mixing of fluid elements take place resulting in such a streak line and usually you
find turbulent flow, both in nature and in engineering practice.
Of course, the in engineering practice whether laminar flow, turbulent flow is in your hand
because you can send fluid at low velocity high velocity. But in terms of high better heat
transfer characteristics, mass transfer characteristics, those characteristics are better under
turbulent flow conditions. So, always prefer turbulent flow conditions in industry practice.
Of course, if you look at applications like microfluidics the flow is laminar. Now, between
these two extremes, we have the transition flow regime and look at the photograph here, it is
somewhere in between the nice laminar flow behaviour and highly disordered turbulent flow
and that is why we call as transition.
So, while laminar flow happens at low Reynolds number, turbulent flow happens at high
Reynolds number and in between you have the transition regime. You have a gradual
transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow. In terms of streak lines how do you observe
and that is what is shown here; part of the streak line will be laminar, part of the streak line is
turbulent. This part if you observe relatively smooth, but this is zigzag.
976
So, part of the streak line laminar, part is turbulent which means that turbulence has already
set in and if you increase the velocity it will become completely turbulent. That is why we
have used the word flow regimes. Flow regimes tells about characteristics of flow and now
we have seen laminar flow regime has certain set of characteristics, turbulent flow has certain
set of characteristics. Of course, transition is somewhere in between.
977
Lecture – 85
Euler Equation
What is the relevance of the discussion of flow regime for the present case, it will tell the
scope of Inviscid flow. Let us first define the inviscid flow, then you will understand why we
really discussed the flow regimes. How do we define inviscid flow? Flow of a viscous fluid,
when I say viscous fluid any fluid has some viscosity inherently.
So, flow of a viscous fluid, this viscous fluid need not be a very viscous fluid like oil could be
even water, could be air as well. So, flow of a fluid with viscosity, in a region of flow in
which net viscous forces are negligible compared to pressure, body, inertial forces.

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
= ρg x − ∂x
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
Let us analyze this with the help of the linear momentum balance and that is a linear
momentum balance; the left hand side we have the transient and convection term; right hand
side we have the body force and the surface force due to pressure and viscous stresses. Now
what does this tell you, the net viscous forces are negligible compared to pressure body
∂τ xx ∂τ yx ∂τ zx
inertial forces. Now, the last terms, ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
, are the net viscous forces, these terms
978
all of them put together are negligible compared to this pressure force, body force, and
inertial force as well.
So, when we say inviscid flow does not mean that; does not mean that the fluid has no
viscosity that is not the correct definition ok; certainly we cannot have fluid which is which
has no viscosity, any fluid it is a property of a fluid. So, will have a, any fluid will have a
viscosity. When we say inviscid flow, look at the terminology it says inviscid flow; it tells
about flow not about the fluid.
So, when we say flow is inviscid, when the net viscous forces are negligible compared to the
pressure, body, inertial forces that is what we mean by inviscid flow. Now what is the
relationship between this inviscid flow and the classification of flow in terms of flow
regimes. Now, this inviscid flow occurs when the Reynolds number is high; that is why we
discussed about flow regimes, we classified flow regimes based on Reynolds number; at low
Reynolds number we have a laminar flow, at high Reynolds number we have turbulent flow.
So, inviscid flow occurs under high Reynolds number condition. Now next, when we have
high Reynolds number, inviscid flow is not present through the entire region. Like let us give
an example, let us say we have a flow between parallel plates or it could be flow in a pipe at
high Reynolds number; when you are near the wall, the viscous forces have a significant
contribution, you cannot neglect the viscous forces compared to the pressure, body and
inertial forces.
So, you do not have inviscid flow in the region near the wall; but in the middle of the pipe
are far away from the wall, you can neglect the viscous forces compared to the pressure,
body, inertial forces. So, when does inviscid flow occur? First condition is high Reynolds
number, second condition is the region should be away from the wall; that is why regions
away from the wall at high Reynolds number you have inviscid flow.
That is why we discussed about the flow regime, so that we understand; I said we have
discussed flow regime, so that we understand the scope of the present discussion or scope of
inviscid flow. So, the inviscid flows occur at high Reynolds number condition and not known
high Reynolds number that you should also, you can consider flow to be inviscid somewhere
in the region away from the wall, not near the wall; near the wall viscous forces will
contribute and you cannot neglect them.
979
Now, the equation simplify as we just neglect the viscous,
∂(ρv x ) ∂(ρv x v x ) ∂(ρv y v x ) ∂(ρv z v x ) ∂p

∂t
+ ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
= ρg x − ∂x
So, the terms which will remain to be solved for the inviscid flow or the transient term, the
convection term on the left hand side; the right hand side you have the body force term and
the surface force term due to pressure only that is a difference. The surface force due to
viscous stresses play a negligible role and we are going to neglect those terms.
ρ Dv
Dt = ρg − ∇p
This is called the Euler equation and that is a photograph shows Euler there. So, what is Euler
equation? The linear momentum balance without the viscous force term on the right hand
side or to be more formally net viscous forces per unit volume terms on the right hand side is
the Euler equation. When is it valid? At high Reynolds number; where is it valid? Away from
the wall. So, that is should be clear the scope of application of the Euler equation.
Also like to recall our earlier equation we have, look at that we are gradually evolved in our
equation. What do we mean by that? We derived the all encompassing linear momentum
balance and then Navier Stoke equation as well. In terms of application we are slowly
evolving; what do we mean by that, the first case, first level of application the fluid was at
rest. So, you did not have the left hand side that was 0 and you had only gravity and then
gradient of pressure.
Even then, even that could simplify to only the direction in the vertical direction. Second
when the fluid moved as a rigid body, you have the left hand side; but it was one acceleration
Dv
term for the entire fluid body. So, left hand side we had ρ an Dt was represented as a
vector; right hand side we had the both the pressure gradient term and the body force.
Now, we are not considering the fluid to move in as a rigid body, it can have velocity
gradients as well and that is why we have the, I would say full form of the substantial
derivative namely ρ Dv
Dt term on the left hand side. That is a gradual evolution from our
simple fluids at rest case, to fluid under rigid body motion, to inviscid flow.
980
So, let us take one simple application of the Euler equation. This example is not new to us;
we have come across this example as an application of differential form of total mass balance
or the continuity equation. And this example in fact, we used both the integral mass balance
and the differential mass balance to arrive at the velocity profiles.
Let me just quickly recall the geometry. We have two plates, actual plates are circular and the
bottom plate is porous; of course, the top plate is a solid plate. And air enters the bottom
plate, the porous plate and flows out through the sides; if you look at the top view, this is how
it looks. So, flow takes place radially and then leaves a plate.
And if you look at the front view, this is how it looks; but this geometry involves cylindrical
coordinates. So, we said, we will consider flow between just two parallel plates; but the
difference is that the bottom plate is porous and air enters through the bottom plate and flows
out through the sides.
And now, let us read the example, air flows into the narrow gap of height h, between closely
spaced parallel plates through the porous surface as shown. Assume the flow is
incompressible with the ρ equal to 1.23 kg per meter cube density of air and friction is
negligible that is a case we are discussing now. When we say friction is negligible, net
viscous force is negligible.
981
Further assume the vertical airflow velocity is 15 millimeter per second, and the half width
of the cavity length is given as 22 millimeters, the height is given as 1.2 millimeters it is a
narrow gap. And we are asked to calculate the pressure gradient at (x, y) = (L, h).
So, these are recall slides, we applied a integral mass balance, we took a control volume from
x = 0 to x = x, did integral mass balance and found out the expression for the x component of
velocity as
v x = v 0 hx
982
And then we did a differential mass balance, found out the y component of velocity as
y
v y = v 0 (1 − h )
So, let us take those velocity components. So, velocity field was determined using the
integral balance, integral mass balance and the differential mass balance;
y
v x = v 0 hx ; v y = v 0 (1 − h )
983
And these are the velocity components that we have done already. Now, let us take the Euler
equation and see how do we use that to find out the pressure gradient. So, we will write the
Euler equation the component form,
ρ Dv
Dt = ρg − ∇p
This is in the x direction, and the y direction;
Dv y
ρ Dv
Dt
x
= ρg x −
∂p
∂x
; ρ Dt
= ρg y −
∂p
∂y
Dv x Dv y
To evaluate the x and y component we need to evaluate the Dt
term and Dt
term on the
left hand side.
Dv x
So, let us take Dt
expand and right as
Dv x ∂v x ∂v y v0 v02x
Dt
= ∂t
+ v x ∂v
∂x
x
+ vy ∂y
= v 0 hx h
= h2
This term tells the acceleration of the fluid particle in the x direction. Now let us evaluate
Dv y
Dt
which is the acceleration of the fluid particle in the y direction.
Dv y ∂v y ∂v y ∂v y y v0 v02
Dt
= ∂t
+ vx ∂x
+ vy ∂y
= v 0 (1 − h ) (− h ) =− h (1 − hy )
So, now we are ready to substitute in the x component, y component of the Euler equation.
Let us do that, and while writing we will bring the pressure gradient term to the left hand
side, because we are interested in finding out the pressure gradient.
∂p v02x
∂x
= ρg x − ρ Dv
Dt
x
=0−ρ h
We are considering gravity along the y direction. So, g x = 0 . So, now, let us evaluate the
pressure gradient the y direction using the y component of Euler equation. So, let us
rearrange and write
∂p
∂y
= ρg y − ρ
Dv y
Dt [
=ρ −g+
v02
h (1 − hy )]
So, this two equations tells you the, gradient of pressure in the x and y direction and their
functions of x and y respectively. Whereas to evaluate at the point (L, h), so, we will
substitute x = L and y = h .
984
∂p v02x v02L
∂x
=ρ h
=ρ h
∂p
∂y [
=ρ −g+
v02
h (1 − hh )] =− ρg
So, let us find the numerical values, we are given the density, we are given v 0 , we are given
the half width, we are given the distance between the two plates. So, let us substitute all in SI
units; if you do that, you get the pressure gradient
ρ = 1.23 mkg3 ; v 0 = 15 mm
s
; L = 22 mm; h = 1.2 mm
∂p ∂p
∂x
=− 4.23 mN2 ; ∂y
=− 12.1 mN2
So, the pressure gradient is
∂p ∂p N
∇p = ∂x
i + ∂y
j =− 4.23i − 12.1j m3
So, what is seen as a simple application of the Euler equation to find out the pressure gradient
under inviscid flow condition, not in general; when the flow is inviscid then our discussion is
valid.
985
Lecture – 86
Bernoulli Equation : Inviscid Flow
We are going to derive another equation of engineering relevance and engineering

application. Lot of applications of this equation called the Bernoulli equation and he is
Bernoulli and this equation relates pressure, velocity, elevation under inviscid flow condition;
that is why we are discussing this. Because the main topic of discussion is inviscid flow
under that we discussed flow regimes. So, that we know the scope of our discussion namely
high Reynolds number flows. And with first we discussed the Euler equation, now we are
discussing the Bernoulli equation.
So, inviscid regions of flow, what we are going to now is, derive the Bernoulli’s equation.
We will start the Euler equation,
ρ Dv
Dt = ρg − ∇p
So that is the Euler equation which we have seen in the previous discussion. And the
substantial derivative of velocity has two terms; the local term and the convective term or the
986
total acceleration is in terms of the local acceleration and convective acceleration. We will
restrict the discussion to steady flows.
Dv ∂v
Dt = ∂t + (v.∇) v
So, I will consider the steady state Euler equation. So,
Dv
Dt = (v.∇) v
So, the Euler’s equation simplified to
ρg − ∇p = ρ (v.∇) v
Now we will use an vector identity; what is the vector identity? You would have a come
across several vector identities in your vector calculus course; for example, curl, gradient of a
scalar is equal to 0, there is one vector identity. Similarly we are going to use this vector
identity, we are not going to prove this is a little involved to prove this, even Fluid Mechanics
book take this relationship. So, we are also taking this relationship without proving it.
1
(v.∇)v = 2 ∇(v.v) − v x (∇ x v)
What does it tell you, the left hand side we have v .∇ operating on velocity and v .∇ is the
scalar operator, operating on a vector. So, left hand side is a vector, right hand side we have
gradient of v .v . So, v .v is a scalar, it is a magnitude of v 2 and gradient of a scalar will give
you a vector.
Now coming to the last term, we have ∇xv which is a vector and once again v cross this
vector gives you another vector. So, all the terms in this vector identity are vectors;
obviously, a vector identity cannot have one term a scalar, other term is vector all of them
should be of the same type. So, all the terms here are in terms of vector. So, the convictive
acceleration term is going to be expressed in terms of the right hand side of this vector
identity.
987
So, let us do that,
1
(v.∇)v = 2 ∇(v.v) − v x (∇ x v)
That is a vector identity. Now what we will do is, let us try to understand the ∇ x v which is
well known to you, it is the curl of the velocity vector which is a cross product of the gradient
vector and the velocity vector ok; that is should be well known to you from a calculus course.
∇ x v = ||i j k ∂ ∂ ∂
∂x ∂y ∂z
v x v y v z ||
Now let us express that in terms of variables which have come across in this particular
course. So, you know the cross product can be expressed in terms of the determinant. So,
now, let us expand this determinant.
∇xv= [( ∂v z
∂x
−
∂v y
∂z )i + ( ∂v x
∂z
−
∂v z
∂x )j + ( ∂v y
∂x
−
∂v x
∂y ) k]
Let us multiply and divide by 2 and you will see something familiar to us.
∇xv=2 [ (
1
2
∂v z
∂x
−
∂v y
∂z )i + (1
2
∂v x
∂z
−
∂v z
∂x )j + (
1
2
∂v y
∂x
−
∂v x
∂y ) k]
Now if you look at the terms here, it should sound something familiar to us especially the last
term, because usually I have been working on the x y coordinate. What does it represent?
That represents the rate of rotation in the x y plane; just to recall we express the velocity
gradient tensor in terms of the strain rate tensor and the rotation rate tensor or rate of rotation
988
tensor. And what we have here is one of the components of the rotation rate tensor; of course,
we know that this is ω̇ xy .
And so, what we have here is ω̇ xy . Similarly the other terms also represent the rate of
rotation in the different planes, ω̇ yz , ω˙ zx . And that is what is shown here, this figure should
be familiar to us which we discussed when we discussed strain rates in fluid mechanics, in
fluids and we said this figure shows a fluid element at time t and then t + ∆ t. And we said a
fluid element can undergo normal strain rate, shear strain rate and rotation rate. And that is
rotation rate is what we are discussing now, this component this term represents that rate of
rotation.
So, let us use that,
∇ x v = 2(ω˙ yz i + ω̇ zx j + ω̇ xy k)
∇ x v = 2ω˙ = ξ
So, you have a vector now; how is the vector formed? The vector is formed with the
components as the rate of rotation in the y z plane, z x plane and x y plane. So, let us give
names to them,
ω̇ = the rate of rotation vector; ξ = v orticity vector
So, vorticity vector is twice the rate of rotation vector; in short what we are discussing to
summary is what I discussed so far, what we did was, we use this vector identity and express
the convective acceleration term as some of two terms. In that we had one ∇ x v term, we
have we know that ∇ x v is the curl of v and we started with the determinant expression,
expanded that and found that the components of the ∇ x v vector are nothing, but the rate of
rotation of the fluid elements in the three planes. And that ∇ x v has now got a significance
of twice the rate of rotation vector. So, we denote that by the vorticity vector.
So, let us do that,
1
(v.∇) v = 2 ∇ (v.v) − v x ξ
So, whenever you come across ∇ x v or rate of rotation vector or vorticity vector this tensor
should come to your mind; where we have discussed all the components as the rate of
rotation in the respective planes. And this diagram should also come in come to your mind
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which includes of course, normal strain rate, shear strain rate and rotation. But now this
discussion is confined to the rigid body rotation; remember the fluid, this rotation tells about
the rigid body rotation of the fluid element.
Now let us proceed further.
ρg − ∇p = ρ (v.∇) v
So, this is the steady state Euler equation, where we are taken only the convective
acceleration. And we discuss the vector identity,
1
(v.∇) v = 2 ∇ (v.v) − v x ξ
We are using this vector identity and just now we discussed that the ∇xv can be represented
in terms of the vorticity vector. So, now, let us substitute this vector identity in terms of
vorticity vector in the right hand side of this steady state Euler equation.
ρ
ρg − ∇ p = 2 ∇ (v.v) − ρv x ξ
Now, let us take this gravity vector and let us try to express that in terms of a gradient.
g =− g k =− g ∇z =− ∇(gz)
∂z ∂z ∂z
∇z = ∂x
i + ∂y
j + ∂z
k =k
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So, let me just quickly repeat; what we are doing here is, expressing the g vector in terms of
gradient of some variable, g vector is − g k , k is gradient of z, g is a constant you can bring
inside. So, it becomes − ∇(gz) .
Now let us substitute this in the above equation. So,
− ρ∇ (gz) − ∇p − ρ∇ ( ) =− ρv x ξ
v2
2
So, taken this equation, two things as have been done, g has been expressed in terms of
gradient of g z and v .v has been expressed as velocity squared.
You may be wondering why express g in terms of a gradient of g z, because you have
v2
gradient of pressure, we have gradient of 2
and so we also like to express g vector in terms
of gradient of g z. Now what we will do, we will divide by density. But when I do, I can
divide by density; but I make another assumption, that density is constant which means that,
it is incompressible fluid.
∇ ( ) + ∇ ( ) + ∇ (gz) = v x ξ
p
ρ
v2
2
v2
So, we have gradient of p by ρ , then we have gradient of 2
, then we have gradient of g z
and right hand side we have v x ξ . So, moment I do this, or this can be done only if I assume
p
incompressible fluid. And that is what has been done here, we have written as gradient of ρ .
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So, now let us proceed further.
∇ ( ) + ∇ ( ) + ∇ (gz) = v x ξ
p
ρ
v2
2
Now what we are going to do now is, the previous equation take a dot product of each term
with a differential length d s vector along a streamline. What is shown here? This figure is
from our discussion on streamlines, same diagram has been shown here; where if you recall
back streamline was defined such a way that, at any point if you draw a tangent you get the
velocity vector.
Now we are considering a differential length ds vector and in our earlier discussion and
streamlines that differential length was shown as dr vector. Now we are using ds vector,
because I am following derivation from this book Munson and s can also mean, s vector
along this streamline. This dr vector and present ds vector both have a same physical
significance, only nomenclature is different.
Now, because the, it is the differential length, it is tangent to the stream line. So, the velocity
vector is along the ds vector. So, what is it we are going to do now, take the earlier equation,
take a dot product of each term with the differential length ds vector along a streamline. Let
us do that and remember that; ds vector is along the velocity vector.
∇ ( ) .ds + ∇ ( ) .ds + ∇ (gz) .ds = (v x ξ) .ds

p
ρ
v2
2
So, ds vector is parallel to the velocity vector. Now let us see what happens to the right hand
side, having dotted with the ds vector. Let us see what happens to the right hand side. To
understand the right hand side, we will have to focus on the bottom figure.
A velocity vector is shown here and then the vorticity vector; they can be in two different
directions, because one is velocity vector, other is the curl of velocity vector. So, this velocity
vector and this is vorticity vector. Now we have one v x ξ here and that is vector is shown
here; we know that when we take cross product of two vectors, the resulting vector is
perpendicular to both the vectors. So, in this case v x ξ that resulting vector, is perpendicular
to both v vector and vorticity vector.
So, let us write down that, v x ξ is perpendicular to both v and ξ . Why is that? Suppose I
have a vector and then b vector and if you take a x b that vector is perpendicular to both a
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vector and b vector; instead of a and b here we have v vector and ξ vector. So, the cross
product between v vector and vorticity vector is perpendicular to both v vector and the ξ .
So, now we have seen the ds vector and v vector are parallel, just now we have discussed
that. So, what does it mean? This v x ξ is perpendicular to v vector, but this v vector is
parallel to the ds vector; which means, that this v x ξ is perpendicular to ds vector and that
is what we write here, v x ξ is perpendicular to ds vector.
Which means that, the right hand side is 0, v x ξ that vector is perpendicular d s vector,
which means the right hand side is 0.
(v x ξ).ds = 0
That is why we took a dot product with a differential length along a stream line. So, now, the
right hand side vanishes. Now let us take the left hand side and see what happens. Now here
we express that dr vector in terms of dxi + dyj + dzk ; similarly
ds = dxi + dyj + dzk
Now let us try to evaluate the first term here. First term on the left hand side;
∂p ∂p ∂p
∇p = ∂x
i + ∂y
j + ∂z
k
Now let us take the dot product of gradient of p with ds vector;
∂p ∂p ∂p
∇p.ds = ∂x
dx + ∂y
dy + ∂z
dz = dp
So, left hand side first term become dp ; similarly, we can write for other terms as well. So,
the equation is
d ( ) + d ( ) + d (gz) = 0
p
ρ
v2
2
So, now of course, it becomes much simpler to read.
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Now, let us rewrite that
d ( ) + d ( ) + d (gz) = 0
p
ρ
v2
2
And we can write this as
d ( p
ρ
+ v2
2 )
+ gz = 0
What does it mean?, we have taken a small length differential length along the streamline;
which means that, we are at two points, the two points are along the stream line slightly
separated on the streamline. We are not considering any two points, please keep that in mind,
we are taking two points.
So, this tells you that the difference of this quantity; when I say quantity, sum of these three
terms is equal to 0 between those two points. So, if you are on a streamline and if you
consider two points adjustment to each other, the difference of this value between the two
points is 0; what does it mean, that particular summation is a constant along the stream line.
p v2
ρ
+ 2
+ g z = constant
p v2
So, ρ
+ 2
+ g z is equal to constant along a streamline. Those terms should be familiar to
you; the first term is pressure energy per unit mass and then the second term is kinetic energy
994
per unit mass very familiar to us; third term is the potential energy per unit mass is equal to
constant along a streamline.
What is this pressure energy? This pressure energy represents the work done by the pressure
force in moving the fluid through a distance. So, also called as flow energy; either you can
you tell us pressure energy or flow energy because that represents the work done by the
pressure in moving fluid over distance. We will come across this term, once again energy
balance; of course, all these are different forms of mechanical energy. When you say
mechanical energy what does it mean, complete conversion to mechanical work should be
possible.
If you have thermal energy that cannot be completely converted to mechanical work because
of the second law of thermodynamics; but these forms of energy are called mechanical
energy, because complete conversion to mechanical work is possible. So, that is why the
Bernoulli’s equation is a mechanical energy balance.
Sometimes this equation is divided by g and written as the pressure head and the velocity
head, and then the potential head that is also done. And so, the Bernoulli’s equation tells you
that, the sum of these energy is pressure energy, kinetic energy, potential energy; of course,
all per unit mass is a constant along the stream line, not anywhere between any two point in
the flow field.
What are the assumptions? Let us recall the assumptions,
● Inviscid flow, because we started with the Euler equation.

● We started with the steadied form of Euler equation, so we have also assumed a
steady flow.
● Then during the derivation, we assume density to be constant, so which means; we
assumed incompressible fluid. In fact, not all incompressible fluid, remember when
we discussed continuity equation it is applicable for incompressible flow also. Which
means that, the equation what we have derived is not necessarily, for let us say water
it is also for flow of air at low velocities that is why we define incompressible flow
and
● Along the stream line.
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So, the Bernoulli’s equation tells about the sum of these three energy is a constant along a
streamline steady inviscid flow of a incompressible fluid. And this along a streamline where
it that come from, remember we wanted to make the right hand side 0 where we had a
vorticity term, where the rotation term. To make that 0, we have to consider this balance
along the stream line and that is why this restriction comes from, that is where this restriction
comes from.
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Lecture – 87
Bernoulli Equation: Example 1
Let us look at a very simple application of this Bernoulli’s Equation. We will have many such
examples in Fluid Mechanics book. We will just discuss one of them and many will be
representative of this, some terms will be given, some terms will be asked to find out. What is
it we are interested in? Remember, the next level of application is going to be finding velocity
profiles that is we are going to predict velocity profile. For example, in our flow between the
parallel plates we are going to predict the velocity profile where one plate is set in motion and
then when both the plates are fixed we are going to predict the velocity profile to be parabolic
etcetera.
Now, suppose if you want to measure the velocity profile in between the plates or in a pipe
how do you measure and that is the arrangement shown in the figure. This arrangement is
used to find out velocity at different points in a pipe.
Now, what is the arrangement? What is shown here is a pipe carrying water and then you
make a hole and then insert a tube in this way on the wall of the pipe. Now, water rises based
997
on the static pressure at that particular location and that static pressure is balanced by the
level to which water rises. So, you make a hole and attach a small tube, water will rise and
that will represents the static pressure at that particular point and the static pressure is
represented by the height to which the water level rises.
Now, you make another tube of L shape. Why L shape? This end should face the flow and
once again water rises in this tube as well. What happens now let us say water has some
velocity at point 1 and when it reaches point 2 it gets decelerated the velocity becomes 0 at
point 2. So, it loses out all the kinetic energy and so, that results in a increased pressure and
that is why you observe a higher level here that increased pressure is represented by the water
level in this tube. So, the first tube represents the static pressure, the second tube reflects the
increased pressure because of the conversion of kinetic energy.
Now, let us read the exam question a piezometer; when I say piezometer this simple tube is
called a piezometer and a pitot tube are tapped into horizontal water pipe as shown in figure
to measure static and stagnation pressure. What the piezometer measures is a static pressure
and the second pressure is called the stagnation pressure. And, why is it stagnation pressure?
Because the velocity becomes 0 at that particular point, for the indicated water column
heights.
What are the water column heights indicated? So, in the first tube the water rises to 7
centimeter, and in second tube the water rises to 7 + 12 = 19 centimeter. Of course, you have
a 3 centimeter between the point, in this case we are interested in measuring the velocity
along the central line. So, the point of measurement and the wall there is a 3 centimeter
height.
So, now, let us write the Bernoulli’s equation
2
𝑝 𝑣
ρ
+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Now, we will choose a streamline along the center line of the pipe and point 1 is directly
under the piezometer and point 2 is at the tip of the pitot tube, that is what is shown here. The
point 1 is below the piezometer, 2 is at the tip of the pitot tube. Now, because points 1 and 2
are along the streamline this sum should be same at point 1 and point 2 and that is what is
written here
998
2 2
𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑝2 𝑣2
ρ
+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧1 = ρ
+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧2
This should be same because we are considering points along the streamline that is what we
have discussed. The sum of these three terms should be same. Now, points 1 and 2 are at the
same level. Both the point are at this along the center line of the pipe and then this we have
already discussed 2 is at the stagnation point and we have just now discussed stagnation
pressure is obtained when a flowing fluid is a decelerated to zero speed.
Now, let us write down the Bernoulli’s equation which means the sum of energy at the two
points are same.
2 2
𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑝2 𝑣2
ρ
+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧1 = ρ
+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧2
And, because the levels are same so, 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 are same, z is the level from some datum some
reference and we have seen the stagnation point the velocity is zero which means that 𝑣2 = 0
. So, that is a simplification which are going to apply for the Bernoulli’s equation. So,
2
𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑝2
ρ
+ 2
= ρ
999
Now, this 𝑝2 is called the stagnation pressure. So, the stagnation pressure represents the sum
of static pressure and the dynamic pressure and that is why you have a higher level of rise of
water in this particular pitot tube compared to the piezometer.
We are interested in finding out the velocity which is in the dynamic pressure term. So, the
dynamic pressure is the difference between the stagnation pressure and the static pressure.
So, rearrange this equation for velocity
(
2 𝑝1−𝑝2 )
𝑣1 = ρ
Remember, the difference between the two pressures represents the dynamic pressure; 𝑝2 is
stagnation pressure, 𝑝1 is static pressure.
So, now, let us evaluate what is the pressure at point 𝑝2
(
𝑝2 = ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 ρ𝑔; ) 𝑝1 = (ℎ1 + ℎ2 )ρ𝑔
So,
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = ℎ3ρ𝑔
Now, let us substitute that in the equation,
2ℎ3ρ𝑔 𝑚
𝑣1 = ρ
= 2𝑔ℎ3 = 2(9. 81)(0. 12) = 1. 53 𝑠
What we usually do is because it depends on the level difference. We connect a U-tube

nanometer here and directly measure the pressure difference.
We need not measure separately the static pressure and then the stagnation pressure. Just
connect a U-tube nanometer that will give us the pressure difference and that is what is
written here velocity depends on pressure difference measured by connecting a manometer
and remember the velocity is high remember we should be at high velocity because we are
considering the flow to be inviscid and we are also in this case quite away from the wall and
we said inviscid flow prevails in the region away from the wall where net viscous was a
negligible. So, that condition is also satisfied. As it I told you, this method is used to measure
the radial profile of velocity in a pipe or it could be even velocity between the two plates.
1000
Lecture – 88
Bernoulli Equation : Irrotational Flow
Ok, what we will now do is derive another form of Bernoulli’s Equation which is for
Irrotational Flow. So, we have already derived Bernoulli’s equation for inviscid flow which
are which happens at high Reynolds number and they are they are current regions away from
the wall and which we called as inviscid flow. Now, we say in addition to that the flow is
irrotational. What do you mean by that? This diagram is familiar to us, it shows a fluid
element at time t and the same element at time t + ∆ t. It can undergo normal strain rate, shear
strain rate, also undergo rotation rate.
Now, the condition what we are saying is that, if there is no rotation of the fluid element;
when we say rotation rigid body rotation of the fluid element. There can be change in length,
there can be change in angle which means there can be non-zero normal strain, rate non-zero
shear strain rate, but rotation is 0 that is what we mean by irrotational ok. Fluid particles do
not rotate that is what it means. How do you quantify it? We have seen the vorticity is given
by
1001
∇ x v = 2ω˙ = ξ = 0
So, the vorticity vector is equal to 0 vector ok, that is how we quantify irrotational flow.
So, we said the ∇ x v represents rotation and now since we are considering flows which are
inviscid and irrotational. So, the vorticity is 0 vector, we started with the steady flow Euler
equation; so, we will do here that as well.
ρg − ∇p = ρ (v.∇) v
In fact, this derivation most of the part almost till one particular stage this derivation is same
as what we derived for the other form of Bernoulli equation ok. So, this is the steady state
Euler equation.
∇ ( ) + ∇ ( ) + ∇ (gz) = v x ξ
p
ρ
v2
2
And then we used the vector identity and obtained this form of the equation. We also divided
by ρ which means the assumption of incompressible carries over here as well. So, till this
stage whatever we have derived earlier applies here as well.
Now, what we did next was we took a small differential length along the stream line and took
a dot product of the right hand side and the left hand side with that vector differential vector
ds vector.
∇ ( ) .ds + ∇ ( ) .ds + ∇ (gz) .ds = (v x ξ) .ds

p
ρ
v2
2
Now, why did we do that? Our objective was to our idea was to make the right hand side 0
and because, this v x ξ and the ds vector are perpendicular to each other; we took a small
differential length along the stream line then took a dot product so, that right hand side is 0.
Now, for the present case the right hand side is 0 automatically, because we have taken
vorticity to be 0 ( ξ = 0 ). In the earlier case we made the right hand side 0 after taking a dot
product with a differential length along this streamline. But, now right hand side is 0 anyway
because we are considering irrotational flow which means that the ds vector need not be
along streamline.
Even if you take along any line the right hand side is going to be 0, our idea of taking
differential length along streamline was that to make the right hand side 0. Now, that
1002
necessary does not arise because, the vorticity is 0 so, right hand side is anyway 0. So, d s
need not be along streamline, it could be along any direction and this is what you are going to
see in the next slide.
∇ ( ) .ds + ∇ ( ) .ds + ∇ (gz) .ds = (v x ξ) .ds

p
ρ
v2
2
So, let us recall what we had done for this Bernoulli’s equation the last two steps, we took the
dot product with the ds vector and then the right hand side was 0.
∇ ( ) .ds + ∇ ( ) .ds + ∇ (gz) .ds = 0

p
ρ
v2
2
And, then we had these steps where
ds = dxi + dyj + dzk

∂p ∂p ∂p
∇p.ds = ∂x
dx + ∂y
dy + ∂z
dz = dp
So, we could express this equation first in terms of differential and then we said the sum of
these three terms namely pressure, kinetic and potential energy per unit mass is equal to
constant along the stream line. And, I also told you that we take two points which are very
near that is what the differential means, but they should be along the stream length, that is
where this sum is a constant along the streamline.
p v2
ρ
+ 2
+ g z = constant
1003
So, that is the case if we take only inviscid flow, now because we are taking irrotational flow
also; now as we discuss the previous slide I need not take ds vector which is along the
stream line, I can just take any vector. So, let us say this is our streamline, I can take any two
points along any direction.
∇ ( ) .da + ∇ ( ) .da + ∇ (gz) .da = (v x ξ) .da

p
ρ
v2
2
So, this da vector is such a small differential length once again, but along any direction.
Why do we do that? Because, vorticity is 0 vector. So, right hand side is anyway 0 so, I can
and take two points along any direction. Now, what happens? If you repeat the same steps as
we have done earlier, but instead of ds vector I have a vector some da vector along any
direction, once again expressed as dxi + dyj + dzk .
p v2
ρ
+ 2
+ g z = constant along any direction
The sum of the three energies pressure, kinetic and potential energy per unit mass is constant.
But now along any direction the a vector can be along any direction and this sum is constant
along any direction. So, even so purposefully I have not shown the derivation detail because,
we should be able to arrive at this conclusion just based on physics itself. Based on the
condition that if it is irrotational the right hand side is 0, statement number 1.
Statement number 2 because, right hand side is 0 I can take dot product with a vector along
any direction, differential vector along any direction. So, immediately based on these two
statements, we should be able to conclude that that some of these three energy terms is a
constant along any direction.
Now, what are the assumptions?
● Inviscid that is anyway we started with Euler,

● Steady state flow because we took the steady state form of Euler equation.
● Incompressible fluid remember moment we bring in density inside the gradient in
both the derivations, the density is taken as constant which is incompressible fluid.
● Irrotational – Vorticity is zero
We have now seen two forms of the Bernoulli’s equation. Now, what is the extra condition
here, extra assumption? Irrotational flow which means vorticity is 0, that is extra condition
1004
for the second form of Bernoulli’s equation and which results the statement that the sum of
the energies three energy terms, is the constant along any direction.
That is in this vorticity being zero leads to the conclusion that the sum is a constant along any
direction. Vorticity is not zero, if it is not irrotational, if it is rotational flow then the sum of
the energy is a constant along a streamline only, streamline only. It cannot be constant along
any direction, though we said incompressible fluid it is for incompressible flow also.
Just like we discussed for a continuity equation, what do I mean by compressible flow?
Incompressible fluid is something like water, flow of water, incompressible flow is like flow
of air at low velocities. So, it is applicable for that condition also.
Now, like to mention that if you look at a typical fluid mechanics book Bernoulli’s equation
is discussed let us say the third chapter. First chapter in fundamentals, second chapter
considers fluids at rest and rigid body motion, third chapter itself Bernoulli’s equation is
discussed. How do they derive then is that they take a streamline, consider a moment of a
particle along a streamline.
They consider acceleration which is our this term this term and then for the forces they
consider only pressure force and then gravity force, that is all they consider. They do not
consider viscous forces, that is what we have also done; though we started with the
Navier-Stokes, we wrote down the Euler equation neglecting the viscous stresses both
converts to the same physical significance. But, the derivation is done in the beginning. Now,
the derivation is once again done in the later part of the book as well after deriving
Navier-Stokes and Euler equation and that is the derivation we are discussing.
We are not discussing the of course, in principle they are same. So, the methodology of
derivation what we have adopted or what we have followed is available usually in the later
part of the book. The first part of the book it is taking a particle, looking at the forces that is
what we have done we have also done indirectly. So, if you want in terms of reference this
derivation will be available in later part of the book. The derivation done in the first part of
the book, in principle it is same physically it is same may look slightly different.
1005
Since we are discussing about rotational, irrotational flow, I thought I will discuss this
difference as well nicely brought out in this book Cengel and Cimbala. What we are going to
differentiate is between two types of circular flows: one is a rotational circular flow, other is a
irrotational circular flow. So, let us look at the two figures here, it says flow A and flow B.
What are what is shown here are streamlines and the velocity vectors. Because, we are
discussing circular rotational from we cannot avoid a polar coordinates, though we avoid it as
much as possible.
So, here what is shown here is uθ , what is uθ ? Velocity in the tangential direction, velocity
in the θ direction, and that varies linearly with r , with the radial direction. And, that is what
is shown here, velocity varying linearly with r and this is circular flow showing streamlines
and the velocity vectors. Now, let us show other look at the flow B, where once again it is a
circular flow because the stream lines are circular no doubt about it. But, in this case the
velocity once again the tangential direction, in that θ direction varies inversely with r
inversely with r.
And, that is what is shown here as you go away from the center the tangential velocity
decreases or uθ and r is a hyperbolic form ok, that is what is shown here. So, flow A circular,
flow B circular and flow A, the tangential velocity increases with r, flow B tangential
velocity is inversely proportional to or decreases with r. Now, if you identify a fluid element
here and if you look at the top view, what happens? It rotates along with the flow that that is
1006
what you see here; but this rigid body rotation the whole body just rotates along with the
flow. And, give a nice example that is what this book does, what is shown here is a
roundabout which is ah shown here which of course, children play.
And, if you look from the top view you can see them rotating along with the roundabout. Of
course, they undergo a rigid body rotation of course, just that just like this smile here also a
smile is here which undergo rigid body rotation. And so, this is a rotational circular flow.
Now, let us look at the other example. In this case, if you add into a fluid element for moment
let us take the front view that is a physical example also, then what do you see? They always
stay up right. They do not undergo any rotation, all of them are staying upright of course,
smiling face.
What is the physical example? Fairy wheel or giant wheel, where if you look at the front view
of course, whomever is there and let us say every position they remain always upright. Of
course, they have to remain upright based on the configuration of this fairy wheel or giant
wheel. So, in this case once again it is circular flow, but the fluid elements remain always
upright. So, this example where circular flow, but it is irrotational.
So, the first case circular, but undergoes rigid body rotation. The second case, if you look at
the orientation of fluid element it always remains upright. Or, if you look at this giant wheel
or fairy wheel, the position of the people sitting in let us say in every basket or whatever they
remain upright. So, it is a good example to distinguish between circular, rotational circular
flow and irrotational circular flow.
1007
Lecture – 89
Bernoulli Equation: Example 2
Let us take an example to illustrate the Bernoulli’s Equation under irrotational flow condition
ok. So, this is a flow through a converging duct. So, let us read the example; consider steady,
incompressible, two dimensional flow think by this time we can easily understand these terms
steady, incompressible and two dimensional flow through a converging duct and that is what
is shown here converging duct. A simple approximate velocity field for this flow is given by
this velocity field.
v = (v 0 + bx) i − byj
The velocity component in the x direction increases with the x because, it is converging and
that is given by v 0 + bx , the x component of velocity is v 0 at x = 0. And: what about the y
component of velocity? That is given by − by and that increase in magnitude away from the
center line the center line is y = 0 and in terms of magnitude, it increases as you go away
from the center line that is what this tells you.
1008
And, in terms of direction above the central line b is towards the center line because y is
positive and if you come below the center line y is negative. So, once again the direction of y
component is towards the center line and that is what this shows. And, where v 0 is the
horizontal speed at x = 0 and that is what is denoted here. And, remember the y component of
velocity is 0 at y = 0 along the central line; there is no y component of velocity. As we have
seen earlier that is a symmetry line, why is it approximate field, why does the question say it
is approximate field? Note that this equation ignores viscous effects, that is what we are
discussing now.
This ignore viscous effects along the walls, but as a reasonable approximation throughout the
majority of the flow field that is what we have been telling always. Whenever we say inviscid
flow what is the region of validity? First of all high Reynolds number; secondly, away from
the wall where the net viscous stresses are negligible that is what this question also tells you.
Note that this equation ignores viscous effects along the walls, but as a reasonable
approximation throughout majority of the flow field that is why it is approximate velocity
field.
What is it we are asked to find out? Show that Bernoulli equation can be applied between any
two points in the flow fields which means we should show that it is a irrotational flow field
and then find the expression for the pressure field.
1009
So, let us proceed. So, first objective is to show that the flow field is irrotational which means
then you can apply the Bernoulli’s equation between any two points. Now, we will consider
this as something like a top view something like a top view and flows in the x y plane and
gravity acts along the z direction and. Now, for the Bernoulli equation to be applicable
between any two points the flow fields should be irrotational we have seen that which means
that
∇xv= [( ∂v z
∂y
−
∂v y
∂z )i + ( ∂v x
∂z
−
∂v z
∂x )j + ( ∂v y
∂x
−
∂v x
∂y ) k] = 0
Now, because we are considering the x y plane the component which is relevant to us is
∇xv= ( ∂v y
∂x
−
∂v x
∂y )=0
So, let us do that we are given the velocity field. So, which means we can identify the x
component of velocity y component of velocity, let us evaluate the derivative
v x = v 0 + bx; v y =− by
∂v y ∂v x
∂x
= 0; ∂y
= 0;
So,
∇xv=0
Which means the flow is which means that the flow is irrotational and hence, Bernoulli
equation can be applied between any two points in the flow field. What does it mean? You
can take any point here, Bernoulli’s equation should be valid. So, if you take any point here
then Bernoulli’s equation should be valid.
1010
Now, let us evaluate the pressure field. What do we mean by pressure field? How pressure
varies as a function of x comma y that is the idea.
v x = v 0 + bx; v y =− by
So, these are the velocity components. So, what we are going to find out is the pressure
gradient in the x and y direction almost similar to what we had done earlier for an example
under application of Euler’s equation. You will see why is that so.
Now flow is inviscid and irrotational. So, we will take the Euler equation
ρ Dv
Dt = ρg − ∇p
Now, write the components of the Euler equation; x component and the y component,
ρ Dv
Dt
x
= ρg x − ∂p
∂x
Dv y ∂p
ρ Dt
= ρg y − ∂y
Now, let us simplify the substantial derivative of v x ,
Dv x ∂v x
Dt
= ∂t
+ v x ∂v
∂x
x
+ v y ∂v
∂y
x
= (v 0 + bx) b = v 0 b + b2 x
Now let us simplify the term for v y
1011
Dv y ∂v y ∂v y ∂v y
Dt
= ∂t
+ vx ∂x
+ vy ∂y
=− by (− b) = b2 y
Now let us substitute in the Euler equation and evaluate the gradients in their two directions
or pressure. So,
∂p Dv x
∂x
= ρg x − ρ Dt
= 0 − ρ (v 0 b + b2 x) =− ρ (v 0 b + b2 x)
∂p Dv y
∂y
= ρg y − ρ Dt
= 0 − ρb2 y =− ρb2 y
So now, we have evaluated the gradient of pressure in the x direction and the y direction.
Now, we will proceed towards finding out the pressure field we will carry over the pressure
gradient from the previous slide
∂p ∂p
∂x
=− ρ (v 0 b + b2 x) ; ∂y
=− ρb2 y
Now, how do we proceed what we do is start with the pressure gradient in the x direction
∂p
∂x
=− ρ (v 0 b + b2 x)
And then we will partially integrated. So,
(
p =− ρ v 0 bx + b2 x2
2 ) + f (y)
1
1012
Now you have a constant since it is partial integration that can be a function of y which we
denote as f 1 (y) now we will differentiate it idea is to find out that function.
So, let us differentiate the expression for pressure which we found in the previous step. So,
∂p df 1
∂y
= dy
∂p
Now, this should be equal to the ∂y
which I found out earlier,
∂p df 1
∂y
= dy
=− ρb2 y
Now we have got a differential of the function. So, now, what should we do integrate idea is
to find out f 1. So, let us integrate
2
df 1 ρb y 2
f1 = ∫ dy
dy = ∫− ρb2 ydy =− 2
+C
This is just a constant or usual constant because it is usually integration it is not partial
integration. Now we have found out the expression for f one that was our objective of course,
the constant still remains. So, let us substitute this expression for f 1 in the pressure equation.
( )−
2
b2 x2 ρb y 2
p =− ρ v 0 bx + 2 2
+C
Now, let us do some simple rearrangements so that it looks nice,
ρ
p =− 2 [2v0 bx + b2 (x2 + y2 )] + C
We will have to evaluate the constant C now which means we need a condition. We need a
value of pressure at some point let us say we are given the pressure at x = 0, y = 0 and the
pressure is p0 . So, if we substitute here,
C = p0
So, let us substitute,
ρ
p = p0 − 2 [2v0 bx + b2 (x2 + y2 )]
That is the pressure field p. So, this gives you p as a function of (x, y), always we should
know that there is no meaning for or we cannot find pressure as an absolute value for
1013
incompressible flow. It is always the difference in pressure that matters, you see we are when
we are specific. When we are calculating here we calculate p − p0 .
So, we always find difference in pressure in incompressible flow ok. If it is compressible

flow then of course, the absolute pressure has a meaning in the case of incompressible flow.
If you want to say more formally you always find pressure up to an arbitrary constant or
arbitrary given value of pressure and that is what is cleared from here also even earlier
example, we found out pressure gradient we never found out pressure. So, pressure is always
given or we always find in terms of pressure difference.
Now, what we will do is alternate method of finding pressure field using the Bernoulli
equation. What did we do now? We took the Euler equation found out the two pressure
gradients in two directions and then integrated differentiated once again integrated find f 1
found a function f 1 , constant C etcetera found the pressure distribution. Now, what we will
do? We will straight away use the Bernoulli equation and then find the pressure field which
in one way will be much simpler Bernoulli’s equation was derived from the Euler equation.
So, both should be equivalent. Now because flow field is irrotational, I can apply Bernoulli
equation between any two points that is advantage here. Because, if it is not irrotational, then
by applying Bernoulli’s equation, you cannot get the pressure field because then you will
have to apply only along streamlines because it is irrotational and because we can apply
Bernoulli’s equation between any two points you can get the enter pressure field.
1014
So, let us write down the Bernoulli’s equation which we have derived between two points 1
and 2
p2 v22 p1 v12
ρ
+ 2
+ gz 2 = ρ
+ 2
+ gz 1
And this particular example, they are the same level. So, the gravity term or the potential
energy term cancels out.
p2 v22 p1 v12
ρ
+ 2
= ρ
+ 2
Now, what we will do is, we will consider point 2 as some position (x, y) we have the flow
field like this; any point is considered as (x, y) and point 1 is (0, 0).
So, we will change the nomenclature in the previous equation
p v2 p0 v02
ρ
+ 2
= ρ
+ 2
So, let us rearrange this. So,
p = p0 + ρ ( v02−v 2
2 )
So, let us rewrite that expression.
p = p0 + ρ ( v02−v 2
2 )
1015
Now we are given the velocity field which means we know
v x = v 0 + bx; v y =− by
Now, I can find out the magnitude of velocity at any point x comma y represented by v
2 2
v 2 = v 2x + v 2y = (v 0 + bx) + (by)
So, I can find out the square of the magnitude of the velocity. So, what we want in the right
hand side is
[
v 20 − v 2 = v 20 − (v 0 + bx)2 + (by)2 ]
So, let us simplify that let us expand the square term. So,
[ ]
v 20 − v 2 = v 20 − v 20 + 2v 0 bx + b2 x2 + b2 y 2 =− (2v 0 bx + b2 x2 + b2 y 2 )
So, now, let us substitute back. So,
ρ
p = p0 − 2 [(2v0 bx + b2 x2 + b2 y2 )]
So, this way becomes much simpler you can straight away apply the Bernoulli’s equation to
find out the pressure field. Of course, same expression which we have obtained from the
Euler equation; I was a little more that was involved this is much more a simpler. So, two
different ways.
1016
So, let us summarize and whatever we have discussed under a inviscid flows. We started with
the discussion on flow regimes, they tell about the characteristics of the flow in terms of our
dimensionless number namely Reynolds number which is the ratio of the inertial forces to
viscous forces. We looked at two regimes one at low Reynolds number namely laminar
regime laminar flow regime and one at high Reynolds number namely turbulent regime in
between of course, you can have transition.
While, laminar was order turbulent was highly disordered then we discussed the Euler
equation and Euler equations applicable for inviscid flows which means that net viscous
forces are negligible and which happens at high Reynolds number away from the wall. And,
then we derive the Bernoulli’s equation which tells you that the sum of pressure kinetic
potential energy is of course, per unit mass is a constant. We derived that starting from the
steady state Euler equation and we derived two forms of the Bernoulli’s equation; one of the
flow is inviscid the Bernoulli equation is valid along a streamline. If it is inviscid and
irrotational, then the Bernoulli equation is valid along any direction.
1017
Lecture – 90
Planar Couette Flow Governing Equations
We have been discussing applications of differential form of a the linear momentum balance
namely the Navier-Stokes equation.
1018
And we are discussing the applications hierarchically going from the simplest to the complex
applications. So, first we started with the fluids at rest and rigid body motion, looked at the
pressure distribution and then we have discussed inviscid flows and which we discuss the
mainly the Bernoulli’s equation. Now, we are going to discuss viscous flows. So, initially it
was fluid at rest and rigid body motion, and there are no viscous stresses at all.
Then we considered inviscid flows where the viscous stresses were negligible. Now we are
going to consider viscous flows which means that there are viscous stresses. And We are
going to discuss about flow between parallel plates which are come across a several times
and what is the main objective is to derive the velocity profile.
1019
So, let us look at the outline for this set of applications only of course, two words as I told
you velocity distribution. The velocity distribution we are going to discuss for two
geometries; the two geometries which are come across several times earlier what are they?
Flow between two parallel plates, one in which the top plate is set in motion, other in which
both plates are fixed, but pressure driven flow.
For example, something pushes water through the between the two plates let say a pump
which pushes the water between the two plates. And we have seen this velocity profile even
use them we are going to finally, I would say derive those expressions. We have been telling
this towards the end of fluid mechanics part, we will be deriving the expressions and that is
what we are up to now derived the velocity profile,
In terms of terminology, so, far I have been using words like configuration, geometry
example etcetera. Now, time has come to use more formal words they are called planar
Couette flow the first one and the second one is called the planar Poiseuille flow. Now, why
is it planar Couette flow, planar Poiseuille flow? Moment you say Couette flow, it represents
the flow between two concentric cylinders we are come across this earlier, when we
discussed about viscosity example of Newton’s law of viscosity when discuss about
viscometer as an example of application of Newton’s law of viscosity.
So, the top figure represent the Couette flow. So, it is in cylindrical coordinates because we
are considering a similar flow in terms of Cartesian coordinates, it is called planar Couette
1020
flow. Now, similarly when you say Poiseuille flow what represents Poiseuille flow is, flow
through a circular pipe. And because we are considering analogous flow condition under
Cartesian coordinate, it is called planar Poiseuille flow.
So, Couette flow and Poiseuille flow in general represents flow in cylindrical coordinates and
because we are considering analogous as flows in Cartesian coordinates and we are calling
them as planar Couette flows, planar Poiseuille flow.
So, let us start the Navier-Stokes equation, now we are going to consider the Navier-Stokes
equation without any approximations. So, far we have been making approximations fluid at
rest, rigid body motion, inviscid flow. So, we have been not considering the Navier-Stokes in
entirety, we have neglected certain terms.
Now, you are going to consider the full form of the Navier-Stokes equation and
( )
2 2 2
∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
+μ 2 + 2 + 2
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
That is the Navier-Stokes equation. First we said the velocity is 0 flow fluid that rest, then we
said the entire fluid body as one velocity, all the points has a same velocity. So, you can
represent as one acceleration term all the point of the same velocity. So, we can represent as
an acceleration term on the left hand side then we neglect all the viscous terms on the right
hand side. So, now, we are considering all the terms.
1021
Now, the Navier-Stokes equation we have written only one direction, solving Navier-Stokes
equation including all the terms is so difficult really a formidable work because you will have
three direction equations you will have continuity equation also. So now, what do you going
to do is, consider examples or cases, geometry, problems etcetera where we can get a exact
analytical solution.
So, we will limit our being introductory course, we consider only those cases where we can
get a analytical solution. What do you mean by that? For example, let us say you can get 𝑣𝑥
as some function of y, x velocity as a function of y. Other approach is numerical approach

where you get 𝑣𝑥 as different points of y, not as a expression you get only in terms of
numerical data numerical answer.
So, you are going to consider only cases where exact analytical solution is possible. So, what
should you do for that?. Make assumptions or approximations not for a entire class of flow,
but specific to the problem, this should be kept in mind. When we see approximation here,
we made a approximation for a class of flow. What do you mean by class of flow? Class of
flow where fluid is under rest condition where the fluid moves as a rigid body they are a class
of flows.
Similarly, a class of flows called inviscid flow. Now all are viscous flows only, but these
assumption approximations are problem specific. Given a particular problem, given a
particular geometry etcetera for that particular example we will make approximation
assumptions that will understand as we go along.
So, though we take the entire Navier-Stokes equation, now the assumptions are not for a
whole class, but specific to the problem that is the difference between this approximation and
earlier assumption.
1022
So, now let us take the planar Couette flow now that we have understood the terminology.
Now, what follow should be very easy to us. We have discuss the several times flow between
two parallel plates we have come across this several times, flow between two parallel plates
and the bottom plate is stationary and the top plate moves at a constant velocity 𝑣𝑝.
And, fluid motion is caused by fluid being dragged along with the moving boundary. Because
the top plate moves that plate drags the fluid along with it and hence causes motion in the
region between the two plates. What is the more formal way of saying this? That is little more
informal; we say fluid is being dragged by the plate, more formal way of saying that is the
flow establishes itself that is what happens due to the viscous stresses caused by the moving
upper plate, that now becomes very clear.
The previous statement is little more informal saying that that moving plate drags the fluid
along with it, hence cause sets the motion between the two plates really what happens?
Because of the upper plate moving there are viscous stresses and because of that the flow get
established. Now what are the flows which are similar to this, or what is the flow that this
geometry approximates?
One is familiar to us the other is almost similar to that, what is that that is familiar to us? We
have come across the viscometer arrangement, when we discuss few classes back the
application of Newton’s law of viscosity. What is that we saw? We have a inner cylinder
1023
which is rotating, the outer cylinder is stationary. We have a fluid let us say water or any
viscous fluid between the two cylinders and then we measure the torque and use that to
calculate viscosity. We also said that this is actual Couette flow, actual Couette flow is this
which is a flow between two coaxial cylinders.
Now, our geometry is flow between two parallel plates; one is moving other is stationery.
Here again the flows between two cylinders and one is rotating other is stationery. So, that
way they are analogous. When is it is valid? It is valid when the gap between the two
cylinders is very small. When the gap is very small then the flow with between the two
cylinders can be approximated to flow between two plates that is the condition.
Now so, that is the field of instrumentation or measurement what is the other example? More
of engineering application is example shown here which is a shaft bearing. What is shaft
bearing mean? You have a rotating shaft and then you have a housing which is similar to a
stationary cylinder and then you have a lubricating oil of course, this is always or almost a
high viscous oil so, that the friction is reduced between the rotating shaft and the housing.
So, once again this configuration is also similar to our case or our configuration approximates
this configuration. Why is it? Because you have a rotating cylinder something like a moving
plate and then you have a housing or stationery cylinder, which is something similar to our
stationery plate. And, the gap is usually not very large in a shaft bearing it is a very small gap.
And, there is a high viscous oil there in our case viscous fluid array a fluid back our viscous
stresses are going to be included and that is between the two plates.
So, what we are discussing is a Cartesian co-ordinate system so, that our complex is reduced
and though this arrangement cannot be realized in lab, we cannot have two plates like this. In
a lab we cannot have to plate like this make one move and then get a velocity field between
them. But how do you realize is like these two cases have a fluid between two cylinders and
rotate one cylinder you can get a similar velocity field. And, if the gap is very small, and both
are Cartesian configuration approximates the cylindrical geometry that is the idea.
So, in terms of nomenclature now x co-ordinate, y co-ordinate and this is the our front view
and gravity acts along the y axis and there is moving plate, the velocity of the plate is 𝑣𝑝.
And, there is a fixed plate and fluid has properties ρ and then viscosity µ the distance
between the two places is h.
1024
So, now first we will have to start with the continuity equation. Let us start the continuity
equation, we will consider steady flow. What does it mean? Suppose you have a these two
plates, and let us say before you start the experiment just imagine suppose if you are able to
realize this in the lab, and this two plates a stationary. Let us say time t = 0 you start moving
the plate, there is some initial transience we are not going to consider that.
You set the plate in motion and now the velocity field reaches a steady state condition and
that is where we are going to focus. So, we are going to consider a steady flow and we are
going to consider incompressible flow, in this case it is incompressible fluid also if it is water.
∂(𝑣𝑥) ∂(𝑣𝑥) ∂(𝑣𝑥)

∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
= 0
So, that is the continuality equation for incompressible flow. Now, we will consider flow only
in the x direction, as I told you sometime back we are not going to solve the complete
Navier-Stokes and continuity equation, we are going to we are going to make assumptions
specific to the problem. When I say specific to the problem, we are going to consider steady
flow of course, incompressible flow comes along with the Navier-Stokes equation.
𝑣𝑥≠0; 𝑣𝑦 = 0; 𝑣𝑧 = 0
Now, this is an assumption which you are going to make for this particular problem flow only
in the x direction. What does it mean? I got a flow only in the x direction and in the y
1025
direction there is no flow and in the z direction there is no flow. No flow in the y or z
direction that is also intuitively understandable because you are setting the plate to motion
moment in this direction.
So, we expect the flow only in this direction, we are not there is no driving force which can
cause the flow in the y direction or the z direction. So, no flow in the y or z direction. Now,
let us see: what is the implication of that is what we conclude from the continuity equation.
Let us substitute in the continuity equation we have
∂(𝑣𝑥)
∂𝑥
+ 0+ 0= 0
So,
∂(𝑣𝑥)
∂𝑥
= 0
∂(𝑣𝑥)
What does it physically mean? ∂𝑥
tells you change of 𝑣𝑥 with respect to x. Now, because
that is 0 we conclude that 𝑣𝑥 does not vary in the flow direction, the flow direction in this
case the axial direction that is what you shown here, 𝑣𝑥 can be a function of y that is what is
shown here we are going to see that shortly, 𝑣𝑥 will linearly vary with y. We are not telling
anything about that, what we are saying is whatever the function 𝑣𝑥 of y that does not change
as you go along the flow directions.
That is what we say yes fully developed flow. So, now, what is the conclusion? We said 𝑣𝑥≠0
then we assumed that, 𝑣𝑦 = 0, 𝑣𝑧 = 0 if you do so, and use the continuity equation you
conclude that the flow should be fully developed. You cannot have a condition where 𝑣𝑦 = 0,
𝑣𝑧 = 0 and 𝑣𝑥 varies with the x that cannot happen that will violate the continuity equation
that is the conclusion.
Now, what we do next is as part of our assumptions specific to the problem, I say that the
plates are very wide in the z direction which means that we are somewhere in between and
so, there is no variation of x velocity in the z direction very wide plates when you say y this is
this width a very wide plate and so, there is no variation in the z direction 𝑣𝑥 does not vary in
the z direction. So, we assume once again in the assumption that
1026
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑧
= 0
Now what do we infer from all this? We said 𝑣𝑥 of course, it cannot varying the z direction
based on the continuity equation. Now, based on this assumption we have we are saying that
𝑣𝑥 is assume not to vary in the z direction. So, only direction 𝑣𝑥 can be varying is the y
reaction ok. This 𝑣𝑥 is not varying with x direction is a conclusion from the continuity
equation, 𝑣𝑥 not varying z direction is an assumption. So, 𝑣𝑥 we will vary only in the y
direction which we call as the lateral direction.
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑦
≠0
So, only this derivative will remind. What is that? Variation of 𝑣𝑥 in the y direction that
derivative will not be equal to 0. So, about this slide tells you set of combination of
assumptions and conclusion on continuity equation. We have made lot of assumptions
specific to the problem and one conclusion or derived result I would say from the continuity
equation. What are the assumptions?
∂𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥

𝑣𝑦 = 0, 𝑣𝑧 = 0, ∂𝑧
= 0, ∂𝑦
≠0 and conclusion from the continuity equation, ∂𝑥
= 0.
So, let us list all of them in the in the slide
1027
∂ ∂𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑡
= 0; 𝑣𝑥≠0; 𝑣𝑦 = 0, 𝑣𝑧 = 0, ∂𝑧
= 0, ∂𝑦
≠0, ∂𝑥
= 0
So, now, let us put all these I would say assumptions and conclusion from continuity
equation, in simplifying the Navier-Stokes equations. So, first we start with continuity
equation state flow assumptions, arrive conclusions from continuity equation and then
simplify the Navier-Stokes equation. Let us take the x component of Navier-Stokes equations
let us see what happens.
( )
2 2 2
∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
+μ 2 + 2 + 2
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
( )
2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
ρ( ∂ 𝑣𝑥
∂𝑡
+ 𝑣𝑥
∂ 𝑣𝑥
∂𝑥
+ 𝑣𝑦
∂ 𝑣𝑥
∂𝑦
+ 𝑣𝑧
∂ 𝑣𝑥
∂𝑧 ) = ρ𝑔 −𝑥
∂𝑝
∂𝑥
+μ
∂ 𝑣𝑥
∂𝑥
2 +
∂ 𝑣𝑥
∂𝑦
2 +
∂ 𝑣𝑥
∂𝑧
2
Now, we assumed the conditions that

∂𝑡
= 0; 𝑣𝑥≠0; 𝑣𝑦 = 0, 𝑣𝑧 = 0, ∂𝑧
= 0, ∂𝑦
≠0, ∂𝑥
= 0
Now, we made assumptions in such a way that a left hand side vanishes that is a other way of
looking at it. We have the assumptions would have look disconnected. Now the reason for
making those assumptions is that we made those assumptions so, that the left hand side
vanishes; both the temporal and convective terms vanishes.
Now, why should we do that? What would happen if the left hand side were to be present?
Let us discuss that suppose let us say we do not assume steady state. What will happen? You
∂𝑣𝑥
will have this ∂𝑡
term on the left hand side. You will see shortly that we will result in a
ordinary differential equation, that is also obvious because the time variable is gone now for
the present case only y is independent variable so, we are going to get a on a differential
equation.
Suppose if we have not assumed steady state, then we would have the time derivative also
and we would have resulted in a unsteady state transient problem and we would have to solve
a partial differential equation. We want to avoid that being interact being keeping in mind of
this scope of the course; you want to study cases where the result is a the equation simplifies
the on an ordinary differential equations that is why we assumed steady state.
1028
Now, second what would happen if we are the convective acceleration terms on the left hand
side? Now if you look at those terms we have remember the velocity components there all
unknowns. So, we have product of two unknowns either the variable as such or variable
derivative of the variable which means that they are non-linear terms. Non-linear terms are
usually much more difficult to solve, that is why we made a set of assumption in such a way
that the convective acceleration also drops.
So, the set of assumptions are driven by one objective for this particular problem, to make it
simple that to drive both the temporal acceleration and the convective accelerations term to 0
so, that we get a linear or ordinary differential equation that is a whole idea. Otherwise
assumptions may look little adhoc.
So, of course, if you take other courses in higher semester you may not make this assumption
you may solve the entire Navier-Stokes equation under transient condition with convective
terms etcetera.
( )
2 2 2
∂𝑝 ∂ 𝑣𝑥 ∂ 𝑣𝑥 ∂ 𝑣𝑥
0 = ρ𝑔𝑥 − ∂𝑥
+μ 2 + 2 + 2
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
So, now, the left hand side is 0 and right hand side you have all the forces. We will take up
the right hand side now, we are not discuss the right hand side how it get simplified will take
up that right now we will take it now.
1029
Now, let us write down the assumptions required. So,

∂𝑡
= 0; 𝑣𝑥≠0; 𝑣𝑦 = 0, 𝑣𝑧 = 0, ∂𝑧
= 0, ∂𝑦
≠0, ∂𝑥
= 0
Now, in this case as I told you what drives the fluid motion is because of the plate. You do not
have any pump or anything which is pushing the fluid between the two plates. So, the motion
of the fluid is caused by the movement of the plate. So, pressure is constant along the x
direction. Why is that? Because there is no applied pressure gradient which drives the flow;
so,
∂𝑝
∂𝑥
= 0
You will see the next example which is a Poiseuille flow because both plates are stationary in
the Poiseuille flow case, right now we on the Couette flow case, the Poiseuille flow case both
plates are stationary. So, you need some external device a pumping mechanism to pump the
fluid between the two plates.
But now no such pump is required we are not imposing this plates itself causes motion. So,
pressure is constant long x direction because no applied pressure gradient which drives a
flow. The flow establishes itself due to viscous stresses caused by the moving upper plate. So,
now, let us see what happens to the right hand side. Left hand side we have already seen that
it vanishes become 0 right hand side we have ρ𝑔𝑥 and gravity acts along y direction. So,
𝑔𝑥 = 0
∂𝑣𝑥
Now let us come to the viscous terms. Now, ∂𝑦
≠0 So, we do have a second derivative and
other terms are 0.
( )
2
∂ 𝑣𝑥
0= 0− 0+ μ 0+ 2 + 0
∂𝑦
2
∂ 𝑣𝑥
2 = 0
∂𝑦
So, we are left out the very simple equation and because y is only variable it becomes a
ordinary differential equation. We just reduced, I would say of formidable Navier-Stokes
equation, very complex Navier-Stokes equation to a simple linear second order ordinary
1030
differential equation, thanks to the assumptions whatever you are made. But, for that it would
have been very difficult, but we simplify the problem making several assumptions so, that we
result in a ordinary differential equation. In this case it does not even look like a
Navier-Stokes equation, but do remember we started with a Navier-Stokes equation and
simplified to this particular equation.
Now, let us look at the y component of Navier-Stokes equation. Let us write that the y
component of Navier-Stokes equation and let us simplify that.
( )
2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
ρ ( ∂ 𝑣𝑦
∂𝑡
+ 𝑣𝑥
∂ 𝑣𝑦
∂𝑥
+ 𝑣𝑦
∂ 𝑣𝑦
∂𝑦
+ 𝑣𝑧
∂ 𝑣𝑦
∂𝑧 ) = ρ𝑔 −
𝑦
∂𝑝
∂𝑦
+μ
∂ 𝑣𝑦
∂𝑥
2 +
∂ 𝑣𝑦
∂𝑦
2 +
∂ 𝑣𝑦
∂𝑧
2
Now, left hand side very simple 𝑣𝑦 = 0, So, all terms just vanish other way of saying is of
course, there is no 𝑣𝑦 itself. So, there is no question of derivative here moment you do not
have 𝑣𝑦 none of the derivative exist. So, just because 𝑣𝑦 = 0 left hand side vanishes you not
discuss anything further at all ok. Now, right hand side we do have ρ𝑔𝑦 because gravity acts
in a y direction and then because of that there is a pressure gradient and what happens to the
viscous term 𝑣𝑦 = 0. So, all of them vanished. So,
∂𝑝
0 = ρ𝑔𝑦 − ∂𝑦
+ μ(0 + 0 + 0)
∂𝑝
∂𝑦
=− ρ𝑔
So, the y component of Navier-Stokes equation simplifies to the equation which we discussed
for fluids at rest. It just hydrostatic balance, the hydrostatic stress and the gravity forces
balance each other same equation which we discussed for fluids and at rest along the y
direction. Why is that? Because there is no flow y direction; so, it becomes same as what you
have discussed for fluids at rest.
1031
Now, let us take the z component of Navier-Stokes equation; let us write down that
assumptions are known, we have seen this few times now and let us see what happens to the z
component.
∂𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑥

𝑣𝑥≠0; 𝑣𝑦 = 0, 𝑣𝑧 = 0, ∂𝑧
= 0, ∂𝑦
≠0, ∂𝑥
= 0
( )
2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
ρ ( ∂ 𝑣𝑧
∂𝑡
+ 𝑣𝑥
∂ 𝑣𝑧
∂𝑥
+ 𝑣𝑦
∂ 𝑣𝑧
∂𝑦
+ 𝑣𝑧
∂ 𝑣𝑧
∂𝑧 ) = ρ𝑔𝑧 −
∂𝑝
∂𝑧
+μ
∂ 𝑣𝑧
∂𝑥
2 +
∂ 𝑣𝑧
∂𝑦
2 +
∂ 𝑣𝑧
∂𝑧
2
Left hand side once again because 𝑣𝑧 = 0 the left hand side vanishes, right hand side there is
no gravity along z directions. So, that goes to 0 and all the viscous terms become 0 because
𝑣𝑧 = 0. So,
∂𝑝
0= 0− ∂𝑧
+ μ(0 + 0 + 0)
∂𝑝
∂𝑧
= 0
This gives us the pressure gradient is 0 along the z direction. So, there is no variation of
pressure in the z direction. So, there is no variation of pressure along the x direction also
because, there is no impossible pressure gradient. So, pressure does not vary along x
direction, z direction and vary in the y direction because of gravity only.
1032
Now, let us summarise the simplified Navier-Stokes equation. In the x direction we had
2
𝑑 𝑣𝑥
2 = 0
𝑑𝑦
Then in the y direction same as equation is same as what we are discuss for fluid at rest is a
hydrostatic pressure distribution
∂𝑝
∂𝑦
=− ρ𝑔
And in z direction there is no pressure gradient
∂𝑝
∂𝑧
= 0
1033
Lecture – 91
Planar Couette Flow – Velocity and Pressure Distribution
What we will do is discuss the boundary conditions. We have a second order ordinary
differential equation and then to solve that we require two boundary conditions and that is
what we will discuss now.
2
𝑑 𝑣𝑥
2 = 0
𝑑𝑦
Second order ODE, two boundary conditions are required. Now, so for we have been telling
that whenever we came across the example that the fluid clings to the bottom plate also clings
to the top plate and fluid near bottom plate does not move and the fluid near top plate moves
at the same velocity as the top plate.
So far purposely I have not used a very formal terminology, we used a very informal
technology saying that it clings. What is the formal terminology? It is called as no slip
condition. What is the formal way of expressing a no slip condition? Let us read that and then
1034
we will discuss the tangential velocity of a fluid in contact with the solid surface is same as
that of the solid surface.
So, that is what we have been telling that the fluid clings which means that whenever a fluid
is in contact with the solid the velocity of the tangential velocity can a normal velocity also,
now we are discussing about the tangential velocity the tangential velocity the fluid is same
as that of the solid. If we now apply, the velocity of the fluid let us say the fluid layer just in
contact the bottom surface is 0.
Now, what about the fluid layer if the just in contact with the top plate? It gets the same
velocity as that of the solid now which is moving at the 𝑣𝑝 that is why we said the here also
the fluid clings to the solid and get the velocity of the fluid is same as there are the velocity of
the solid. Now, why do we say it as no slip condition; slip means there is some difference
between the velocity of the fluid and the solid when there is no difference in velocity there is
no slip or slippage between them that is why we call them as the no slip condition.
So, to summarize this boundary condition the no slip condition means that there is no
difference or no slip between the velocity of the fluid adjacent to a solid layer. It gets the
same velocity the fluid acquires a same velocity as that of the solid itself. If it is stationary
fluid has no velocity; if it is moving fluid also moves along with the same velocity.
So, now one this is clear then we can write down the condition for 𝑣𝑥
● At the bottom plate which is fixed, 𝑣𝑥 = 0; at 𝑦 = 0 and
● At the top plate which is moving at 𝑣𝑝, 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑝; at 𝑦 = ℎ
So, these two are the boundary conditions done based on no slip condition.
1035
Now, let us summarize the differential equation along with the boundary conditions now like
to mention that physics stops here, and maths starts here.
2
𝑑 𝑣𝑥
2 = 0
𝑑𝑦
𝑣𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 0; 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑝 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = ℎ
So far we have arrived at the equation based on the Navier-Stokes equation which represents
conservation of linear momentum and then based on the no slip condition we wrote this
boundary conditions.
Also like to mention that the no slip condition is a experimental observation. We can prove or
derive the no slip condition experimentally it is observed that the velocity of the fluid in
contact with the solid is same as the velocity of the solid. So, it is experimentally observed
that the velocity of the fluid is same as that of the velocity of solid. So, it is experimental
observation.
Let us say if you keep measuring velocity closer and closer to the wall you observed that the
velocity of the fluid and that the wall becomes same. So, this equation has a physics of the
linear momentum balance behind it and based on that equation represents I would say one
simplified form of the linear momentum balance. The boundary conditions are also written
based on physics which is no slip boundary condition.
1036
Now, if you recall back you would have done courses on mathematics on calculus differential
equations. In those courses you would have been given a differential equation with the
boundary conditions. Now, this situation now where you have formulated the differential
equation yourself along the boundary condition; there some equations was given you would
solve as a mathematical problem. But, now all the differential equation represent some form
of conservation equations.
Now, because you know the conservation equations yourself of arrived or derived the
differential equation and stated the boundary conditions yourself. So, putting in other way
now you have formulated the question yourself. So, that is why it said from now onwards
what we are going to simple maths just what you would do in a typical first year engineering
calculus course; given a linear first order differential equation along with boundary
conditions how do you solve that is all we are going to do.
2
𝑑 𝑣𝑥
2 = 0
𝑑𝑦
So, let us do that this is very much known to you. So, integrate once we get
𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 𝐶1
Let us integrate once again you get
𝑣𝑥 = 𝐶1𝑦 + 𝐶2
Now, we will have to evaluate the constants 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 for which use the boundary
conditions. So, we use first boundary condition 𝑣𝑥 = 0 at 𝑦 = 0. So, if you substitute in this
equation you will get
𝐶2 = 0
This of course, certainly would have done several times in your calculus course. Now, let us
use other boundary condition 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑝 at 𝑦 = ℎ and so, if substitute in this equation of
course,
𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑝 = 𝐶1ℎ; 𝐶1 = ℎ
1037
So, now, when you substitute in this equation you get the velocity profile
𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑥 = ℎ
𝑦
That is the velocity profile which we have been seeing so long. Almost from the beginning of
the course we have been looking at this velocity profile we said that we will derive towards
the end of fluid mechanics path and that is what we have done now.
And, if you want to represent this is the pictorial representation velocity varying from 0 to 𝑣𝑝
at the other end and remember they are all shown as vectors. It is a velocity vector directed
along the x direction. From that way it is a kind of I would say milestone been looking at the
several times and today’s class we have derived it.
Having derived the velocity profile we can and derive the equation for the pressure profile of
the pressure distribution and
∂𝑝 ∂𝑝 ∂𝑝
∂𝑥
= 0; ∂𝑦
=− ρ𝑔 ; ∂𝑧
= 0
We have seen there is no pressure gradient along the flow direction and then there is no
pressure gradient along the z direction also; and there is pressure gradient only in the vertical
direction which is the same as the condition of fluids at rest, that is the hydrostatic pressure
distribution. So, pressure varies only in the vertical direction.
1038
∂𝑝
∂𝑦
=− ρ𝑔
So, let us integrate that. So, if we integrate you get
𝑝 =− ρ𝑔𝑦 + 𝐶3
And at y = 0, we specified a pressure 𝑝 = 𝑝0. And so, if you substitute in this equation
evaluate 𝐶3
𝑝0 = 0 + 𝐶3; 𝐶3 = 𝑝0
So, let us substitute that and you get the equation for pressure distribution
𝑝 = 𝑝0 − ρ𝑔𝑦
This just tells you that the pressure varies linearly with y, it increases if you go down or
decreases if you go up and that is what is shown here so, at y = h
𝑝 = 𝑝0 − ρ𝑔ℎ
So, the pressure distribution here is hydrostatic. And, we can also see that because the flow is
incompressible, absolute pressure as no meaning we always talk in terms of pressure
difference. So, we always find pressure to an arbitrary constant. What does it mean. That is
why we said at some position y = 0 we are given the pressure 𝑝0.
So, this you get an expression which tells the difference in pressure 𝑝 − 𝑝0 =− ρ𝑔ℎ. Always
you find an incompressible flow up to an arbitrary constant that is a more formal way of
saying and that is what we are saying here as well that is applicable for all the incompressible
flow. So, if it is compressible the absolute pressure can be determined and that is a meaning
as well.
1039
Lecture – 92
Planar Couette Flow – Shear Force
What we will do is using this example of flow between two parallel plates we will link all the
concepts which have discussed as we progressed from the linear momentum balance or the
integral balance to the Navier-Stokes. So, we discussed about total stress strain rate Newton’s
law of viscosity and Navier-Stokes equation we are going to link all this concepts we will
also understand the better the path we have followed. Now, let us do that.
1040
So, we will use this as usual this journey to Navier-Stokes equation of course, the destination
reach slide. So, now we began with the total stress that is where we began. Of course, I will
discuss only the fluid mechanics part.
So, now we introduced viscous stresses represented by the viscous stress tensor; we
introduced all the components of viscous stress tensor, normal and then shear. We also
introduced the total stress tensor, hydrostatic stress plus viscous stress. Just addition of − p to
1041
all the diagonal elements. So, this is where we begin with. Point is that they are unknowns at
that point they are unknowns and they are just variables.
Now, what we have to do next? We discussed about strain rate here, introduced velocity
gradient tensor. So, now, we can evaluate the velocity gradient tensor why is that because we
know we now know the velocity profile which means I can evaluate the velocity gradient
tensor the component of the velocity gradient tensor.
vp
vx = hy
So, the velocity gradient tensor is
[ ∂v x ∂v x ∂v x ∂v y ∂v y ∂v y ∂v z ∂v z ∂v z
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ] = [0 vp
h
0000000]
Of course because only the v x is the non-zero velocity component, there is no element in the
second row and third row. So, earlier once again we introduced as a physically meaningful
matrix at tensor namely velocity gradient tensor, but now we are able to evaluated because
we have found out the velocity profile.
1042
Ok. Now, then we introduced about strain rate tensor. This is the expression these are the
components of the strain rate tensor.
[ ∂v x 1
∂x 2 ( ∂v x
∂y
+
∂v y
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v x
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v y
∂x
+ ∂v x
∂y ) ∂v y 1
∂y 2 ( ∂v y
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂y ) (
1
2
∂v x
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v y
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂y ) ∂v z
∂z ]
Now, once again we can evaluate the components of the strain rate tensor using the velocity
field which we have derived.
vp
vx = hy
So, what are the components?
[ ∂v x 1
∂x 2 ( ∂v x
∂y
+
∂v y
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v x
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v y
∂x
+ ∂v x
∂y ) ∂v y 1
∂y 2 ( ∂v y
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂y ) (
1
2
∂v x
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v y
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂y ) ∂v z
∂z ] = [0 1v
2 h
So, this is the strain rate tensor where we have non-zero values for two of the strain rate
tensor components. Now, what do we conclude the normal strain rate they are the diagonal
elements they are 0, shear strain rate is not equal to 0. What is shear strain rate? The off
vp
diagonal elements are shear strain rate. So, h is shear strain rate that is non-zero. What does
it mean? If you take a fluid element either horizontally or vertically there is no rate of change
of the length.
And, if you take two perpendicular elements let us say at some time t; at time t + ∆ t they will
come together. Why is it? The shear strain rate is positive which means the angle between
1043
them should decrease. So, that is the meaning of these two value which have obtained one is
of course 0, other is non-zero.
Now, we also discussed about rate of rotation tensor
[0 − ( 1
2
∂v y
∂x
− ∂v x
∂y ) (
1
2
∂v x
∂z
− ∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v y
∂x
− ∂v x
∂y )0− (1
2
∂v z
∂y
−
∂v y
∂z ) − 1
2 ( ∂v x
∂z
− ∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v z
∂y
−
∂v y
∂z ) 0]
And these are the components of the rate of rotation tensor. Now, of course, a diagonal
elements are anyway 0 because it is antisymmetric tensor and we can evaluate the other
components using the velocity profile
vp
vx = hy
Now let us evaluate the other terms,
[0 − ( 1
2
∂v y
∂x
−
∂v x
∂y ) (
1
2
∂v x
∂z
−
∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v y
∂x
−
∂v x
∂y )0− (1
2
∂v z
∂y
−
∂v y
∂z ) − 1
2 ( ∂v x
∂z
−
∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v z
∂y
−
∂v y
∂z ) 0 ] = [0
Now, what do we conclude remember, this term represents rate of rotation. So, in our
nomenclature ω̇ xy and which is not 0 which means it is a rotational flow it is a rotational
flow.
And, it is negative which means the fluid element will undergo a clockwise rotation.
Remember, we said clockwise is negative anticlockwise is positive. So, the fluid element will
undergo clockwise rotation. That is the conclusion from here.
1044
Then we discussed about the Newton’s law of viscosity where we related the viscous stress to
the strain rate. And, we can do that as well here viscous stress tensor is
1 vp 1 vp v v
τ = 2μ x Strain rate tensor = 2μ [0 2 h 0 2 h 0 0 0 0 0 ] = [0 μ hp 0 μ hp 0 0 0 0 0 ]
And, we can also evaluate the total stress tensor. As we have seen
T =− pI + τ
So,
v v
T = [− p μ hp 0 μ hp − p 0 0 0 − p ]
What is the big difference now? Earlier we introduced them as variables, now we are able to
evaluate that not only variables they were unknown.
When you first discussed viscous stress total stress there were unknown, now they become
known; not alone known they are able to evaluate in terms of the velocity profile because you
know the velocity profile you are able to evaluate the viscous stress tensor in terms of the
variables which describe this particular flow. What are the variables which describe the flow?
One is of course, property of the fluid μ other is the velocity of the top plate, v p other is the
distance between the two plates, h. So, we are able to evaluate the viscous stress tensor and
the total stress tensor.
1045
What is other observation? If you look at the viscous stress tensor the it is just the constant μ
is the constant, v p is a constant, h is a constant. So, does not depend on y and that is what is
shown here. The shear stress component of the viscous stress tensor or viscous shear stress
does not depend on y just a constant. This stress element will discuss in the next slide. We
also discussed about stress element in the beginning and we also discuss about stress vector.
We will discuss about stress element in this example.
v v
T = [− p μ hp 0 μ hp − p 0 0 0 − p ]
How do you represent the stress element? How do you represent this total stress tensor as a
stress element? We have done this in the very beginning of solid mechanics and of course,
later on in fluid mechanics also.
Now, if you look at the normal stresses we have only pressure as a normal stress and it is
compressive. So, we are representing it as compressive forces and that is why the arrows are
towards each other. So, on a positive phase the force is towards the negative x direction; on a
negative phase the force is towards positive x direction, similarly in the y direction as well.
So, that represents the compressive pressure force.
Now, coming to the shear stress components is positive μ , v p , h were all constants and it is a
positive as well. So, on a positive phase the force should be along the positive direction. So,
if you take this phase it is the normal to the phase is along the positive y-axis. So, the force is
1046
along positive x-axis and for this phase the normal is towards the positive x-axis and force is
along the positive y-axis, similarly the other forces as well.
So, now, the earlier we discussed stress element we should have some artificially given
values 30, − 10, − 15. Now, after evaluating the velocity profile and then going through the
strain rate tensor, viscous stress tensor, total stress tensor we are able to draw a stress element
which represents the state of stress at a point in this configuration. So, now, it is much more
meaningful; earlier they were just numbers the we did that all to have practice understand
what a stress element is. Now, we are really using it to tell about the state of stress in a fluid
which is flowing between 2 phase, 1 fix, other moving. And, we can evaluate that as well
because we can we know μ , v p , h all are known to us.
How, do you interpret this? If you look at this shear stress the fluid above the different
element pulls it the right because that is at a higher velocity. So, that will try to pull it to the
right and plate below that is at rest that is fixed. So, that it will pull the fluid element to the
left and that is why you have the force in this direction. So, you have a fluid element and the
top plate is set in motion. So, it is in moving. So, the fluid above that if you considered fluid
element here fluid here it is higher velocity so, it will try to pull the fluid element to the right;
this plate is stationary and that will try to pull the fluid to the left and that is what is seen
there.
Now, in terms of evaluating you can evaluate the shear force per area that is what our shear
stress tells you and shear force acting on bottom phase of fluid element. Remember, always
our viscous stress, total stress where with respect to acting on the fluid. So, shear force per
v
area which is our shear stress acting on bottom phase of fluid element is of course, this μ hp
and what is the direction? It acts along the negative x axis. Fluid at the bottom plate because
of plate is stationary the plate tries to pull the fluid to the left. So, shear force acting on the
fluid element is towards the negative x-axis.
v
And, of course, shear force acting on the plate is same magnitude μ hp , but along positive x
axis fluid is trying to pull the bottom plate towards the positive x axis that is why shear force
per area acting on the plate is towards the positive x axis bottom plate to the right of course,
due to viscous effects.
1047
In one way what we have done is gone through a full cycle I would say we started with the
stress went to strain rate went to Newton’s law of viscosity derive the Navier-Stokes
equation. Now, having derived the Navier-Stokes equation we have applied that found the
velocity profile and then we found the strain rate applied the Newton’s law of viscosity and
found out the viscous stress and total stress.
So, we have gone through one full cycle I would say and that is what is shown here also in
terms of our journey slide; we discussed about the viscous stress, total stress, then we
discussed about the strain rate, related viscous stress and strain rate through Newton’s law of
viscosity, substituted in the linear momentum balance to derive the Navier-Stokes equation.
Now, use a Navier-Stokes equation found out the velocity profile once I know the velocity
profile I can know the components of strain rate tensor. I can find out the viscous stress
tensor components using Newton’s law of viscosity of course, which means this becomes
known of course, we can draw the stress element as well. So, in one way we have gone
through a complete cycle and that is what I have represented here.
Total stress, then strain rate, then Newton’s law of viscosity then Naveir-Stokes equation in
the velocity profile. Once you know the velocity profile then find strain rate used Newton’s
law of viscosity to find the total stress. Of course, I would not say perfectly cyclic, but these
arrows does not mean one goes to the other, but we have gone through the cycle in the
forward direction and once again in the reverse direction.
When we went to the forward direction they were all variables which aided at which aided us
in the development of the Navier-Stokes equation we kept on introducing physically
meaningful variables. For example, viscous stress tensor, total stress tensor, strain rate and
then the Newton’s law of viscosity they were all operations which for which made helped us
in deriving the Navier-Stokes equation. Following that path we derived the Navier-Stokes
equation.
Now, once we have derived the velocity profile we can evaluate all the variables which we
∂v x ∂v x
have introduced. For example, ∂y
was the derivative now we can evaluate ∂y
and then
physically meaningful variables like the strain rate and then the viscous stress tensor, and
then you can also show the stress element etcetera. So, that; so this one way this helps us to
understand the path we have followed and why we followed that.
1048
Lecture - 93
Planar Poiseuille Flow: Governing Equations
We are going to the next application of Navier Stokes equation to viscous flows where the
flow takes place between two parallel plates and both of them are fixed we call this as a
Planar Poiseuille flow as we have seen in the introduction.
Flow between two fixed parallel plates we have come across this geometry several times
though of course, not telling the word Poiseuille flow. So, we have two plate both of them are
fixed. So, now, when both of them are fixed what drives the flow, in the earlier case the top
plate was moving?
So, that said the fluid in motion between the two plates when both the planes are fixed you
need an external agency to make the fluid flow between the two plates. That is why second
bullet says fluid motion caused by applying pressure gradient that is shown little more
practically here.
We have the two plates which are fixed and then you have a external let us say pump which
drives the liquid between the two plates. So, that is why we call this as fluid motion caused
1049
by applying a pressure gradient. This applied pressure gradient or this pump is what which
causes the flow between two plates. Now, and that create a velocity profile between the two
plates.
Now what is a practical significance of these example like we saw in the earlier case the
practical applications were viscometer and then shaft bearing etcetera. Now what is the
application of this I would say extremely practical example if the geometry were cylindrical.
So, what we are discussing is a Planar analogue of flow through a circular pipe of course,
throughout the industry even household you have lot of pipes they are all cylindrical and
what we are saying is these two plates fixed which is analogous to the fixed wall of the pipe.
So, what are discussing is in Cartesian coordinates we are not discussing this flow through
pipe because that requires cylindrical co ordinates. I was also shown a cylindrical shell here.
So, that requires cylindrical coordinates.
What here what is shown here is also a pressure driven flow which means a pump pushes the
liquid through the pipe so, that the actual practical scenario pump sending a liquid through a
circular pipe. Instead of that we are discussing taking two parallel plates which are fixed
because the pipe wall also does not move. Similarly here also the two plates does not move
and so, that is that is why we say it is a planner analogue of flow through a circular pipe. And
of course, both are pressure driven when we say pressure driven what you should understand
is you have a pump which sense the liquid between the plates.
And of course, we are going to consider laminar flow we have discussed two flow regimes
laminar and turbulent when we discuss about in viscid flows which was our second level of
application. So, here we are going to do and we saw in viscid flow happens at high Reynolds
number and now we are discussing the other extreme which is laminar flow so, this happens
at low Reynolds number.
Now in terms of their geometry that two fixed plates are shown here and axis is show here
and I like to mention the reason why we are chosen axis at the center y = 0 at the centre of the
plates. Reason is that in the planner couette flow example our axis x axis was here and then y
equal to 0 was at the bottom plate.
Now, the reason for choosing this axis at the centre line is that remember we are discussing
this as a Planar analogue or Cartesian analogue of the cylindrical pipe, for the cylindrical
1050
pipe; obviously, let us say r = 0 will be the axis of the pipe. So, you also like to choose axis
which is similar to the axis which you would choose for flow through pipe or flow through a
circular pipe.
That is why axis meaning y = 0 is chosen at the centre of the plates. And so in fact, in terms
of expression also it looked almost similar whatever expression we are now going derive for
the velocity profile for this flow between the two parallel plates will be similar to the velocity
profile which we would derive for a flow through a circular pipe.
And of course the fluid as property density ρ and then viscosity μ and now what about the
distance between the plates? The distance between the plates is 2h, but in terms of y
coordinates, y = h at top and y = − h at the bottom that should be kept in mind, because y = 0
is the axis.
So, as in the last example and in the case of Planar couette flow will start the continuity
equation and we will assume the flow is steady we will take the flow to be incompressible.
Let us write the continuity equation
∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
=0
And like in the earlier case we will consider flow on1y in the x direction and no flow in the y
direction or z direction so,
1051
v x ≠0; v y = 0; vz = 0
Let us substitute in the continuity equation
∂v x
∂x
=0
The same conclusion which we arrived for the Planar couette flow as well, v x does not vary
in the flow or axial direction which we says fully developed flow of course, v x can have a
profile as a function of y, but the whole profile will not change in the flow direction.
Now we consider very wide plates what do you mean by that this is a width that is very wide
which means that there is no variation of the x velocity, v x does not vary in this direction.
So,
∂v x
∂z
=0
Which means that v x varies in the y or lateral direction only
∂v x
∂y
=/ 0
So, we have v x as a function of y only. Now, we said v x ≠0 and by taking no flow in the y
and z direction based on the continuity equation we concluded there is no variation of v x
along x and we made assumption that v x does not vary along z. And so, leaves us with the
condition that v x varies only along y.
Now, if you look at this discussion this exactly same as what we did for the Planar couette
flow there is no change. In fact, the same bullet us are taken in terms of text it is same only
∂v x
the figures are changed. In both the cases the conditions v x ≠0 , v y = 0 , v z = 0 and ∂x
= 0,
∂v x ∂v x
∂z
= 0, ∂y
≠0 they are all exactly same.
1052
Now let us proceed with the Navier Stokes equation, let us state all the conditions either
assumptions or what we arrived from the continuity equation. So,
∂ ∂v x ∂v x ∂v x
∂t
= 0; v x ≠0 , v y = 0 , v z = 0 , ∂x
= 0, ∂z
= 0, ∂y
≠0
Let us write the x component of Navier Stokes equation
ρ ( ∂(v x )
∂t
+ v x ∂(v
∂x
x)
+ v y ∂(v
∂y
x)
+ v z ∂(v
∂z)x)
= ρg x − ∂p
∂x
+μ ( ∂ 2 vx
∂x2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂y 2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂z 2 )
So, if we apply the assumptions then the entire left hand side vanishes. So, LHS like in the
previous case of course, assumptions all are same assumptions all are same.
So, assumptions are made such a way that the acceleration term in the left hand side vanishes
both the temporal acceleration and the convective acceleration vanishes. As I said
assumptions are made such that the left hand side vanishes, we also discussed what is the
difficulty if we are not made such assumption.
If the transient term was there it would have resulted in partial differential equation, the
convective acceleration terms are non-linear that is more difficult to solve.
0 = ρg x −
∂p
∂x
+μ ( ∂ 2 vx
∂x2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂y 2
+ ∂ 2 vx
∂z 2 )
1053
So, the left hand side becomes 0 exactly same as in the last case no difference at all once
again this slide is also in terms of bullets, contents, it is same as last example except for the
figure.
Now, let us write the conditions
v x ≠0 , v y = 0 , v z = 0 , ∂x
= 0, ∂z
= 0, ∂y
≠0
Now we are going to look at the right hand side of the x component of Navier Stokes
equation this where the difference comes and the first case which is the Planar couette flow
case there was no applied pressure gradient.
So, there was no pressure drop along the length of the flow, in this case this is where in fact,
we started the whole description that is the constant applied pressure gradient which drives
the flow and as I told you have a pump which pushes the liquid between plates
∂p
∂x
≠0
∂p ∂p
So, the ∂x was equal to 0 in the case of couette flow. In the case of Poiseuille flow ∂x is not
∂p
equal to 0, pressure decreases along the direction of flow. So in fact, ∂x
will be negative,
because pressure will have to decrease along the flow because it causes the fluid to flow
between the plates and hence there is a nonzero pressure gradient along the direction of flow.
1054
0=0−
∂p
∂x
+μ 0+ ( ∂ 2 vx
∂y 2
+0 )
So, left hand side is 0 as we have seen in the last slide, right hand side of course, gravity acts
along y direction. So, ρg x = 0 because g x = 0 . Now, coming to the viscous stress terms on
∂v x
the right hand side ∂x
= 0 so, second derivative is certainly 0, v x does not vary with z so
second derivative is once again 0. So,
∂p ∂2v
− ∂x
+ μ ∂y2x = 0
So, that is the simplified form of the Navier Stokes equation in the x direction, the entire left
hand side became 0, right hand side we have the pressure gradient term and the viscous stress
terms. Let us look at the y component of Navier Stokes equation
ρ ( ∂(v y )
∂t
+ vx
∂(v y )
∂x
+ vy
∂(v y )
∂y
+ vz
∂(v y )
∂z ) = ρg y −
∂p
∂y
+μ ( ∂ 2 vy
∂x2
+
∂ 2 vy
∂y 2
+
∂ 2 vy
∂z 2 )
∂p
0 = ρg y − ∂y
+ μ (0 + 0 + 0)
v y is 0 so, the left hand side is 0 and in the right hand side we do have the gravity term of
course, we have the pressure gradient term and of course, the viscous stress terms are 0
because v y is 0. So, y component simplifies to
∂p
∂y
=− ρg
Once again this particular part are the y component of the Navier Stokes equation is same as
what you have seen for the Planar couette flow case.
1055
Now, coming to the z component of Navier Stokes equation let us write down the conditions
v x ≠0 , v y = 0 , v z = 0 , ∂x
= 0, ∂z
= 0, ∂y
≠0
So, the z component of Navier Stokes equation is
ρ ( ∂(v z )
∂t
+ v x ∂(v
∂x
z)
+ v y ∂(v
∂y
z)
+ v z ∂(v
∂z )
z)
= ρg z − ∂p
∂z
+μ ( ∂ 2 vz
∂x2
+ ∂ 2 vz
∂y 2
+ ∂ 2 vz
∂z 2 )
∂p
0=0− ∂z
+ μ (0 + 0 + 0)
This is simplified to
∂p
∂z
=0
Once again this the z component of Navier Stokes equation is same as what we have seen in
the previous case of Planar couette flow.
Let us summarize all the three Navier Stokes equations x component we have
2
∂p
− ∂x
+ μ ∂∂yv2x = 0
What does it tell you? It is the balance of pressure force and then viscous force. We have
pressure force and then the viscous force and the Navier Stokes equation has got simplified to
the balance of just pressure forces and viscous forces. Of course, both of them are net we
1056
should say net pressure force per unit volume net viscous force per unit volume. And y
direction it is just a hydrostatic equation which is
∂p
∂y
=− ρg
And, z direction,
∂p
∂z
=0
So, these are the simplified Navier Stokes equation compare the Planar couette flow case the
last two equation are same.
Now, we will have to state the boundary conditions and that is the equation we have
∂ 2 vx 1 ∂p
∂y 2
= μ ∂x
It is a second order ordinary differential equation. We need two boundary conditions to solve
this second order ODE and as in the case of the Planar couette flow we will use a no slip
condition and as I mention no slip condition is an experimental observation which tells you
that the tangential velocity of a fluid in contact to the solid surface is same as that of the solid
surface.
So, we will come across no slip condition very frequently any almost any fluid mechanics
problem you take you will come across no slip conditions. So, let me repeat in this case your
1057
both the plate are fixed, what this condition says is the tangential velocity the tangential
velocity of a fluid contact the solid surface is same as that of the solid surface. And in this
case the both the plates are fixed. So, velocity of fluid layer just in contact with the bottom
plate is 0 and velocity of the fluid layer just in contact with the top plate that is also 0.
So, at the bottom plate which is fixed v x = 0 at y =− h , and so, at the top plate v x = 0 at
y =+ h . So, both at the bottom plate and the top plate v x = 0 .
1058
Lecture - 94
Planar Poiseuille Flow: Velocity and Pressure Distribution
We are ready to solve as I told in the previous case, it is just pure maths at this stage. All the
physics are discussed,
d2 v x 1 ∂p
dy 2
= μ ∂x
; v x = 0 at y =− h; v x = 0 at y =+ h
We know the physics behind this ordinary differential equation, it is a Navier-Stokes

equation, simplified form of that. You also know the physics behind the boundary condition
as well, where the no slip boundary conditions. So, just like your maths class, where you
would have been given such an ordinary differential equation, given the boundary condition;
now we have got a chance, opportunity to derive the governing equation and state the
boundary condition as well, you know the physics behind them as well.
Now to proceed further to integrate, you should know that
∂p
∂x
=a
So, let us integrate once we get
1059
dv x 1 ∂p
dy
= μ ∂x
y + C1
Let us integrate once again, you get
2
1 ∂p y
vx = μ ∂x 2
+ C 1y + C 2
Now we will have to evaluate the constants, we will use the boundary conditions,
v x = 0 at y =− h . So, let us substitute in this equation. So,
1 ∂p h2
0= μ ∂x 2
− C 1h + C 2
Let us use the second boundary condition, v x = 0 at y =+ h . So,
1 ∂p h2
0= μ ∂x 2
+ C 1h + C 2
So, we have two simultaneous equations in the two constants. So, let us subtract, we will
have to eliminate one of the constants, if we subtract will eliminate C2;
C1 = 0
And if you substitute C1 either in one equation you will find out C2 as
1 ∂p h2
C 2 =− μ ∂x 2
So, let us substitute back in this equation,
2
1 ∂p y
vx = μ ∂x 2
+ C 1y + C 2
2
1 ∂p y 1 ∂p h2
vx = μ ∂x 2
+− μ ∂x 2
1 ∂p
vx = 2μ ∂x (y2 − h2 )
So, this velocity profile is parabolic, because it depends on y2. And such a parabolic velocity
profile is shown here, that profile is not at all new to us; we almost from the beginning of the
classes we have come across that parabolic velocity profile several times.
So, it is very nice now to really derive the velocity profile, the equation which represents this
velocity profile. The equation which determined this parabolic velocity profile is this
equation; of course, at y equal to if you substitute, v x = 0 at y =+ h or − h . Regarding
maximum velocity we will shortly discuss.
1060
What else can be found out from the velocity profile? We can find out what is the volumetric
flow rate flowing between the plates. How do you evaluate that, let us write the velocity
profile which I have derived.
1 ∂p
vx = 2μ ∂x (y2 − h2 )
Of course, as I discussed it is the parabolic velocity profile. Now how do you evaluate the
volumetric flow rate, you know volumetric flow rate is velocity into the area,
dQ = v x dyW
h
Q= ∫ v x dyW
−h
Now the velocity varies along the y direction. So, I cannot take the entire area, what I do is
take a small strip of height dy and then find out what is the volumetric flow rate through the
small strip and then integrate and that is what we shown here.
Also like to mention that, we have come across similar steps when we discussed an
application for integral mass balance, including velocity profile. In fact, we took the same
case of flow between two parallel plates which are fixed and we took a similar velocity
profile and found out the inlet flow rate, outlet flow rate etcetera. And we discuss, we have to
similar discussion. So, you can refer that discussion as well.
1061
Now let us evaluate this volumetric flow rate, just to normalize what we usually evaluate is
Q
W
volumetric flow rate per unit width of the plate, and this is the width of the plate. So, let
us do that
h h
Q 1 ∂p
W
= ∫ v x dy = ∫ 2μ ∂x (y2 − h2 ) dy
−h −h
So, let us integrate, if you integrate we get
Q 2h3 ∂p
W
=− 3μ ∂x
∂p
So, ∂x is negative. So, this term along with the negative sign is a positive quantity. That is
∂p
what I just now told you, pressure decreases in the direction of flow. So, ∂x
< 0 . Now what
∂p
we usually do is this ∂x
is a negative quantity. So, we will do a simple variable replacement
which is usually followed in fluid mechanics, you take two locations x2 and x1
p2 −p1 p1 −p2 ∆p
−= x2 −x1
= (x2 −x1 )
= L
>0
This is the pressure gradient, a constant pressure gradient. What is L? L is the length of the
plates and now ∆p is positive, we say it as pressure drop that is p1 − p2 , p1 is higher p2 is
lower.
∆p
So, ∆p is pressure drop is the positive value; L is of course, the length of the plate. So, L
is
the pressure gradient. So, what is given to us is the pressure gradient; of course, L is based on
the length of the plate. So, either you say pressure drop is given or pressure gradient is given.
∂p ∂p
And this I think we should keep this in mind for further discussion, ∂x
is negative − ∂x
is
∆p
represented as, L
. So, that moment you look at ∆p it is positive, easy to understand as well.
∆p
So, we are writing the expression for flow rate in terms of, L
. Now what is use of this
equation; two ways of looking at it, have been always telling that we are given the pressure
gradient. So, if the pressure gradient is given, or putting it to the other way if you tell the
allowable pressure drop then I can calculate, what is the flow rate that can be pumped ok,
flow rate per unit width. Other way if you tell me that, I need to pump so much of liquid
between the plates Q by W, then you can calculate what is the required pressure drop. That is
more practical as well, that will determine the rating of the pump. So, it will determine the
capacity of the rating of the pump. Those are the practical applications.
1062
We can also find out the average velocity and maximum velocity. Let us do that .
Q 2h3 ∂p 2h3 ∆p
W
=− 3μ ∂x
= 3μ L
Q 2h3 ∂p 1 h2 ∆p
v x,avg = 2hW
=− 3μ ∂x 2h
= 3μ L
This is the expression for the average velocity. We have been looking at the profile, we know
v x varies along y; but suppose you want to represent as an average velocity, then this is the
expression.
Now we can also find the expression for maximum velocity which happens at y = 0. And
how do you find out? In the expression which I derived for the velocity distribution, for the
velocity profile substitute y = 0 and then you get
2
1 ∂p h ∂p h2 ∆p
v x,max = 2μ ∂x (y2 − h2 )y=0 =− 2μ ∂x
= 2μ L
We can also find out the ratio of this maximum velocity to the average velocity which is
v x,max 3
v x,avg
= 2
So, the maximum is 1.5 times the average velocity, as I told you all this calculations, velocity
profile, and then volumetric flow rate, average velocity, maximum velocity all can be
analogously done for flow through circular pipe. To make it easy for us and then restrict to
Cartesian coordinates we are deriving it for flow between parallel plates.
1063
We can also derive the pressure distribution; let us do that
∂p ∆p ∂p ∂p
∂x
=− L
; ∂y
=− ρg; ∂z
=0
∂p
Now I have written as an expression for ∂x because we are going to evaluate the pressure
distribution, we need expression or values for the pressure gradients along the x, y, z
∂p ∆p ∆p ∆p
direction. So, that is why written this as ∂x
=− L
, and L
is a constant. For example, L
could be a let us say 5 unit of pressure is Newton per meter squared, because a pressure
gradient for example, could be a value like 5 kilo Newton per meter cube.
Now, the pressure gradient to the y direction is hydrostatic and of course, there is no pressure
gradient in the z direction. Of course, pressure varies both in the x and y direction; remember
in the last case, for the case of planar couette flow, pressure variation was only in the y
direction, there was no pressure variation along the x direction. In this case pressure varies
both along the x direction and the y direction.
So, now, how do we proceed, what we are going to do now, the steps we have already seen
when we discussed an example after Bernoulli’s equation. One of the examples which we
discuss about the Bernoulli’s equation, we derive an expression for the pressure distribution.
What we are going to do now, is exactly similar what we have done earlier.
1064
So, I would recommend that you can refer those slides, one of the examples after we example
which we discussed after Bernoulli’s equation. After the irrotational form of Bernoulli’s
equation, we derive Bernoulli’s equation both for rotational, irrotational; the example which
we discussed after discussing irrotational Bernoulli’s equation, the steps there and the steps
here are same. So, let us start the pressure gradient in the x direction, which is
∂p ∆p
∂x
=− L
Let us integrate. In fact, the wordings, the variables, the constant are also have use this same
way. So, if you integrate, we get
∆p
p =− L
x + f 1 (y)
∆p
Remember L it is a constant and then it is partial integration. So, our constant can be a
function of y. So, we denote it as f 1 (y) , the same nomenclature has been used earlier also.
So, now what should we do, we have to evaluate f 1 (y) . So, we will differentiate this equation
∂p df 1
∂y
= dy
And we know that
∂p
∂y
=− ρ g
So, we are equating to two equations,
df 1
dy
=− ρg
So, now, we will have to find out f 1 . So, let us integrate. So,
df 1
f1 = ∫ dy
dy = ∫− ρgdy =− ρgy + C
Here C is not a function; because this integrations usual integration, it is not partial
integration. Now let us substitute the expression for f1,
∆p
p =− L
x − ρgy + C
Now will have to evaluate C, the constant; now we will have to be given value of pressure, at
some point let us say at x = 0, y = 0, we have p = p0
1065
C = p0
So, you have
∆p ∆p
p = p0 − ρgy − L
x; L
>0
Let us continue with this in the next slide;
∆p ∆p
p = p0 − ρgy − L
x; L
>0
That is the equation for the pressure distribution. What we conclude from this? First
observation is that, pressure varies both along the x direction and the y direction. In the
earlier case, there is a pressure variation only in the y direction, in the case of planar couette
flow. Now we have variation both in the x direction, y direction.
Now, let us discuss the y direction, because that arises because of hydrostatic condition; and
the term is same as what we have seen earlier. Earlier we are only these two terms, p0 − ρgy
and that is why I am writing that term first. So, pressure decreases along y direction balancing
gravitational force, this is same as what you have scene for planar couette flow. Now for
Poiseuille flow, pressure decreases along x direction also, balancing viscous force and that is
∆p
clear from here, you have, − L
x , ∆p
L
is positive remember.
1066
So, pressure decreases along y direction balancing gravitational force there is nothing new, it
is same as planar the couette flow; but this is something different from the earlier case,
pressure decreases along x direction also balancing viscous force.
Now, this representation is a very good representation of what we are discussing now from
the book by Wilkes Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers; and of course, it as
microfluidic CFD COMSOL Multiphysics etcetera. Now let us understand the pressure
distribution shows; shear stress distribution that we will see later. For the moment we will
discuss the pressure distribution.
Now first observation is that, we know that person is compressive. So, it always acts into the
control volume; that is why right side also it is into the control volume, left side also into the
control volume, first observation. Second observation, pressure increases with a depth. So, it
increase as we go down the y axis that is why pressure is low here and then high here,
because of it is a hydrostatic pressure distribution.
Same is the case on the exit also low here and then high here. So, both the cases pressure
increases as we go down the y axis. Now if you look at this length and this length; the left
hand side pressure inlet has a larger length, at the exit does smaller length. What does it
mean? It tells about decrease in pressure and that is of course, constant throughout the height,
whichever if you take at any position then there is a decrease in length; the decreases also
constant continuous till the bottom.
So, let us quickly repeat, the arrows are towards each other into the control volume because it
is compressive; and pressure increases as we go down both at the inlet and the exit. And then
in terms of let us say magnitude, the inlet pressure is more, the outlet pressure is less; and that
is why that is shown in the length of arrows as well, and that difference is same at any
vertical position.
Just to get little more understanding, so I have taken some numerical values. Now as I told
you, moment you talk about pressure for incompressible flow it is relative; so somewhere you
should fix a pressure, some we always talk in terms of difference in pressure. So, let us take
this pressure as 150 kilo Pascal; what does it mean, at x = 0 y = h, at that point let us say 150
kilo Pascal. Now let us say the distance between the plates is such that, the pressure here is
160 kilo Pascal, it should be increasing. So, let us take there is some 10 kilo Pascal increase;
and because pressure varies linearly with height at the central line it will be 155 kilo Pascal.
1067
Now, let us come to the exit. Let us say the conditions are such that now flow, viscosity,
etcetera such that, the pressure drop is 5 kilo Pascal. So, inlet pressure is 150, exit pressure is
145 kilo Pascal at y = h. Now at the exit also we have seen, at are at any position, any x
position pressure increases if you go down. So, here again at the top it is 145 kilo Pascal, at
the bottom the same 10 kilo Pascal increase should be there and that is why this pressure is
155 kilo Pascal.
Once again the pressure variation is linear and so this pressure is 150 kilo Pascal. So, at any
position if you take, let us say at y = h the difference between inlet and outlet is 5 kilo Pascal.
If you take y = − h, the difference between inlet and outlet is 5 kilo Pascal. Even if you take
central line, once again it is 5 kilo Pascal. So, very good representation numerical values we
are discussing but the pictorial representation is from the book, a very good representation of
pressure distribution.
1068
Lecture – 95
Planar Poiseuille Flow - Shear force
Having derived the velocity distribution and the pressure distribution, now, we will do what
we did for plane Couette flow. That is link all the concepts which we have learnt with this
Poiseuille flow which means that almost all the concepts which we have discussed under
linear momentum balance, we started with integral balance. Then started deriving the
differential balance, discussed about total stress-strain rate, Newton’s law of viscosity and
derived the Navier-Stokes equation. Now, we are going to connect and link all these with
these example. Let us see how do we do that.
1069
So now, let us start. Now, to begin with, we introduced total stress and then viscous stress
tensor.
So, we introduced the viscous stress tensor and this is the viscous stress tensor components
(expression given in the slide image). And then of course, we could express the total stress in
terms of hydrostatic stress plus viscous stress which means, it is just adding minus p to the
diagonal elements. At this stage we just introduce them as physically meaningful variable,
1070
but they were unknowns. So, that is where we introduced these, but in terms of they have just
variables.
S train rate tensor = [ ∂v x 1

∂x 2 ( ∂v y
∂x
+ ∂v x
∂y ) ( 1
2
∂v x
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v y
∂x
+ ∂v x
∂y ) ∂v y 1
∂y 2 ( ∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z ) ( 1
2
∂v x
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v z
∂y
+
Now, later we discussed about strain rate. And, so now, are in a position to evaluate the strain
rate there again in fact, we first introduced that as a strain rate tensor. But now having derived
the parabolic velocity profile, we can evaluate the components of the strain rate tensor.
1 ∂p
vx = 2μ ∂x (y2 − h2 )
So, this is the velocity profile which we derived which is a quadratic in y. And, now we will
have to evaluate the components of the strain rate sensor using this velocity distribution.
[ ∂v x 1
∂x 2 ( ∂v y
∂x
+ ∂v x
∂y ) (
1
2
∂v x
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂x ) (
1
2
∂v y
∂x
+ ∂v x
∂y ) ∂v y 1
∂y 2 ( ∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z ) ( 1
2
∂v x
∂z
+ ∂v z
∂x ) ( 1
2
∂v z
∂y
+
∂v y
∂z ) ∂v z
∂xz ] = [0 1
2μ
So, we can write the off diagonal elements and in terms of physical significance. So, if you
look at the components of the strain rate tensor the diagonal components are 0. And which
means that the normal strain rate is 0 and you do have non-zero off diagonal elements which
means that the shear strain rate is not equal to 0. What does it mean? When you say normal
strain rate is 0, remember this along the x axis and y axis. So, if you take a line element along
the x axis, there is no rate of change of length and if you take an element along the y axis,
there is no rate of change of length.
1071
Now, coming to shear strain rate if you look at the expression for shear strain rate, it depends
∂p
on ∂x
and y. In the top portion of the region, where y is greater than 0 which means above
∂p
the central line of course, ∂x
is less than 0. So, in this region this component, the strain rate
tensor component, which is the shear strain rate divide by 2 and that is less than 0. It is
∂p
negative ok. And, below the central line of course, ∂x
is negative y is also negative.
And, so, the component is greater than 0 or positive. And which mean we know that positive
shear strain rate means that if you consider two line elements perpendicular to each other at
some time t, next some let us say time t + ∆ t they come towards each other. They approach
each which means there is a decrease in angle between them. That is what happens below the
central line. Above the central line if you once again consider two line elements at some time
t sometime later t + ∆ t there is an increase in angle between them.
So, it becomes let us say obtuse and they go away from each other. So, that is how we
interpret the components of the strain rate tensor. So, the whether they come approach each
or go away from each other depends on whether we consider the two perpendicular line
elements above the axis or below the axis. Next we discuss the Newton’s law of viscosity to
relate viscous stresses and strain rates.
τ = 2μ x strain rate tensor
1072
That is the relationship between the viscous stress tensor and the strain rate tensor. And in the
previous slide we got the expression for strain rate tensor.
[
τ = 2μ 0 1 ∂p
2μ ∂x
y 0 1 ∂p
2μ ∂x
y 00000 ] = [0 ∂p
∂x
y 0
∂p
∂x
y 00000 ]
And you can also find out the total stress tensor adding − p to the diagonal elements. So,
T = − pI + τ = − p [ ∂p
∂x
y 0 ∂p
∂x
y −p000 −p ]
Now, earlier we introduced the viscous stress tensor, total stress tensor as variables. Now,
they become known. They were unknown earlier. Now the velocity profile is known. So, we
can evaluate the viscous stress tensor and the total stress tensor and they become known.
And, if you notice there is one difference between the viscous stress tensor for the Couette
flow and this viscous, viscous stress tensor for the Poiseuille flow. The difference is that in
vp
the earlier case the viscous shear stresses these were just constants. It was just h . And v p
was the velocity of the plate, h was the distance between the plates. It was just a constant.
But in this case of Poiseuille flow the viscous stress tensor and the shear stress components,
they depend on y. So, they vary linearly with y. In the earlier case it was just a constant. That
is what this bullet says that there is a dependence on y and linear dependence on y. And, we
have seen this nice diagram from James O Wilkes when we discussed pressure distribution.
And the shear stress distribution is also shown in this diagram nicely, we will discuss that
more about that in detail little later, but just to show that the there is a viscous shear stress
distribution which varies linearly. We have evaluated the components of the viscous stress
tensor.
Now, we also discussed about stress vector and the relationship between stress vector and
stress tensor. So, if we know the stress tensor, we can evaluate the stress vector and also can
evaluate the shear force acting on the plates and that is what we will do now.
1073
So, when I say stress tensor in the present context it means viscous stress tensor.
τ= 0[ ∂p ∂p
y y
∂x ∂x
0 ]
So, this is the stress tensor, only the two dimensional form is shown here other terms are 0.
Now, when we began solid mechanics we learnt how to evaluate stress vector if we know the
stress tensor and we will use that now. What is idea? To evaluate the shear force acting on the
plates.
Now, we have a top plate and a bottom plate and we will evaluate the shear force acting on
the top plate and the bottom plate. Now, for the top plate to evaluate the stress vector we
know stress vector is given by the dot product between the normal vector and the stress tensor
or matrix multiplication of the normal vector and the stress tensor. What is the normal vector?
tn = n.τ
Normal vector for the top plate is along the positive y direction and in terms of a vector in
terms of its elements we represent as [0, 1]
[
tn = [0 1 ] 0
∂p ∂p
y y
∂x ∂x
0 ]= ∂p
∂x
yi
1074
So, you get a component along the x direction and there is no component along the y
direction. So now, this is the stress vector which we obtained using the stress tensor and the
normal to the plane.
In this case the plane is a top plate. Now then, once we found out the stress vector we found
out the normal component and the shear stress component. I like to distinguish the word
component here. We are using in two different ways, see when I use the component here I
mean it is the component of the viscous stress tensor. So, what we should recall is this stress
element. When I say component here it is a component of the stress vector. So, you should
recall this figure. This stress vector was resolved into the normal stress and then to shear
stresses. In this case it is because it is two dimensional we will have one normal stress and
then one shear stress.
τ nn = tn .n = ( ∂p
∂x
yi )
+ 0j . (0i + 1j) = 0
Of course, a normal stress in this case we will turn out to be 0. So, we will have only shear
stress, but because it is 2 dimensional we have only the n vector and the s1 vector and instead
of s1 vector I will call it as s vector.
It has component along the x direction only. So, without even doing this we can know that
there is no normal stress component of the stress vector. Now so, there is no viscous normal
stress component. Now, let us find out the shear stress component of the stress vector. So, it
is a projection of stress vector along the tangential direction.
τ ns = tn .s = ( ∂p
∂x
yi )
+ 0j . (1i + 0j) = ∂p
∂x
y = ∂p
∂x
h
So, there is a viscous shear stress component at y = h.
∂p
What is the direction? We have discussed already that ∂x
is negative ok which means that
this will be negative. And, so, the shear stress is acting along the negative x direction. Why
∂p
did we say that? h of course, a positive number ∂x
is less than 0 and hence τ ns is negative.
And hence the shear stress acts along the negative direction. Remember all our discussion on
the stresses are all acting on the fluid.
So, shear stress component acting on the fluid is along the negative x direction that also we
can easily understand. The plates are fixed, both the plates are fixed. And fluid is moving in
1075
this direction. So, which means that the shear stress on the fluid is along the negative x
direction; so, the fluid tries to let us say pull the plate to the right and the plate tries to plate
tries to pull the fluid to the left. So, intuitively you can understand that their shear stress
component acting on the fluid is along the negative x direction.
So, now let us repeat this for the bottom plate.
τ= 0 [ ∂p ∂p
y y
∂x ∂x
0 ]
So, for bottom plate now the n vector is along this direction. We always draw as an outward
normal. And so,
tn = n.τ = [0 − 1 ] 0 [ ∂p ∂p
y y
∂x ∂x
0 ] =− ∂p
∂x
yi
Once again it has component along the x direction there is no component along the y
direction. And, that sign has changed because our normal vector is now [0 − 1 ] . Why is that
[0 − 1 ] ? It is a normal vector pointing along the negative y axis and so, which we
represented as − j vector that is why it is [0 − 1 ] . Of course, do a matrix multiplication with
the stress tensor you get the stress vector. Now, like we did it in the previous case let us find
out the normal component and the shear stress component of the stress vector.
(
τ nn = tn .n = −
∂p
∂x
yi )
+ 0j . (0i − 1j) = 0
1076
(
τ ns = tn .s = −
∂p
∂x
yi )
+ 0j . (1i + 0j) =−
∂p
∂x
y =−
∂p
∂x
h
So, no viscous normal stress component. And here again the shear stress component acting on
the fluid is along the negative x direction. Of course, that cannot change because through the
entire domain fluid flows along the positive x axis.
So, certainly the shear stress acting on the fluid is along the negative x axis. Now, what we
will do is find out the shear force on the plates. So, let us summarize what we have done in
the last two slides. With the top plate the shear stress component of stress vector or simply
put the shear stress was given by we found out that it is
∂p
τ ns = ∂x
h
Similarly, for the bottom plate the same expression was obtained and the shear stress acting
on the fluid is along the negative x direction.
∂p
τ ns =− ∂x
h
Now, we will find out the shear force acting on the fluid. How do you find out? This is the
expression for shear stress. We will have to multiply by area. What is area we should
multiply? We should multiply by the surface area of the plate and then twice of that because
we have to account for the top plate and the bottom plate. And that is what we have done
here.
1077
∂p ∂p
T otal shear stress = 2 ∂x h x surf ace area of plate = 2 ∂x hW L =− 2∆phW
∂p ∆p
We have seen that ∂x =− L and that replacement has been done here.
So, what we have done is from the viscous stress tensor found out the stress vector, found out
the normal component it turned out to be 0, found out the shear stress component. And found
what is the shear stress acting on the fluid at the top plate, at the bottom plate; found out the
total shear force acting on the fluid.
Hence, found out what is the total shear force acting on the plates. Throughout we work with
shear stress shear force acting on the fluid. Because all our discussion right from beginning is
with respect to force acting on the fluid, that is why whenever we discuss about tau etcetera it
is on the fluid. And the last step we just changed the direction and say that the total shear
force acting on the plates is negative, what we have found out in the previous step. Of course
that this 2∆phW .
Towards a beginning of a linear momentum balance we derived the integral form of linear
momentum balance from Newton’s second law of motion by applying Reynolds transport
theorem. We also connect the even the integral linear momentum balance to this example. Let
us say how do we do that.
What is the idea? To once again to evaluate the shear force acting on the plates; so, let us do
that. So, let us write down the integral linear momentum balance.
1078
CS
Of course, we are writing for the steady state condition. Left hand side is a net rate of x
momentum leaving through the control surface. Right hand side your body forces and surface
forces acting along the x direction. We have inflow at let us say section 1 and outflow at
section 2. And, so, CS is split into CS1 and CS2.
∫ ρv x v.n dA + ∫ ρv x v.n dA = F B x + F S x
CS 1 CS 2
Now, remember we assumed the condition such that we get a fully developed flow. We said,
v y = 0 , v z = 0 and, from the continuity equation we arrived at the condition that the flow is
fully developed which means that v y as a function of y does not change with x. which means
that whatever velocity profile we have at section 1 is same as the velocity profile what we
have at section 2. And for inflow v .n is negative, for outflow v .n is positive. And v x is
along the positive x axis which means that these two terms will cancel each other. The left
hand side terms cancel each other.
∫ ρv x v.n dA + ∫ ρv x v.n dA = 0
CS 1 CS 2
What does it mean? Net rate of momentum leaving the control volume is equal to 0.
Whatever rate of momentum enters same leaves the control volume ok. We are writing the
linear momentum balance along the x direction and there is no body force along x direction.
Now, we will consider Rx as the total shear force exerted by the plates on the fluid flow. So,
whatever these plates exert shear force on the fluid flow is taken as Rx. And we know by
physics that it should be along the negative x axis; so, intuitively assumed along the negative
x axis. So, now, what happens to the surface force? We have the inlet pressure as p1 and the
area as A1 at the exit we have the pressure as p2 and the area as A2. So, we have
F S x = p1 A1 = p2 A2 − Rx
Like to mention, that we have come across a similar example in one of the applications of
integral linear momentum balance. So, I would recommend that you can refer those slides as
well; a nomenclature also been almost kept the same.
1079
There it was a compressible flow and there again we are finding out the frictional force. In
this case there we termed as frictional force. Now, we have more formal terminology namely
the total shear force exerted by the plates on the flow.
So, let us put these all together in the integral linear momentum balance.
CS
We found out the surface first just now in terms of pressure area and the shear force.
F S x = p1 A1 = p2 A2 − Rx
So, left hand side is 0, right side right hand side body force is 0. So, left only with surface
forces and so,
0 = 0 + p1 A1 = p2 A2 − Rx
Rearrange for Rx so,
Rx = p1 A1 − p2 A2
Of course, A1 = A2 = A So,
Rx = (p1 − p2 )A
1080
So, the cross sectional area is 2hW; So,
Rx = ∆p (2hW ) = 2∆phW
And what does it represent? Total shear force exerted by the plates on the fluid. And what is
the direction? Remember we have taken Rx along on the negative x axis. So, this is the total
shear force exerted by the plates on the fluid flow along the negative x axis.
And just like we did earlier what we are interested is the shear force on the plates. So, total
shear force exerted by the fluid on the plates is along the positive x direction. Of course,
magnitude is 2∆phW . Of course, it cannot change we have found the expression using the
integral linear momentum balance. So, now to summarize what we have done in the last few
slides. We have gone through one complete cycle of all these topics ok. The derivation of
Navier-Stokes started with the integral balance.
Then of course, under differential balance we discussed about total stress, strain rate,
Newton’s law of viscosity, Navier-Stokes equation. Now, we have gone completely almost in
the reverse direction. We use the Navier-Stokes equation, solve for the velocity profile, found
out strain rate, used Newton’s law of viscosity, to found to find out total stress, stress vector,
from that the shear force. And, we have also use the integral linear momentum balance to find
out the total shear force acting on the plates. Same thing in terms of our journey slide, we had
the integral form of linear momentum balance.
And then for the differential balance we discussed about total stress, viscous stress and then
the strain rates, Newton’s law of viscosity. Substituted linear momentum balance, the
differential form, derived the Navier-Stokes. Now completely reverse direction now, solve
the Navier-Stokes, got the velocity profile, evaluated at this strain rate, used Newton’s law of
viscosity, found out the stress tensor components. Found out the stress vector, also found out
the shear force acting on the plates, also use the integral form to find out the total shear force
acting on the plates.
1081
Of course once again shown in the form of a cycle; the integral balance, total stress, then
strain rate, Newton’s law of viscosity, Navier-Stokes, velocity profile. Once the velocity
profile is known from the Navier-Stokes you can find out strain rate. Use Newton’s law of
viscosity find total stress, stress vector and then the shear force which can also be found out
from the integral linear momentum balance.
So, this example is a very comprehensive example almost covering right from our beginning
of the derivation, from the you can say almost let us say Newton’s second law of motion till
the Navier-Stokes ok. When we came to the forward path they were all led us to the
derivation of Navier-Stokes. Now, you can understand why we really came through that
particular path. And, then such a combination was strain rate tensor, the components of strain
rate tensor. But, now we can all evaluate them in terms of values as well, in terms of the
velocity profile, in terms of a measurable values you can evaluate them.
1082
Lecture - 96
Planar Poiseuille Flow: Shear Stress Distribution
Now we will discuss a numerical example where we apply the equations which we were
derived for the case of plane Poiseuille flow. Another objective of this example is to discuss
the shear stress distribution in detail, two main objectives I would say. Let us read the
example engine oil at a temperature of 60 degree centigrade is forced to flow between two
very large, stationary, parallel flat plates separated by a thin gap height 2 h = 3.6 millimeter
and that is what is shown here to very large. why does it say very large?
Remember we said our width is very very large so, that we need not consider variation along
the z direction and along the length if the length is very short, then there will be region where
the profile will keep changing along the flow direction.
So, if you consider the very long plate somewhere let us we are in between and then there
will not be any and effects and then the fully developed profile is a very good approximation.
So, that is why the question says between two very large stationary, we have been using the
word fixed parallel plates which means that there is no change in the distance between them
1083
the vertical distance between them. And of course, the gap is thin and the gap height is given
to us.
The plate dimensions are the length of the plate is given as L = 1.25 meters and the width is
given as W = 0.55 meters. The outlet procedure atmospheric pressure and the inlet pressure is
one atmospheric gauge pressure which means it is two atmospheric absolute pressure.
Estimate the volume flow rate of oil.
Remember we discussed the equation relating pressure drop and flow rate has two uses or
two different ways of using it either you specify the pressure drop find out the flow rate that
is this question or give the flow rate find out the required pressure drop. And we are giving
the properties the viscosity and density of unused engine oil at the operating temperature of
60 degrees are given by, viscosity = 72.5 x 10-3 kg/(m.s) and density = 864 kg/m3.
Solution:
So, it is a simple substitution as I told you the ideas to get some field for the numerical
values.
3
𝑄 2ℎ ∆𝑝
𝑊
= 3μ 𝐿
This is an expression which we derived relating the flow rate and the pressure gradient. Let
us look at the expression it is flow rate per unit width, h is a half gap height in our
∆𝑝
nomenclature and 𝐿
is a pressure gradient. So, let us rewrite for Q
3
2ℎ 𝑊 ∆𝑝
𝑄 = 3μ 𝐿
Now, 0substitution the given values,
3 3 3
2ℎ 𝑊 ∆𝑝 2 𝑥 0.0018 𝑥 0.550 𝑥 (2−1) 𝑥 101325 −3 𝑚
𝑄 = 3μ 𝐿
= 3 𝑥 0.0725 𝑥 1.25
= 2. 39 𝑥10 𝑠
And of course, we get a better idea if we expressed in terms of average velocity.
−3
𝑄 2.39 𝑥 10 𝑚
𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2ℎ𝑊
= 0.0036 𝑥 0.550
= 1. 21 𝑠
We also found out the relationship between the maximum velocity and the average velocity
so,
1084
𝑣𝑥, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 3
𝑣𝑥, 𝑎𝑣𝑔
= 2
3 3 𝑚
𝑣𝑥, = 2
𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2
𝑥1. 21 = 1. 81 𝑠
We also found the expression for the total shear force by the fluid on the plates which was
= ∆𝑝2ℎ𝑊 = 201 𝑁
It is shear force and of course, direction you have discussed few times it is along the positive
x axis.
Now, we can draw the velocity profile now, for that we need the pressure drop per length
which is a pressure gradient,
∆𝑝 𝑁
𝐿
= 81060 3
𝑚
Now, let us draw the velocity profile, the expression for velocity profile was found out to be
𝑣𝑥 =
1 ∂𝑝
2μ ∂𝑥 (𝑦2 − ℎ2) = 2μ1 (− ∆𝑝
𝐿 )(𝑦 2
−ℎ
2
)= 1 ∆𝑝
2μ 𝐿 (ℎ2 − 𝑦2)
And using this expression for velocity profile, you can draw this velocity profile (as shown in
the above slide image) and the velocity profile is drawn in such a way that the vertical
distance is along the y axis and the velocity is along the x axis.
1085
Of course, we know that the velocity is the dependent variable, y is the independent variable,
but purposefully the profile has been drawn here taking velocity along the x axis and vertical
distance along the y axis so, that you can easily visualize this profile with the geometry of the
plate.
And if you look at the profile, the maximum velocity is about 1.8 and that is what you have
found out analytically also in the previous slide, of course, the velocity 0 at both the plates.
Now, as I told you one of the main objectives of this example is to discuss about the shear
stress profile; few books discuss about shear stress profile. Let us discuss that in detail. I like
to recall two figures (in the above slide image) as we have done in the previous few slides
back. We will use this nomenclature again in this discussion also. In the bottom figure
whatever we have they represent components of the viscous stress tensor, and what you see in
the top figure they are components of the stress vector; of course, both the cases we will be
interested only in the shear stress component. So, let us keep that in mind and proceed.
We have found out the expression for the viscous stress tensor few slides back given by
∂𝑝 ∂𝑝
τ = ⎡0 𝑦 𝑦0⎤
⎣ ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ⎦
So,
1086
∂𝑝 ∆𝑝
τ𝑥𝑦 = τ𝑦𝑥 = ∂𝑥
𝑦 =− 𝐿
𝑦
So, now shear stress component of viscous stress tensor acting on the fluid, which means we
are discussing this stress element, the component shown in that stress element, ok. So, let us
read it again shear stress component of viscous stress tensor. This distance is important as you
go along you will understand why we are really distinguishing the nomenclature; shear stress
component of viscous stress tensor, of course acting on the fluid. Now, for y > 0 which means
above the axis
∂𝑝 ∆𝑝
𝑦 =− 𝐿
𝑦< 0
So, this shear stress component is negative above the axis. Now let us evaluate this for below
the centre line below the axis, for y < 0
∂𝑝 ∆𝑝
𝑦 =− 𝐿
𝑦> 0
To conclude these two lines the shear stress component of viscous stress tensor. So, we plot
the components of viscous stress tensor that is negative above centre line and positive below
centre line.
We will see graph of this next slide, but right now conclusion is that if you plot the stress
tensor component alone, then that will be negative and then positive, that is the idea here.
Now let us see what happens to the shear stress component of the stress vector.
Now once again acting on the fluid; how do we evaluate that? To evaluate that we need the
stress vector and for y > 0,
∂𝑝 ∆𝑝
τ𝑛𝑠 = 𝑡𝑛. 𝑠 = ∂𝑥
𝑦 =− 𝐿
𝑦< 0
So, this shear stress component of stress vector is less than 0 above the centre line. Now, for y
< 0 which is below the centre line below the axis
∂𝑝 ∆𝑝
τ𝑛𝑠 = 𝑡𝑛. 𝑠 =− ∂𝑥
𝑦= 𝐿
𝑦< 0
So, the shear stress component of stress vector is negative along the entire channel head. In
one we are plotting the component of the stress tensor; in the other we are plotting the
compound of the stress vector. What really is required is the compound of the stress vector
1087
only, that is what is required; that will determines the shear force acting on the fluid or acting
on the plate tells the direction of shear force acting on the fluid or acting on the plate, that is
why here within bracket it is shown as shear force per area.
So, let us summarize all this pictorially the next few slides. Once again I want to repeat that if
you are plotting the component of stress tensor it is negative and positive, but if we are
plotting component of stress vector it is negative throughout. We can remember this so, that
we understand the figures here.
Now what this slide shows is, shear stress profile on the left hand side and the velocity profile
on the right hand side. This we have already discussed. Now, what is plotted on the left hand
side is the component of the stress tensor and what did we discussed? Above the centre line,
it is negative and below the centre line it is positive that is what we are seeing here.
And remember once again, the vertical distance is along the y axis, the shear stress is along
the x axis. So, above the axis it is negative and below the axis it is positive and that is the
distribution shown in this book in this diagram. So, we should know what does the
distribution shown in that figure. What is plotted there is the variation of the component of
viscous stress tensor that diagram does not show the shear stress component of the stress
vector. It shows the component of the stress tensor that should be kept in mind that if you plot
it is negative in the above the axis and positive below the axis.
1088
Now the title of the slide says once again shear stress profile the left hand side diagram is
known to us from the previous slide. Same has been plotted again. Look at the title now shear
stress component of viscous stress tensor that is why this stress element is shown here.
Component of stress tensor is plotted as we have discussed in the previous slide.
Additionally, what is shown here is a stress element? The representation of stress element
changes whether it is above the axis or below the axis. What happens above the axis, the
component is negative. How do you represent a negative component? On a positive phase,
the direction of the force is along the negative axis and let us say, here also positive phase and
the direction of force is along the negative axis so, that is how our stress element looks.
Below the axis, how does stress element look because the component is positive for a positive
plane the force is along the positive axis, for a positive plane force is along positive axis. So,
the stress element representation is different for above the axis and below the axis, ok. This
also kind of connects very well with our sign convention for the stress element.
And coming to the right hand side figure, what is shown? What we will discuss? The shear
stress component of stress vector is always negative throughout the entire height. So, right
hand side plots shear stress component of stress vector which means that we are plotting this
one and that is negative throughout the region, throughout the entire height the stress shear
stress component of stress vector is negative and that is what we have. Once again of course,
1089
that also varies linearly but it is 0 here and of course, negative here 0 here and once again
negative here.
Now one more slide, left hand side is just same as last slide, right hand side now it is positive;
why is it positive, in the previous slide whenever we say shear stress component of stress
vector, it is acting on the fluid. Suppose we want to represent shear stress exerted by the fluid,
then we get a positive graph like this which is positive throughout the entire height between
the plates.
And if you multiply these values whatever shear stress we have got right and with the area of
the plate which is the surface area of the plate of course, include both the; include both for the
top plate and the bottom plate, then you will get the total shear force acting on the plates.
And just to summarize the last few slides, let me go back reason for discussing this in detail
is that some books will show you shear stress profile like this, some books will show you
profile like this. So, we should know to distinguish between the two profiles what is the
profile that is plotted in this way, what is the shear stress that is being plotted in this way and
what is the shear stress that is being plotted in this way; the title may still say shear stress
profile.
So, just to summarize the previous slides, we are looking at the shear stress profile how shear
stress varies along the height between the two plates, but we are looking at how the shear
1090
stress component of viscous stress tensor varies which is negative above axis and positive
below axis. We are also looking at how shear stress component of stress vector varies, but
and that is negative both above and below the axis.
And so, here right hand side is velocity profile, left hand side is the component of the stress
tensor, and here again left hand side is component of the stress tensor along with the stress
element right hand side component of the stress vector. And here the right hand side is the
stress acting on the fluid, here is the shear force excreted by the fluid.
So, all we have seen I would say three ways of shear stress profile; one is the profile like this
and one is the profile like this and one is the profile like this. So, we should know clearly the
distinction between all these three representations of shear stress profile. And this also kind
of nicely summarizes whatever discussed earlier with respect to sign convention, and then
also physically understand what is the role of the component of viscous stress tensor and
what is the role of component of the stress vector.
So, now that we have discussed in detail about Couette and Poiseuille flow. Let us distinguish
between these two flows.
● In the case Couette flow, the moving plate causes fluid flow, in the case of Poiseuille
flow, pressure gradient drives fluid flow.
1091
Now how does this moving plate is something external, pressure gradient is something
external; how this external condition enters the solution of the problem differs between the
two cases. The first case of Couette flow, this velocity of plate entered the solution through
the boundary condition; second case a pressure gradient entered the solution for the
governing equation itself. So, first case remember we said at the top plate 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑝, but in the
second case velocity was 0 at both the plates, but we had pressure gradient incorporated
through the governing equation itself.
● Couette flow pressure varies along the y direction only which is the hydro static
pressure distribution. And in the case of Poiseuille flow, there is variation along y
direction once again hydro static, but we do have variation along the x direction as
well, there is decrease in pressure along the x direction.
● Velocity profile is linear in the case of Couette flow parabolic in the case Poiseuille
flow.
● Viscous stress is a constant in the case of a Couette flow but it varies linearly in the
case of Poiseuille flow.
Quick comparison of how these two flows vary in terms of what causes the flow, in terms of
governing equation and boundary conditions and in terms of profiles.
1092
Now given the scope of this course, we have solved two very simple problems, but I would
say in detail connecting the entire a part of linear momentum balance but this is a good
starting point or we have learnt enough to solve other more complex problems. So, let us look
at the general procedure for solving a fluid mechanics problem, that procedure is almost
constant across any fluid mechanics problem.
● First is setting up setting up of the problem and the geometry.
Let us say Couette flow, Poiseuille flow and then geometry; in this case, we took planar
Couette flow and then planar Poiseuille flow. We could have also taken the usual cylindrical
coordinate Couette flow and then Poiseuille flow and then the dimensions etcetera. And then
of course, selection of coordinate axis all comes under the first step, then
● List all the assumptions or approximation simplifications and the boundary

conditions.
Remember these depend on the problem and these depend on the level of sophistication we
want to achieve. The more the number of assumptions we make, we get of course, simpler
and simpler solutions. Of course, if we keep relaxing assumptions you will go more closer to
reality. So, when I say you will solve more involved problems meaning one implication is
that you will solve the same problem with less number of assumptions. Of course, the
boundary condition on also has to be listed based on the physics.
● Based on the assumptions, we can simplify the governing equations.
What are the governing equations? Remember always the differential mass balance goes
without saying though we have been emphasizing on the momentum balance, always we
solve both the differential mass balance and the momentum balance together.
So, simplify the differential mass and momentum conservation equations in terms of
nomenclature continuity and the Navier Stokes equations. Then what do we do, we integrate
the differential equations which will result in the constants of integration. In the present case,
we resulted in two constants of integration.
● Now, we have the boundary conditions; so, apply the boundary conditions to find the
constants which means the solution is ready; you have solved the given fluid
mechanics problem.
1093
Now, what do we mean by solution? What are the different levels at which the solution can
be found out or reported?
● First we can find out the profiles or distribution of velocity, pressure, shear stress; we
have seen shear stress could be either component of the stress tensor or component of
the stress vector. More practical relevance is the component of stress vector because
that only determines the force acting on the plates or any other surrounding geometry.
● Now, we can also plot stream lines, and path lines. Remember for stream lines and
path lines what we require is the velocity distribution, earlier when we started off we
were given a velocity distribution. Now we have found out the velocity distribution
so, we can plot for stream lines and path lines.
Remember when we discussed stream lines, we said the objective is to represent a result of a
simulation or result of a prediction. We have predicted the velocity profile; we can represent
that as a stream lines of course, in this case they are just straight lines; they are just straight
lines. Because we do not have any y velocity component only x velocity component so, path
lines stream lines they are all the straight lines, it horizontal lines.
What else can be found out in terms of average values?
● We can find out the volumetric flow rate, we can find out the average and maximum
velocity. If flow rate is given, we can find out the pressure drop; we also found out a
total shear force acting on the walls.
So, the way in which I separated the last three bullets are first bullet for profiles, second is for
let us say flow visualization, third are average values; flow rates, average velocity, total share
force, pressure drop etcetera.
1094
So, now we are ready to summarize the third develop applications for Navier Stokes equation
namely flows including viscous stresses. Only one keyword if you want to summarize all of
them velocity distribution. Of course, now we discuss in detail, but one main objective was to
find out the velocity distribution.
We consider two geometries; first one is a planar Couette flow in which one plate was
moving other plate fixed with no applied pressure gradient, the plate cause the moment of the
fluid. Second planar Poiseuille flow both plate fixed, the applied pressure gradient cause the
movement of the fluid.
And in terms of analysis we have done a detailed analysis right from velocity profile to the
shear force calculation. How did you do that? We evaluated a strain rate tensor, viscous stress
tensor, stress vector, shear force. And we also discussed what are the general procedure for
solving a fluid mechanics problem that brings us to the close of the fluid mechanics part of
this course and we will start the transfer phenomena part of the course from now onwards.
1095
Lecture – 97
Viscous stress vs. Molecular momentum flux
Part 1
We will start with the second part of the course namely Transport Phenomena which in itself
is split into three parts namely momentum transport, energy transport and mass transport and
what we are going to discuss now is momentum transport. Fluid flow can be analyzed
whether through fluid mechanics or momentum transport and what we are going to discuss in
this lecture is the equivalence between these two approaches and what a subtle difference
between them. So, to be more specific we should say we are going discuss this double headed
arrow which says both are equivalent.
1096
Let us look at the outline. So, as usual you understand this outline better at the end of the
lecture. So, to begin with, we are going to see is a two different interpretation of τ. So far we
are looking at a viscous stress, now we are going to view in a different view point namely as
a molecular momentum flux something like duality of τ just like a duality of light.
Then we are going to look at equivalence of fluid mechanics and momentum transport and of
course, discuss the subtle differences between them as well. And, then we are going re derive
the linear momentum balance and the Navier-Stokes equation following the momentum
transport approach. That is a overall broad outline let us proceed then you will understand
this in clay with more clarity.
1097
Let us start with our well known example which just a recall we will start with our planar
couette flow between two parallel plates in the top plate is set in motion. So, let us quickly
recall flow between two parallel plates; bottom plate is stationary, top plate moves at a
constant velocity 𝑣𝑝. We have derived the velocity profile use the Navier-Stokes equation
now we need not assume this profile. We derive the velocity profile to be linear given by
𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑥 = ℎ
𝑦
Now, the shear stress
∂𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑝
τ𝑦𝑥 = μ ∂𝑥
= µ ℎ
Also, we can take it as one dimensional Newton’s law of viscosity. Now, that is a positive
quantity and then according to our sign convention this is the stress element because it is
positive; on a positive phase, the direction of force is along the positive axis. In this case it is
a positive y phase and force along positive x axis and here it is positive x phase and force
along positive y direction.
So, because we are considering τ𝑦𝑥, force along positive x axis on a plane perpendicular to
positive y axis that is what you discussed just now. Your plane is the perpendicular to the
1098
plane is along positive y axis, force acts along positive x axis. Now, we will also interpret in
this way which we have not discussed so far, but it intuitively we can understand that. If you
are considering this force we are considering positive force, then that force is exerted by fluid
in greater y on fluid in lesser y.
What does it mean? We have fluid near the top plate and we have fluid near the bottom plate
and this force exerted by top fluid on bottom fluid so, top liquid is in greater y and bottom is
in lesser y. So, this force exerted by fluid in greater y on fluid in lesser y.
Of course, we have seen this several times, but we can look this in this way also and why is
that the fluid here flows at a higher velocity compared to fluid at a lower y and hence the
fluid in the top region exerts force in the positive direction on the fluid in the lower region.
Now, what we will consider is once again a planar couette flow, but now with the top plate
fixed and the bottom plate keep moving at a constant velocity 𝑣𝑝. This is the example which
we are going to discuss to relate fluid mechanics and momentum transport we will understand
why we have come from that geometry to this geometry as we go along.
Let us look at that. So, flow between two parallel plates; top plate is stationary, the bottom
plate moves at a constant velocity 𝑣𝑝. Now, what is the velocity profile? If you go through the
derivation if you go through the same procedure as we have followed earlier for deriving the
1099
velocity profile for planar couette flow for this case what is that the velocity is 0 at top and
the velocity is 𝑣𝑝 at bottom and solve the Navier-Stokes equation you will get
(
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑝 1 −
𝑦
ℎ )
But, we can quickly check whether it is right at y = 0 that is at the bottom plate, the velocity
is 𝑣𝑝 and y = h, the velocity at the top plate is 0.
Now, if you find the shear stress τ𝑦𝑥, 𝐹𝑀 I use the subscript FM meaning fluid mechanics we
understand that as we go along what the shear stress expression it is
τ𝑦𝑥, 𝐹𝑀 = μ ∂𝑥
=− µ ℎ
Now, according to our sign convention if you want to represent shear stress component which
is negative then on a positive plane the force should be along the negative axis. So, in this
case is a positive y plane and force is along the negative x axis.
And, if you look at the bottom phase the normal to this phase is along the negative y axis so,
the force is along the positive x axis ok now. So, τ𝑦𝑥 is negative the shear stress is negative.
Now, once again we want to consider force along positive axis. So, let us take this force and.
So, now, in this case the positive force will act on a plane whose perpendicular is towards the
negative y axis that is what we are seen here. Now, what is the equivalents of the last
sentence to the previous slide for this case, now if you consider this force, this exerted by
fluid in lesser y on fluid in greater y. Why is it so?
This fluid and the lower y or lesser y has a higher velocity and fluid at a greater y has a lower
velocity. So, the fluid in the lower y region tries to pull fluid in the greater y region hence this
force exerted by fluid in lesser y on fluid in greater y almost everything is opposite to the
previous case this is the case which we are going to discuss or use as configuration to
compare fluid mechanics and momentum transport.
1100
So, let us proceed further. Let us compare both the planar couette flow case. Both of them are
flow between parallel plates.
● The first case which I have been discussing so far, the bottom plate is stationary; top
plate moves at a constant velocity 𝑣𝑝. In the new planar couette flow top plate is
stationary, bottom plate moves at a constant velocity 𝑣𝑝.

𝑣𝑝
● What is the velocity profile? It is ℎ
𝑦 in the first case and now the velocity profile is
𝑣𝑝
ℎ (1 − ).
𝑦
ℎ
● What about shear stress? τ𝑦𝑥 = μ ∂𝑥
=μ ℎ
for the previous case and the present
case τ𝑦𝑥, 𝐹𝑀 = μ ∂𝑥
=− μ ℎ
and
● The first case τ𝑦𝑥 is positive second case τ𝑦𝑥 is negative and
● If you consider a positive force along x axis that acts on a plane whose perpendicular
is towards positive y axis. The second case the new case if you consider a force along
positive x axis that will act on a plane was perpendicular is towards negative y axis.
● In the first case force exerted by fluid in greater y on fluid in lesser y and the present
case force exerted by fluid in lesser y on fluid in greater y and we are going to focus
on the case on the right hand side.
1101
Now, what is it we are going to do now is give a molecular interpretation for τ . So, as I told
you we are going to take the case where the bottom plate is moving, top plate is fixed; flow
between two parallel plates the top plate is stationary bottom plate most at a constant velocity
𝑣𝑝. Now, the bottom plate has some momentum and the fluid moving near this plate acquires
the momentum from this plate and that imparts to the fluid above that. So, fluid near the plate
acquires a momentum and then imparts the fluid which is above that.
So, this fluid which is near the plate imparts some of its x momentum, we are talking about x
momentum here, to adjacent layer causing it to remain in motion in x direction. At the
molecular level what happens is that generally molecules move in a random motion, but now
the molecules will have a higher x velocity let us say near the moving plate, the molecules in
the above plane will have a lower x velocity.
Overall the molecules have two components one is the random component, other is the x
component the molecules, so in the layer near moving plate we will have higher x velocity
hence higher x momentum and molecules in the above layer will have lower x velocity and
hence lower x momentum. And, now let us say molecules move from the lower layer to the
above layer they carry with them the higher momentum and then when they reach the top
layer they transfer their higher momentum to the molecules in that region. That is why here
we use the word, due to molecular motion. Let us read that sentence again.
1102
So, when you say fluid think in terms of molecules in that region, the fluid near moving plate
intern imparts some of it is x momentum to adjacent layer causing to remind motion in x
direction. So, how to interpret this? So, molecular x momentum is transported through the
fluid in y direction look at the word here very specifically we have use molecular x
momentum and that is x momentum, but it is transported through the fluid in the y direction
more specifically in the positive y direction.
So, plate has some momentum and the fluid moving near the plate acquire some x momentum
and that imparts x momentum the next layer of fluid and in terms of molecular picture,
molecules have a higher x velocity at bottom and higher x momentum and when they move to
this layer they carry with them a x momentum which means that they transport x momentum
in the y direction. Now like to distinguish this molecular x momentum with the our usual
momentum which you have been discussing so far our usual momentum when we say
momentum in and momentum out this picture has to be kept in mind that we have discussed
several times (top picture in the above slide image).
So, if you take a control volume is a momentum entering, momentum leaving etcetera, this is
by bulk flow which we call as convective x momentum. In this present case in the y direction
remember there is no convection, there is no bulk flow in the y direction we have a bulk flow
only in the x direction. So, x momentum gets transferred in the y direction because of
molecular motion and hence this momentum is called as molecular x momentum in contrast
to our usual convicting momentum which is because of bull flow. So, this has to be kept in
mind as we go along.
So far we have been using just x momentum meaning it is convective x momentum, but right
now we are two different forms in which momentum is transported, two different forms of
momentum being transported – one is molecular x momentum other is convector x
momentum. Now, how do we interpret τ how do we relate this τ to this momentum
transported. Now, in momentum transport what do I mean by that in the momentum transport
approach of analyzing fluid flow; one is the fluid mechanics way of analyzing fluid flow, now
the momentum transport way of analyzing fluid flow.
We have talked about this transport of x momentum in the y direction the rate of molecular x
momentum transport in a y direction per unit area. What is area? In this case there are two
plates so, the area through which this transport takes place and of course, perpendicular to y
1103
axis is interpreted as molecular momentum flux. So, this is interpreted as the molecular
momentum flux. What is the nomenclature τ𝑦𝑥,𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑇 momentum transport is that, that is why
previously we used τ𝑦𝑥 subscript fluid mechanics. Both are τ𝑦𝑥 so, just to distinguish earlier
we subscript fluid mechanics, now we are using subscript momentum transfer.
Let us read it again. What is that we are doing now? We the few minutes back we discussed
about x momentum being transported in a y direction now we are trying to quantify it or
express that as a flux. So, rate at which that molecular x momentum it is transported in y
direction and per unit area perpendicular to y axis means, several terms are there here one is
rate molecular x momentum and then in y direction and per unit area perpendicular to y axis
and that is interpreted as the molecular momentum flux τ𝑦𝑥,𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑇.
And, now it is clear that if the velocity gradient is higher, what does it mean? In this case and
top velocity is 0 let us say this velocity is higher and higher then the velocity gradient is
higher and the molecular flux will be more higher will be the molecular flux. So, the
molecular x-momentum flux is proportional to the velocity gradient, this is based on intuition
that the x momentum being transferred in a y direction will be more if the velocity gradient is
more.
∂𝑣𝑥
τ𝑦𝑥,𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑇 ∝ ∂𝑦
So, molecular x momentum flux is proportional to the velocity gradient. The proportionality
constant is the viscosity and so, we write
∂𝑣𝑥
τ𝑦𝑥,𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑇 = μ ∂𝑦
The τ𝑦𝑥 in momentum transport as molecular momentum flux proportional to the velocity
gradient with the proportionality constant as the fluid viscosity.
1104
Now, let us proceed further we have seen this just now in momentum transport τ𝑦𝑥,𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑇 is
interpreted as the flux of molecular momentum, I have written the word flow because tau y x
is considered something flowing what is it something flowing that is x momentum being
transported. So, flux is a more formal word, but in terms of understanding, in terms of
imagination it is a flow of molecular momentum. So, flux is more formal representation of
τ𝑦𝑥,𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑇, when we say flow it says gives a physical meaning that molecular momentum flows
ok and that is what is represented by τ𝑦𝑥,𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑇.
Now, based on the discussion what we had this molecular momentum flows from a region of
higher velocity to a region of lower velocity that is very obvious based on our discussion
earlier. So, molecular x momentum flows from a region of higher velocity to a region of
lower velocity which means that it is along the direction of negative velocity gradient. The
velocity decreases in this direction and the momentum flux is also in that direction that
direction which x momentum is transport it is also along the direction which velocity
decreases.
Now, we will adopt a sign convention that is the key in fact. We will adopt a sign convention;
what is sign convention? I want my molecular momentum flux to be positive along the
positive y direction. So, I want this flux to be positive, remember this flux is along the
positive y axis, I want this flux to be positive along the positive y axis. How do we do that?
1105
In the previous slide, we have written
∂𝑣𝑥
τ𝑦𝑥,𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑇 =− µ ∂𝑦
∂𝑣𝑥
Suppose, if I stop at this what will happen for the present case ∂𝑦
is negative and hence I
will have a case where I have a negative momentum flux flowing along a positive y axis
which is little counterintuitive because whenever we have a flow we want that to be positive
along a positive axis. For example, let us say we have velocity; when I say positive velocity I
want to float be along positive x axis I do not want to be against through I want I do not want
the flow to be towards negative x axis.
Similarly, here because we are interpreted τ𝑦𝑥,𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑇 as something as a momentum flowing that
is why this flow is written here. Whenever you imagine τ𝑦𝑥,𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑇 from momentum transport
imagine as if something is flowing what is that x momentum is being transported in the y

direction I want that flow that flux to be positive along positive y axis. How do you take care
∂𝑣𝑥
of that? By including a negative sign. Now, what happens for this case ∂𝑦
is negative and
you have another negative sign. So, now, my molecular momentum flux becomes positive
along positive y axis. That is why we include a negative sign, so that the flux is positive along
positive y axis.
Now, this is the reason why this example was considered rather than our usual example. What
would have happened in this case I would have had a molecular momentum flux towards the
negative y axis, I will have a negative molecular flux towards negative y axis which is little
inconvenient discuss. That is why we took this case where there is positive momentum flux
towards positive y axis; both result in same sign convention negative momentum flux
towards negative y axis, right now we have positive momentum flux was positive y axis.
So, want to take a case where we deal with only positive y axis and positive momentum flux
that is why this example was taken, this couette flow was taken rather than this couette flow.
So, what is τ𝑦𝑥 now we can understand the subscript also τ𝑦𝑥 is flux of molecular x
momentum transported in positive y direction, that is a formal nomenclature for τ𝑦𝑥. Of
course, we can also say molecular flux of x momentum. What does it tell you?
1106
We have a molecule x momentum transported in y direction the flux of that is the tau y x and
now just like we had in fluid mechanics force exerted by a fluid in lesser region on a fluid in
higher region similar to that what is the direction of transport from a region of lesser y to a
region of greater y. We have a region of lesser y to a region of greater y we are; remember
you talking about the positive τ𝑦𝑥 momentum transport value.
So, when this is positive these two are for a positive value of τ𝑦𝑥 momentum transport if it is
positive then the flux of molecular x momentum is along the positive y direction and then it
flows from a region of lower y to a region of higher y that is what is happening from a region
of lesser y to a region of greater y.
Just to summarize this slide the only addition in this slide compare to the previous slide is the
previous slide we interrupted τ𝑦𝑥 from a molecular momentum transport point of view, in the
present side what we have done is including of negative sign that is a only addition in this
slide.
Why did we do that? Based on the sign convention that the molecular momentum flux should
be positive along positive y direction, based on that sign convention we have included this
negative sign and we also given a formal we have also interpreted what a positive τ𝑦𝑥
transport means.
1107
Lecture - 98
Viscous Stress vs. Molecular Momentum Flux Part 2
Now, what we will do is compare our discussion under fluid mechanics and the present
discussion under momentum transport. Let us do that. Let us first discuss what we have
discussed in fluid mechanics.
τ yx,F M = μ ∂v
∂y
x
To be more specific, there was a positive sign because we have now negative sign, so let us
be more specific.
And suppose if we say τ yx is positive what does it mean? Force along positive x axis on a
positive y plane that is what is shown here, positive y plane and force along positive x axis.
That is why for this case because τ yx is negative for this case on a positive phase, you know
positive y phase we have shown the force along negative x axis.
τ yx,M omT =− μ ∂v
∂y
x
1108
Now, we have discussed τ yx momentum transport. So, far throughout the course, throughout
∂v
fluid mechanics we have discussed τ yx as μ ∂yx . Now, when we came to momentum
∂v
transport because of our sign convention we are relating τ yx to − μ ∂yx .
Now, if you say τ yx,M omT is positive, what is it, what does it mean? As we are discussed in
the previous slide it says that flux of molecular x momentum transported in positive y
direction that is what we have, flux of x momentum transported in the positive y direction.
So, in one case we related τ yx,F M as μ ∂v

∂y
x
, the second case they have related τ yx,M omT to
∂v
− μ ∂yx . Also liked to emphasize which we will discuss in the next slide also, here I say force
along positive x axis on a positive y plane. Here what do I say? Flux or flow of something
following flux of molecular x momentum transport in positive y direction. This we will
discuss next slide as well.
But now; so, fluid mechanics represents τ yx,F M as force of course, force per unit area and
momentum in momentum transport we interpret τ yx,M omT as flux of molecular x momentum.
That is the basic difference in the viewpoint itself. Both are τ yx only, in fluid mechanics it is
a mechanical view point or mechanics viewpoint. So, we represent interpret τ yx as force and
of course, per unit area.
Now, how do we interpret? We interpret as flux of molecular x momentum. Now, let us

compare the dimensions of the viscous stress and the molecular momentum flux. Now,
M LT −2
Dimensions of viscous stress = F orce
= = M L−1 T −2
Area L2
M LT −1
Dimensions of molecular momentum f lux = M omentum
= = M L−1 T −2
Area x time L2 T
Now, if you see the dimensions are molecular momentum flux, we have seen that moment is
a flux it is that quantity per unit area per time, we have discussed volumetric flux mass flux,
now we are discussing momentum flux, molecular momentum flux. And remember, when we
defined the τ yx , the first instance we said x momentum is transported in the y direction, this
rate of transport of x momentum per unit area is the momentum flux.
So, once again get the same dimensions. Certainly they have a same dimensions, physical
interpretations different.
1109
So, let us compare these two viewpoints. Look at the title, viscous stress view point in the
molecular momentum flux viewpoint. Two viewpoints of the same quantity τ yx , let us see.
So, left hand side we have the viscous stress viewpoint which have been following so long
throughout our fluid mechanics. When we came transfer phenomena when we are discussing
now momentum transport, the way in which have viewing τ yx has changed, it is molecular
momentum flux viewpoint.
● It acts as viscous stress in the viscous stress view point because τ yx is a force, we say
it is acting as a viscous stress. And τ yx acts as flows as molecular momentum flux in
the molecular momentum view point.
Look at the difference in interpretation, one means interpret as a force and one we interpret as
a molecular momentum.
● And for a positive τ yx , it is a force acting the positive x axis on a positive y plane that
is what is shown in the left side figure in the viscous stress view point. It is flux of
molecular x momentum transported in positive y direction in the second view point.
● And in terms of regions, exerted by fluid in region of greater y on fluid in region of
lesser y in the first view point. And Flows from region of lesser y to region of greater
y in the second view point.
1110
● In the fluid mechanics case proportional to velocity gradient and now, proportional to
negative of velocity gradient.
∂v ∂v
● So, τ yx,F M = μ ∂yx ; and τ yx,M omT =− μ ∂yx .
● This two viewpoints also can be explained from a molecular viewpoint.
Now, for the molecular momentum flux what we said was we have molecules at a higher
velocity, and then and when they go to a layer above them, they carry with them higher x
momentum and hence transport x momentum to the layer above them. Now, other way of
looking at it is, the molecules near bottom plate at a higher velocity when they reach at top
they have to be decelerated because that layer is it a lower velocity.
Molecules here are lower velocity and when they come here then it get accelerated. So, when
you have deceleration acceleration you should have an associated force. So, it is like on you
have a layer of fluid and molecules from lower to upper layer when they reach they need to
be decelerated, and molecules from the upper layer to the lower layer they should get
accelerated.
And of course, this is deceleration acceleration of their own forces, so it is like a layer and
two equal and opposite forces acting on this layer and which we call as the shear force, if we
divide the area you get the shear stress. And that is a viewpoint which have which helps us to
view this molecular motion as viscous stress the first viewpoint is the molecular momentum
flux.
So, one way we say that x momentum is transported from one layer to the other layer, other
way is as if layer because of acceleration deceleration associated forces you have two forces
of equal magnitude acting in opposite direction which is a shear force divided by area you get
shear stress. So, that is a two interpretation of the same phenomena. Both this can be related
through the Newton’s second law of motion at this level of the molecular level.
So, Newton’s law you have rate of change of momentum and then right hand side forces let
us say divide each by area. So, left hand side is something similar to the molecular
momentum flux, right hand side is force per area which is our viscous stress view point. More
formal derivation possible we are not discussing that.
1111
Now, one case we have plus, one case we have minus. How do you reconcile both of them?
That is the slide about. Reconcile fluid mechanics with momentum transport. Fluid
mechanics has positive sign momentum transport has negative sign, but can we reconcile
both of them? We can do that let us see how do we do that.
τ yx,F M = μ ∂v
∂y
x
What is the sign convention for stress which are being using so far? A positive value
represents force along positive axis and positive y plane that is what is shown here we come
across several times.
Now, what is the sign convention for strain rate? Because this is the one dimensional
Newton’s law of viscosity which relates stress to strain rate. Now, so let us see what is the
sign convention for strain rate which we have already discussed for normal strain elongation
it is positive. So, our fluids for normal strain rate, rate of elongation is positive, and for shear
strain rate shear strain is positive when the angle between the two line segments decreases.
So, here if the rate of decrease in angle from 90 degree is positive then it represents positive
strain rate. So, we adopted one sign convention for stress and then a another sign convention
for strain rate. Now,
∂y
x
1112
How do we introduce the negative sign here? That is a question we have to answer. How do
we do that? As we have discussed now, one sign convention for stress, another sign
convention for strain rate suppose if you change both the sign conventions, nothing will
happen here. So, We keep one sign convention same and change only one of the sign
conventions, so we change the sign convention for stress.
I will repeat again this relationship is based on two sign conventions, one for stress one for
strain rate. We introduce a negative sign there. So, we will change one of the sign
conventions namely for stress.
So, why are we doing that? So, that we get the same expression as we have obtained for
momentum transport. So, that the expression in fluid mechanics and expression momentum
transport both will look alike. So, what do we do in fluid mechanics? Change sign convention
of stress only.
τ yx,F M new =− μ ∂v
∂y
x
So, far we have been τ yx because we are discussing fluid mechanics in momentum transport
we introduce a FM and then momentum transport, but within FM we have an old sign
convention and a new sign convention that is why it is new. Nomenclature is very clear.
In this case, in the new sign convention what do you mean by a positive τ yx . What does it
mean? Positive value represents force acting along positive x axis on a negative y plane and
that is what is shown here in the bottom figure. What is that? This is a negative y plane and
the force is shown along a positive x axis. So, the bottom image represent the fluid mechanics
new sign convention, and top image represent the fluid mechanics old sign convention.
I will repeat again. We will keep a positive force, easy to discuss. So, positive force acts on
positive y phase here positive force acts on a negative y phase that is a difference because we
are change the sign convention. So, once again quickly summarize this slide. We are trying to
reconcile fluid mechanics and momentum transfer.
What do I mean by that? The expressions which we have discussed for τ yx for fluid
mechanics and momentum transport differ by a negative sign. We want to introduce that
negative sign in fluid mechanics and that is we have done that by changing the sign
1113
convention for stress. In the old sign convention positive force acts on a positive y plane the
new sign convention positive force acts on a negative y plane.
Just to understand this two different viewpoints, that is a very simple small numerical
example from this book Brodkey and Hershey, some of some concepts are explained really
nicely in this book. Of course, very old book, but physical explanations are good in this book.
Two parallel plates are 10 centimeter apart, the top plate is stationary. The fluid between the
plates is water which has a viscosity of 0.001 Pa.s. Calculate the force per unit area necessary
to maintain the bottom plate in motion at a velocity of 30 cm/s. Calculate the molecular
momentum flux at the bottom plate. It is a typical fluid mechanics problem because now we
are going to compare both the viewpoints and additional question is added. Calculate the
momentum molecular momentum flux at the bottom plate.
So, let us use the new sign convention
∂y
x
Let us write in terms of a differences, so
∂y
x
=− μ ∆v
∆y
x
=− 0.001 0−0.3
0.1−0
=+ 0.003 mN2
1114
Of course, it is a constant across the plates. It does not depend along the y axis. So, shear
force per unit area required to maintain motion of bottom plate is equal to 0.003 Newton per
metre squared, that is very simple as well.
Now, what is the shear force per unit area? Exerted by the fluid on the top plate once again
0.003 that is also along the positive axis. So, let us try to interpret this in the new sign
convention, that is the idea of this question as well. Positive sign, we have got a positive
value what does it indicate, according to the new sign convention. Please keep that in mind.
And the new sign convention is shown in the figure. Why is it new sign convention?
Negative phase, positive force; positive phase, negative force, that why it is new sign
convention.
Now, let us say this imagine the stress element and this positive force indicates that the force
exerted by the plate on the fluid is towards the positive x axis. Force exerted by the bottom
plate on the fluid is along the positive x direction that is understandable. Now, just imagine
the stress element, look at this force, how do you interpret that? Force exerted by the plate on
the fluid is towards the negative x axis. So, force exerted by the fluid on the plate is towards
the positive x axis; so very simple. All these are known to us what extra we are doing here is
interpret based on the new sign convention that is all you are doing.
So, let us read this force exerted by the fluid on the top plate is along the positive x direction.
Once again I want to emphasize, all these are forces acting on the fluid, right from beginning,
whenever you say viscous stresses or even in solids stress is all acting on the solid acting on
the fluid. So, all these are force acting on the fluid. So, bottom plate force on the fluid is
along positive x axis. Here force acting on the fluid is along the negative axis.
1115
Now, we will calculate the momentum flux.
τ yx,F M new =− μ ∂yx =− μ ∆v

∂v
∆y
x
=− 0.001 0−0.3
0.1−0
=+ 0.003 mN2
This is what we have done in the previous slide based on the new sign convention for fluid
mechanics. And now, for momentum transport
∂y
x
=− μ ∆v
∆y
x
=+ 0.003 mN2
The τ yx momentum transport has the same expression. Why is it same? Because the earlier
expression has been written based on new sign convention that is why both the expressions
are same. τ yx fluid mechanics new, and τ yx momentum transport have the same expression.
So, same steps will give us 0.003 Newton per metre square. Once again it is constant across
the plates. Numerically they are same, how are we going to interpret this; that is different.
How are we going to interpret? It is a positive value. What does it mean? Molecular
momentum flux at the bottom plate is equal to plus 0.003. What is the correct interpretation?
If you have a positive sign, indicates that molecular x momentum flux transport in the
positive y direction along direction of decreasing velocity, very complete description.
Molecular x momentum transport into the positive y direction. Why is it along positive y
direction? Because the flux is positive and along direction of decreasing velocity.
1116
So, now, in the first case we interpreted this as shear stress or shear force acting per unit area.
The second case we are interesting that has molecular x momentum flux transported in y
direction. In the first case, it was shear force acting in x direction on a y plane. In this case, it
is x momentum flux transported in the y direction. See that, the direction of momentum is x,
direction of transport is y. Like in the other case direction of force along the x axis, the plane
on which axis y. Here similarly the direction of momentum is x momentum, the direction
along which it flows as y axis. So, that they are analogous. We will see more about this later
as well.
So, let us summarize what we are discussed so far, τ can be interpreted as viscous stress, the
fluid mechanics viewpoint and molecular momentum flux, the momentum transport
viewpoint. Both the expressions for tau can be reconciled if the sign convention for stress is
suitably changed. That is what we have discussed so far.
We took our usual planar couette flow, took the other case where the bottom plate is moving,
gave a molecular interpretation to τ , but that resulted in a negative sign. So, we want to
reconcile that with the expression which we have discussed so far in fluid mechanics that
could be done by changing sign convention for stress.
1117
Lecture – 99
Linear Momentum Balance: Fluid Mechanics vs. Momentum Transport
Part 1
Let us write the Newton’s Law of Viscosity; first on the old fluid mechanics sign convention.
The viscous stress tensor is related to the strain rate tensor by the equation
τ = 2μ𝐷
And in terms of components these are the equations.
∂𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑦 ∂𝑣𝑧

τ𝑥𝑥 = 2μ ∂𝑥
; τ𝑦𝑦 = 2μ ∂𝑦
; τ𝑧𝑧 = 2μ ∂𝑧
τ𝑥𝑦 = μ ( ∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑦 ); (
τ𝑦𝑧 = μ
∂𝑣𝑧
∂𝑦
+
∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑧 ); (
τ𝑧𝑥 = μ
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑧
+
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑧 )
Left hand side we have the components of the viscous stress tensor, and right hand side or in
terms of the components of the strain rate tensor, which of course, we are discussed we are
familiar with this.
1118
Now, what we will do is we will rewrite the Newton’s law of viscosity following the new
convention. What is that? New fluid mechanic sign convention or momentum transfer
convention we have already reconcile both of them. And both of them have the same sign.
So, what is new? The same equation, but with the negative sign here. So, now,
τ =− 2μ𝐷
How do we interpret τ? If you are saying that new fluid mechanic sign convention it is
viscous stress tensor no change in that at all, only sign convention has changed. But if you
have same momentum transport convention then it is interpreted as molecular momentum
flux tensor.
So, τ has two interpretations, one is viscous stress other is molecular momentum flux. For
fluid mechanics is always viscous stress only the sign convention is different, but if you are
saying momentum transport it represents the molecular momentum flux. So, now, just rewrite
the same set of 6 equations including a negative sign that is all, no change at all other than
including a negative sign.

τ𝑥𝑥 =− 2μ ∂𝑥
; τ𝑦𝑦 =− 2μ ∂𝑦
; τ𝑧𝑧 =− 2μ ∂𝑧
τ𝑥𝑦 =− µ ( ∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑦 ); τ𝑦𝑧 =− µ( ∂𝑣𝑧
∂𝑦
+
∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑧 ); τ𝑧𝑥 =− µ( ∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑧
+
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑧 )
So, now the left and sides are the components of the viscous stress tensor, once again if it is
the new fluid mechanic sign convention. If you take a momentum transport convention you
interpret the left hand sides as components of the molecular momentum flux tensor that is the
new viewpoint.
So, we have all our discussions based on this one-dimensional Newton of law viscosity. We
are just extended that to the three-dimensional form of Newton’s law viscosity. So, only
conclusion from this side is whatever we have discuss for the simple form has been extended
to the more general 3 D form by including negative sign. One other important point in this
slide is that tau is now interpreted as the molecular momentum flux tensor.
1119
Now, how do we write the total stress tensor? So, when I write the total stress tensor we are
going to compare the old fluid mechanic sign convention and the new fluid mechanics sign
convention. So, let us look at it. Now, where is the difference? We have discuss already τ
only difference can come from the pressure term. Now, based on the old fluid mechanic sign
convention, since pressure is compressive it is negative.
𝑇 =− 𝑝𝐼 + τ =− 𝑝𝐼 + 2μ𝐷
Remember pressure is always compressive that does not depend on whether old sign
convention new sign convention it is all, it always acts into the control volume. So, the first
two figures are for the old sign convention.
So, in this case if you take a positive phase force is along the positive axis which means that
tensile is positive compression is negative. So, if you now write the components,

𝑇𝑥𝑥 =− 𝑝 + 2μ ∂𝑥
; 𝑇𝑦𝑦 =− 𝑝 + 2μ ∂𝑦
; 𝑇𝑧𝑧 =− 𝑝 + 2μ ∂𝑧
𝑇𝑥𝑦 = μ ( ∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑦 )
; 𝑇𝑦𝑧 = μ ( ∂𝑣𝑧
∂𝑦
+
∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑧 ); (
𝑇𝑧𝑥 = µ
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑧
+
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑧 )
This is same as what you have see in the previous slide just add −p to the normal stresses,
now that change. There is no change in the shear stresses because p is just a normal stress.
1120
Now, the new sign convention. Pressure is again compressive that cannot change please keep
that in mind, but now becomes positive. Why? The last two figures are shown based on the
new sign convention. Here on a positive phase forces along the negative direction. Now, look
at these two arrows, they are representing compressive forces and they have, they represent a
positive stress tensor component. So, the pressure which is compressive the new sign
convention becomes positive.
So, now let us write down the total stress tensor.
𝑇 = 𝑝𝐼 + τ = 𝑝𝐼 − 2μ𝐷
So, in terms of hierarchy first all the discussion of based on one dimension Newton’s law
viscosity. The previous slide we have explain that to the three-dimensional form. Now, you
are further extending and writing the total stress tensor, so, very simple.

𝑇𝑥𝑥 = 𝑝 − 2μ ∂𝑥
; 𝑇𝑦𝑦 = 𝑝 − 2μ ∂𝑦
; 𝑇𝑧𝑧 = 𝑝 − 2μ ∂𝑧
𝑇𝑥𝑦 =− µ ( ∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑥
+
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑦 ); 𝑇𝑦𝑧 =− µ( ∂𝑣𝑧
∂𝑦
+
∂𝑣𝑦
∂𝑧 ); 𝑇𝑧𝑥 = (
− µ
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑧
+
∂𝑣𝑥
∂𝑧 )
Whatever expression we had in the previous slide based on new sign convention add a plus p
to the normal stress components, because we are still fluid mechanics new sign convention,
tau represent only viscous stresses. So, so to summarize this slide pressure is compressive,
but it is negative in the old sign convention, positive in the new sign convention, that kind of
summarizes this slide.
1121
Now, what is the implication of our discussion on the liner momentum balance? Now, what
we are going to do now is derive the linear momentum balance in 3 different ways. First is
fluid mechanics old sign convention, then fluid mechanics new sign convention and then the
momentum transport convention. Now, this just a recall whatever we are done earlier for 3D
case, three-dimensional control volume here we are going to do for two-dimensional control
volume, so we will just only list the important steps. So, we will start with the integral form
of the linear momentum balance,
∫
𝐶𝑉
∂
∂𝑡
𝐶𝑆
( ) ( )
𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥
We took the integral form on liner momentum balance and applied to the applied that for us
small control volume, three-dimensional control volume.
What we have here is a two-dimensional control volume, for sake of simplicity. So, what we
have is the integral linear momentum balance for a fixed control volume, the transient term,
the convection term in the left hand side then right hand side we have body forces because of
the gravitational force and then the surface forces because of pressure and viscous stress. I am
stressing this you will understand why I stress this here. So, let repeat transient convection of
the left hand side, right hand side body and surface forces and body force because of gravity,
surface force because of pressure and viscous stress.
1122
Now, let us look at this control volume quickly all the required quantities are shown here in
one diagram. Earlier when we derived we had different control volumes. Now, let us look at
them. The lengths are ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑦 and then this blue arrow marks represent the convective
momentum in and then out. Remember all of them refer to x momentum, the second velocity
is 𝑣𝑥 and this is because of mass flow in x direction and this because of mass flows in y
direction. Entering at x leaving at x + ∆𝑥 , entering at y leaving at y + ∆𝑦; so, all the blue
colours represent the convective momentum.
Now, all the forces are shown. First, all the surface forces are shown. Let us look at pressure
which is easier. Pressure is always compressive. So, it is acting into the control volume, this
acting into the control volume at x and x + ∆𝑥. Now, the viscous stresses are shown and
because it is the old sign convention on a positive phase the force along positive axis and
similarly here on a positive phase forces along the positive axis.
So, this diagram is known to us. In terms of differences earlier we did for 3D, now it is this is
for 2D. Earlier we are shown the convective momentum flux separately, pressure separately,
the viscous stresses separately, now it is 2D all of them are put together. Now, if you simplify
the transient term whatever terms we are now going to list all per unit volume that is after
dividing by ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧, and so the first terms becomes
∂(ρ𝑣𝑥)
∂𝑡
What about second term? Remember, it is net rate at which momentum leaves the control
volume, so
((ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥)|𝑥+∆𝑥−(ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥)|𝑥) ((ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥)|𝑦+∆𝑦−(ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥)|𝑦)
∆𝑥
+ ∆𝑦
The body force per unit volume is
ρ𝑔𝑥
Coming to the net force due to pressure, it is it is along positive x axis this along negative x
axis so
(𝑝|𝑥−𝑝|𝑥+∆𝑥)
∆𝑥
1123
Now, coming to the stresses this is positive
(τ𝑥𝑥|𝑥+∆𝑥−τ𝑥𝑥|𝑥) (τ𝑦𝑥|𝑦+∆𝑦−τ𝑦𝑥|𝑦)
∆𝑥
+ ∆𝑦
Now, if you substitute all of them, take limit, etcetera.

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
This we have already discussed. Of course, written here for 3D. We have discussed for 2D,
but writing for 3D. The transient term and then the convection term, the gravity term, the
pressure term and the viscous stress term; so, this kind of recall only. We already discuss this
for three-dimensional case.
Now, what do we do? Same derivation, but using the new fluid mechanics sign convention.
So, let us write the integral linear momentum balance.
𝐶𝑉
∫
∂
∂𝑡
𝐶𝑆
( ) ( ) 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥
Left hand side we have the transient term the convection term, of course, no change because
conceptually we are same, only sign convention is different. So, right hand side still we have
gravity and the surface forces namely pressure and viscous stress. Once again I am stressing
1124
here, next slide this going to change. When you go to momentum transport the first equation
is going to change.
So, once again we want to say transient convection in the left hand side, gravity, pressure,
viscous stress on the right hand side. Now, look at the control volume. In terms of convective
momentum no change, in and out, no change. Respective pressure once again, there is no
change. Why there is no change in pressure? Because it is always compressive. Now, when
you come to the viscous stress, the new sign convention has been adopted. What does it
mean? Once again always the stresses are show in a positive sense.
So, on a positive phase as shown this force acting towards negative x axis, on negative phase
I have shown this force acting towards positive x axis. Similarly, for the shear stresses on a
positive phase force is along negative x axis, on a negative y phase force is along positive x
axis. So, new sign convention has been adopted to show the viscous stress,, no other different
at all compared to the previous representation.
So, now transient term is same.
∂(ρ𝑣𝑥)
∂𝑡
The convective momentum term is also same, remember it is out minus in. Once again I want
to stress this. So, it is out minus in, net rate at which convective momentum leaves the control
volume and so, we have taken what is leaving minus entering in both directions, same as
previous slide
∆𝑥
+ ∆𝑦
The gravity force is also same
ρ𝑔𝑥
Pressure term is also same as previous slide, it is compressive
∆𝑥
Now, when you come to the net viscous force terms because the sign convention has changed
1125
(τ𝑥𝑥|𝑥−τ𝑥𝑥|𝑥+∆𝑥) (τ𝑦𝑥|𝑦−τ𝑦𝑥|𝑦+∆𝑦)
∆𝑥
+ ∆𝑦
Now, take limit ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧→0. We will get

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
− ∂𝑥
− ∂𝑦
− ∂𝑧
So, the last three terms have changed compared to the previous slide because they used a new
sign convention. Earlier all the derivatives are were plus, now all the derivatives are negative,
because of the changed sign convention.
1126
Lecture - 100
Linear Momentum Balance : Fluid Mechanics vs. Momentum Transport Part 2
Now the big difference comes, the previous two slides only sign convention change; but now
when we are going derive linear momentum balance, based on momentum transport
convention, the interpretation itself changes that has to be reflected, that is what we are going
to see now. Let us write down the integral linear momentum balance with the difference now,
we will see what the differences.
∫
𝐶𝑉
∂
∂𝑡
ρ𝑣𝑥𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆
( ) ( )
= ∑ 𝐹𝑥
𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
What is the difference now, at this stage there is no difference; but there seems to be on
empty space here, that seems only difference. Left hand side transient term, the convention
term, and then right hand side we have the gravity term; in the surface process I include only
pressure here, I do not include the viscous stresses here, because we are interpreting τ as the
molecular momentum flux. So, that has to be brought to the left hand side, we also said that it
is something flowing, all the flow terms and momentum flux terms a flow terms are all on the
left hand side.
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So, this represents momentum, convective momentum; the term which I have going to write
will represent the molecular momentum. So, convective momentum flux and then the
molecular momentum flux that is, the big difference from the previous two cases. The
previous two cases where the τ as viscous stresses on the right hand side, because we
interpreted them as surface force. Now we are interesting them as molecular momentum flux,
something flowing in and flowing out. So, the viscous stress term which was in the right hand
side, it is not there; and it has come to the left inside, but with the different meaning namely
the molecular momentum flux.
Let us see what is the implication of this, all this statements were discussed.
● Instead of including τ as viscous stresses, surface was in the right hand side;
● Include tau as the molecular momentum flux on the left hand side.
So, molecular, see now the viewpoint changes as of something entering and leaving. So,
molecular momentum flux enters and leaves the control volume similar to convective
momentum flux. All these will represent in pictorial in the next slide.
● Molecular momentum flux enters and leaves the control volume similar to the
convective momentum flux,
The convective momentum flux are very familiar, we are got a feel for that as well. So, now,
we should imagine an additional flux which is because of molecular motion enters and
leaves. So, how do you visualise,
● Convective momentum flux is momentum entering and leaving by convection or bulk

flow which you have seen so far; remember our pipe example.
● Molecular momentum flux the new one, momentum entering and leaving by
molecular motion
That is the difference between the convective momentum flux and the molecular momentum
flux.
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Let us see how do we put all this in our control volume representation. Now the convective
momentum no change, the blue colour arrow no change at all, pressure no change, always
compressive.
Now, in the earlier case, we are shown as tau as stress old sign convention, new sign
convention as a some force acting. But now it is something which is flowing, which is
x-momentum flowing in and leaving. So, the red arrow marks are now shown as a flow enters
and leaves. The flow enters and leaves is molecular x-momentum entering and leaving in the
x direction and in the y direction. Now that is why these arrow marks are like the arrow mark
shown for convective momentum.
So, in addition to our usual convective momentum flux, we have additional molecular
momentum flux. And how did we; how did we interpret τ𝑦𝑥, remember τ𝑦𝑥 was molecular
x-momentum transported in the y direction; that is what here also we are seeing, x all this
balance is written for x momentum. Now τ𝑦𝑥 represents, molecular x momentum; what is the
direction of transport, transported in the y direction. Of course, entering at y leaving at y plus

delta y; and of course, how do you interpret τ𝑥𝑥, once again molecular x-momentum
transported in the x direction.
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The first subscript represents the direction of transport second subscript represents the
direction of the momentum. So, τ𝑦𝑥 represents molecular x-momentum transported in y
direction, τ𝑥𝑥 represents molecular x-momentum transported in x direction.
This is once again convective x momentum, because of mass flow in the y direction; which
means, it is transport in a y direction, ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥 represents convective x-momentum transport in
the y direction and this analogous to τ𝑦𝑥, which is molecular x-momentum transport in y
direction; or we should say x molecular momentum analogous to convective momentum both

are analogous to each other, of course, this is a entering leaving etcetera.
And of course, how do you interpret ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥, convective x-momentum because of mass flow in
the x direction are transport in the x direction. Once again ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥 and τ𝑥𝑥 have the analogous
interpretation; one is for convective momentum, other is for molecular momentum. This
should be kept very well in mind and this is the kind of control volume you will come across
in books which deal momentum transport. You will not come across this kind of
representation in a book which deals with fluid mechanics.
So, for example, if you look at Bird Stewart Lightfoot, the momentum τ will be shown as
entering and leaving; because it is x-momentum transport in in out. Look at the distinction,
these are shown as forces acting whatever sign convention old or new; but these are shown as
flows entering and leaving.
So, this should be kept in mind when comparing a book, a fluid mechanics book or a transfer
phenomenon book. Once you understand this what follows will be easier ok. So, let us write
down the integral linear momentum balance, as we have seen in the previous slide.
∫
𝐶𝑉
∂
∂𝑡
𝐶𝑆
( ) ( )
= ∑ 𝐹𝑥
𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥
So, transient term on the left hand side, we have two contributions on the left hand side; one
is the convective momentum, and other is the molecular momentum that is why kept telling
about molecular momentum always.
The second term in the left hand side represents of course, net rate at which momentum
leaves the control surface. But now we have to be more careful saying that includes two
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contributions; one is convective momentum and molecular momentum, this always represents
net rate at which property leaves, that property is now convective momentum and molecular
momentum, right hand side we do not have viscous stresses.
Now, let us write down the expressions, no change for the transient term;
∂(ρ𝑣𝑥)
∂𝑡
Also, convective momentum term no change,
∆𝑥
+ ∆𝑦
because this is same as we have see in the previous two cases, whatever is leaving minus
whatever is entering.
Body force term once again no change,
ρ𝑔𝑥
The pressure term once again no change
∆𝑥
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Now, where the change coming from, changes coming from the terms which involve τ. Just
to before deriving that, let us derive for the convective momentum term which I have already
done. So, considering phases along x direction, this slide is for the convective momentum;
next slide will be analogously return for molecular momentum. So, look at the sentence here,
rate of flow of convective x-momentum entering at x; that is
(
= ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥 |𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 )
Now rate of flow of convective x-momentum living at x + ∆x,
( )
= ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥 |𝑥+∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧
Then we found out the net rate at which convective x-momentum leaves, because of flow in x
direction and because of flow in y direction.
∆𝑥
+ ∆𝑦
What we will do now is, just analogously do for molecular momentum that is why this has
been shown now as a recall. So, that we can easily write down this I would say, this slide will
be written for molecular moment.
Now, let us do that, once again considering phases along x direction. Look at the sentence
now, rate of flow of molecular x-momentum entering at x is equal to
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= τ𝑥𝑥|𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧
Because this is x-momentum transport in the x direction, which means it is transported across
the x phase. So, area of that phases ∆𝑦∆𝑧; of course, we are not shown delta z, but is into the
slide. And what is leaving, rate of flow of molecular x-momentum leaving at x +∆x;
= τ𝑥𝑥|𝑥+∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧
Now, just like we did for the convective x momentum, always we express as net rate at which
momentum leaves.
∆𝑥
+ ∆𝑦
So, here also we write the net rate at which the molecular x-momentum leaves the control
surface. So, whatever flows out minus whatever flows in.
Now, if you take limit ∆𝑥→0; ∆𝑦→0 you will get as
∂τ𝑥𝑥 ∂τ𝑦𝑥
∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
So, what you have done in this slide is, whatever you done for convective x-momentum we
have just analogously done for molecular x momentum, there we had ρ, velocity and
velocity; here we have the τ.
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So, now let us put them all together and write the linear momentum balance based on
momentum transport convention.
∫
𝐶𝑉
∂
∂𝑡
𝐶𝑆
( ) ( )
= ∑ 𝐹𝑥
𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥
We have seen this, the integral linear momentum balance, the transient term, the convention
term, and the contribution from molecular motion, and gravity and pressure on the right hand
side.
∂(ρ𝑣𝑥)
∂𝑡
We have already seen this no change,
∆𝑥
+ ∆𝑦
and we have already seen this as well; net rate at which convective momentum leaves for x
direction and for y direction. Then the body force per unit volume,
ρ𝑔𝑥
The net surface force due to pressure
∆𝑥
∆𝑥
+ ∆𝑦
Now these terms are from our previous slide and they represent net rate at which molecular
momentum leaves the control volume of course, per unit volume. These terms tell the net rate
at which convective momentum leaves the control volume for the control surface per unit
volume.
Put them all together, take limit ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧→0; you get,
∂(ρ𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑥) ∂τ𝑥𝑥 ∂τ𝑦𝑥 ∂τ𝑧𝑥 ∂𝑝

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
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Earlier we have the viscous stress terms, no longer they are present but they have come to the
left hand side. How have they come, with the different viewpoint namely as molecular
momentum flux.
So, we have the transient term, the convective momentum term, the molecular momentum
term on the left hand side. When we discuss about momentum transport we should be clear,
when we say momentum; it can be convective momentum or could be molecular momentum.
When we discuss fluid mechanics, we are always discussing about only convective
momentum.
So, even if I say momentum x-momentum entering and leaving, it meant only convective
momentum but. When I say now momentum entering and leaving, you should be clear
whether it is convective momentum entering and leaving or molecular momentum entering
and leaving. So, we have extra terms on the left hand side representing the molecular
momentum contribution.
∂(ρ𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥) ∂(ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑥) ∂τ𝑥𝑥 ∂τ𝑦𝑥 ∂τ𝑧𝑥 ∂𝑝

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
So, the same equation which we have derived in the previous slide is written here; and the
transient, the convective momentum, and the molecular momentum terms; right hand side
gravity and pressure terms. Now what we will do, because we want to compare the linear
momentum balance, derived using the momentum transport convention with the linear
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momentum balance derived using fluid mechanics convention old and new, we will take these
terms to the right; because these terms which involve the τ, they are all in the right hand side.
So, now, so let us take them to the right; but remember the physical interpretation does not
change.

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
− ∂𝑥
− ∂𝑦
− ∂𝑧
If it is on the left hand side, it is it represents net rate at which molecule momentum leaves
the control volume. If it comes to the right, it represents net rate at which molecular
momentum enters the control volume that is all the difference.
So, just because it is here does not mean the physical interpretation is changed; it is the
negative sign with the molecular momentum plus interpretation only. But we can see that new
fluid mechanics sign convention also resultant in the same negative sign. So, like to mention
that, we have discussed this convective momentum flux tensor several classes earlier;
[
ρ𝑣𝑣 = ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥 ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑦 ρ𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑧 ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑥 ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑦 ρ𝑣𝑦𝑣𝑧 ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑥 ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑦 ρ𝑣𝑧𝑣𝑧 ]
And these were the components of the convective momentum flux tensor. Now we have
discussed another flux namely molecular momentum flux, and if you put all these
components together, we get the molecular momentum flux tensor.
[
τ == τ𝑥𝑥 τ𝑥𝑦 τ𝑥𝑧 τ𝑦𝑥 τ𝑦𝑦 τ𝑦𝑧 τ𝑧𝑥 τ𝑧𝑦 τ𝑧𝑧 ]
Earlier in fluid mechanics we wrote down all this components and interpreted that as viscous
stress tensor, components of viscous stress tensor. Now they are on the left hand side, they
represent molecular momentum flux, they represent some flow; this of course, comes when
you right for the all three directions. The left hand side we have the 9 components or 6
independent components of convective momentum plus tensor and the 9 components or 6
independent components of the molecular momentum flux tensor.
So, that is why we have three terms here and three more terms here, this just to represent
them in terms of a tensor representation. Also to tell you that, in this course we are come
across the one more tensor. We come across first τ as a viscous stress tensor as a stress tensor,
and then we came across this convective momentum flux tensor; then we came across strain
rate tensor, rotation rate tensor. Now same tensor, components are same τ𝑥𝑥 etcetera; but the
1136
name, the physical interpretation is different. We call it as molecular momentum flux tensor.
That was a idea to discuss these here.
Let us compare the linear momentum balance equations and derived in three different ways.
Fluid mechanics old sign convention,

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
Now fluid mechanics the new sign convention;

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
− ∂𝑥
− ∂𝑦
− ∂𝑧
Now momentum transport convention,

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
− ∂𝑥
− ∂𝑦
− ∂𝑧
Since we are comparing the molecular momentum terms have been brought to the right hand
side, so no change in gravity term, pressure term and now the last three terms represent the
molecular momentum contribution; these three terms in the left hand side represent
convective momentum contribution and, when we derive they were in the left hand side with
the positive sign, we are brought to the right hand side the negative sign.
1137
We can very clearly see that, both the fluid mechanics new sign convention and momentum
transfer convention as resulted in the same sign for the terms with τ. Because we already
reconcile both of them the new sign convention and the momentum transport convention. But
if you compare these the first two equations; the signs are different, but the interpretation is
same and which is the viscous stress. If you compare the last two equations; the signs are
same, but the interpretation is changed. In one case it is viscous stress, other case it is
molecular momentum flux.
What we will do now is, very clearly write down the physical significance of the linear
momentum balance equation based on the fluid mechanics convention and the momentum
transport convention.

∂𝑡
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
+ ∂𝑥
+ ∂𝑦
+ ∂𝑧
So, that is the linear momentum balance based on old sign convention. This is something
known to us, we are look at the significance;
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 + 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
This is something which I have seen already. Now let us look at the significance based on
momentum transport convention.
1138
Lecture - 101
Viscous Stress vs. Molecular Momentum Flux Part 3
Now, we have interpreted τ in terms of Molecular Momentum Flux; what are the advantages,
what are the limitations that is the discussion now.
First major advantage is that you can explain fluid flow from a molecular point of view; the
explanation is from molecular point of view that does not mean that we are going to the
molecular level of description, remember we said transfer phenomena can be at; transfer
phenomena can be discussed at three scales or three levels macroscopic, microscopic and
molecular. The first is statement does not mean that we are discussing at the molecular level,
only the molecular interpretation can be given, still we are in the continuous hypothesis only.
So, explain fluid flow from a molecular point of view.
Now, of course you can appreciate the second bullet after discussing energy transport and
then species mass transport; but still we can explain momentum transport analogous to
energy and species mass transport based on the molecule transport mechanism. We are
talking in terms of molecules moving transporting momentum, the same molecules can
transport energy, can transport species mass.
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So, we can explain; we can explain the momentum transport analogous to energy and species
mass transport based on the molecular transport mechanism. Or the transport of momentum,
energy and species mass all can be explained using a molecular mechanism. Because we are
able to explain the transport of momentum, energy and species analogously through the
molecular mechanism; it also helps us to understand the analogy between the molecular
transport of momentum energy and species mass. Because our explanation is common, or
explanation using molecular mechanism is same we can understand, it helps us to understand
the analogy between the molecular transport of momentum, energy and species mass.
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 ∝ − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
We have seen our momentum flux is proportional to negative velocity gradient; or in general
when we generalise, we can generalise it saying as flux propositional to negative of gradient.
What does it mean? For the present case, the momentum flux or molecular momentum flux is
propositional to the negative of velocity gradient; of course, in terms of equation becomes
∂𝑣𝑥
τ𝑦𝑥 =− μ ∂𝑦
Later on we will see that, the heat flux or a let us say molecular heat flux is also proportional
to a negative of temperature gradient and the equation is
∂𝑇
𝑞𝑦 =− 𝑘 ∂𝑦
This we call as the Fourier’s law of heat conduction. Still later on we will see that, then
molecular species mass fluxes is proportional to the negative of the mass concentration
gradient and the equation is
∂ρ𝐴
𝑗𝐴 =− 𝐷𝐴𝐵 ∂𝑦
𝑦
Here, k is thermal conductivity and DAB is a diffusivity. So, all the molecular fluxes are
proportional to the respective gradients and all of them have the negative sign as well.
Suppose if you add a positive sign here, which was based on our old fluid mechanics
convention, this analogy becomes a difficult.
Of course, we have also interpreted τ as viscous stress, we would not be able to look at this
analogy; because we came to momentum transport and changed our viewpoint of τ as
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molecular momentum flux, we are able to look at this analogy. If we interpret τ as viscous
stress, then this analogy is not possible, because we interpreted τ as molecular momentum
flux, this analogy between molecular momentum flux, molecular heat flux and molecular
species mass fluxes possible. All of them have similar looking equation; of course, we will
call it as a fix law of diffusion.
So, in terms of the transported quantity it is momentum, heat, species mass; of course, the
molecular momentum, heat, species mass flux and they are all proportional correspondingly
to the velocity, temperature, concentration gradient, concentration thereby used mass
concentration.
What is the other advantage? So far, we had τ on the right hand side expressing as viscous
stress; because we brought it to the left hand side and then interpreted as a molecular
momentum flux, this viewpoint enables us to sum the convective momentum flux and
molecular momentum flux and lookup on as a total momentum flux. So, we can now say that,
we have a total momentum flux that has a convective contribution and a molecular
contribution.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 + 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
So, that is why this equation is written as, total momentum flux is equal to convective
momentum flux plus the molecular momentum flux and this representation of total
momentum in terms of convective momentum and molecular momentum, also analogously
carries on to energy transport and species transport as well.
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So, this view point once again establishes the analogy. Now so far we have been interpreting
τ as a stress, which is force per area, certainly more easily visualizable then when I say
molecular momentum flux. When I say τ as stress and force per area, first we can measure
directly or indirectly. So, we can relativity, easily you can visualise stress compare to
molecular momentum flux. Certainly much more easily, both are in fact difficult to visualise;
on relative scale when you say stress and force per area, at least force we can measure in a
lab, so relatively easy to visualized compare to a term called molecular momentum flux.
Now once again this, you may not appreciate until we got energy balance and then you may
not also include this; but have an when in understand this later on may be advanced course.
This interpreting τ as a viscous stress is required when you go to energy balance. Why is
that? When you got the energy balance, we will include work done by body forces, work
done by surface forces; surface forces are pressure and then viscous stresses.
So, what we do there is or what we include there is, we say work done by or rate of work
done by pressure, rate of work done by viscous stresses; we do not say rate of work done by
molecular momentum flux, that interpretation is not useful there. So, there when you go to
energy balance and include this work done by viscous stresses; this mechanics view point is
certainly required there, we cannot avoid that view point.
So, though in terms of a fluid flow, we can either take a view point of stress or momentum
transport; when we got energy balance and want to include the work done by the viscous
1142
forces, the viscous stress viewpoint will be required, we cannot interpret as work done by
molecular momentum flux, that is one of the limitations. Now this again is a limitation which
at this interpreted level will not be able to appreciate and realise; but if you take a advance
fluid mechanics course or if you are doing research and fluid mechanics, this third bullet
plays as a very major role.
If you want to solve and analyse more advanced fluid mechanics problem; when I say more
advanced fluid mechanics problem, these are problems I would say at graduate level or
research level, at a post graduate level, research level. So, those problems are all solved only
based on the viscous stress view point; it is very difficult to solve those problems extending
the molecular momentum flux view point.
It helped us to explain from a fluid flow from a molecular view point; but to extend that and
solve, more involved problems is difficult and only the viscous stress point will help us to
solve such kind of problems ok. Most of the problem we talked about the flow field and then
the force, resulting force, the force causing it etcetera. So, we always talk in terms of the
viscous force only.
The other limitation is that the viscous stress interpretation is more universally followed; the
momentum, molecular momentum flux interpretation I would say is more popular among
chemical engineering, field chemical engineering discipline. But if you look at other
disciplines, other engineering disciplines be it mechanical, civil, aerospace, ocean
engineering the viscous stress interpretation is what is followed. So in that way, the viscous
stress interpretation is more universal. And so these are some of the limitations of interpreting
tau as molecular momentum flux.
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Now the question arises, what is the scope of this lecture for this course? Why did we
discussed dual view point, what is the need for this lecture at all.
First, the scope of the course determine this lecture, I would say it is a unique lecture for this
course. The scope of the course wanted us to look fluid flow from a mechanics view point,
because we had continuum mechanics. The course also had transfer phenomena, so we need
to look fluid flow from a momentum transport view point; which means that, we should look
from a molecular momentum flux view point. That is why in this particular course we have
this lecture, where we try to connect both this viewpoints.
So to put it down as note, continuum mechanics, where we viewed as viscous stressor a force
view point; and transfer phenomena, we viewed as a molecular momentum flux or a flow
view point, that is why this is required. Suppose if we have a course only on let us say
continuum mechanics or fluid mechanics, we would just stop with interpretation as viscous
stress only. Suppose we have a transfer phenomena course, we would just stop interpreting as
molecular momentum flux; but because we are including both in this course and we need to
connect and that is why we are discussing this. Also you would have had a course or you
would be taking a fluid mechanics course in let us say 3rd or 4th semester, where the τ will
be viewed as viscous stress or force.
Then you would take a transfer phenomena course, let us say in 6th semester, 7th semester,
the course name will be transfer phenomena, the book name also may be transfer phenomena;
1144
where you will view τ as molecular momentum flux and what we are done here is to connect.
And let us say when you go later on to energy transport, once again you will view tau as
viscous stress or a force.
What we have done today is to connect all this whatever you would come across in different
courses in a different parts of the course; mechanics view point in fluid mechanics course
yeah, momentum flux view point in momentum transport, once again viscous stress view
point in energy transport. So we are, this idea of this lecture is specifically keeping these in
mind so that you have a better idea of the two different viewpoints.
So let us summarize this unique lecture, τ can be interpreted as viscous stress that is a fluid
mechanics view point; molecular momentum flux that is a momentum transport view point. I
think that is a bottom line for the entire lecture. Both the expression for τ can be reconciled, if
the sign convention for stress is suitably changed, we have discussed that. What is a
consequence? There is sign change in a Newton’s law of viscosity; and what happens in
linear momentum balance? We considered τ as a molecular momentum flow or a flux on the
left hand side rather than surface forces in the right hand side.
What happens because of that? Sign change for the terms with τ, all other terms of course
remains same. So fluid mechanics, it was net viscous forces of the fluid on the right hand
side; and if you keep it still on the right hand side, it becomes net rate of flow of momentum
1145
entering by molecular transport. If it is in the left hand side is leaving, if it is in the right hand
side is negative sign and so it is entering.
So, net viscous forces on fluid on the right hand side that is a fluid mechanics view point to
net rate of flow of momentum entering by molecular transport once again on the right hand
side that is a momentum transport view point. What happens in a Navier Stokes? Sign
changes cancel and no change in equation. And we also discussed the advantages and
limitations of the molecular momentum flux interpretation.
1146
Lecture - 102
Integral Energy Balance – Part 1
We are in the second part of the course namely, Transport Phenomena and in that we are in
the second part namely energy transport. So, this is the block we are going to start now, and
that consist of integral energy balance, differential energy balance of course, the Fourier’s
laws well. And what is the scope of this lecture is the integral energy balance both the
derivation and the applications.
1147
What is the outline for conservation of energy, which we called as energy transport in the
previous slide? Of course, integral energy balance equation the derivation and then the
applications, then differential energy balance equation the derivation and the applications. So,
if you look at these four titles, it is almost analogous to what we discussed in for conservation
of mass, conservation of momentum. So, in terms of the topics covered their very much
analogous; there also we discussed about integral balance, differential balance applications
similarly here as well.
1148
So, now, we are going to discuss about the integral energy balance equation. So, let us look at
the outline. As usual we start with the law of physics and that is the first law of
thermodynamics. And derive the integral energy balance equation from the first law of
thermodynamics using the Reynolds transport theorem. In the integral energy balance
equation, we discuss the rate of work done in detail and then we simply the integral energy
balance equation just we did it for integral mass balance equation and of course, finally, look
at applications.
Now, what are the applications which we will be able to solve at the end of integral energy
balance equation; few applications are shown here (in the above slide image) which we will
discuss.
● First is finding out heat to be supplied, suppose we have a gas to be heated from some
temperature some other temperature what is heat to be supplied? Simple heater;
● Second is a compressor suppose you want to compress gas from some inlet condition
to outlet condition, some temperature pressure to some other temperature pressure,
what is the work to be supplied?
So, these two are steady state examples, which usually come across in process calculation
course. The idea is to connect what we are done in the earlier course with this course.
1149
● The third example is little more involved that is example under transient condition, we
have a high pressure line and a tank is connected to that and it is getting filled.
And it is a nice example where we see how to know the mass flow rate entering the tank
based on the measurement of the increase in temperature. So, it is a transient energy balance,
this probably would not have been done as part of a process calculation course.
So, these two set ups are well known to us, we have come across few times in this two
experimental setups. And what is shown are the control volumes over the two setups; in one
case we have a pipe and in the other case we have a tank through which there is inflow and
then outflow. And the difference is that the first time when we came across and did integral
balance we considered mass entering mass leaving both in the pipe and the tank.
Second time when we came across the setup, we focused on momentum entering momentum
leaving, now third time we are coming across the same setup doing balance over the entire
pipe or the tank, but now we will focus on the energy being carried by the stream. So, we
look at what is the let us say enthalpy carried by the stream, the kinetic energy carried by the
stream, potential energy carried by the stream. So, every time when we come back, we look
at different property being carried by the stream.
1150
So, let us start deriving the integral energy balance equation. As usual the first step is a law of
physics and that is the first law of thermodynamics. Now, let us write the first law of
thermodynamics, which is
∆E = Q + W
Let us look at the nomenclature; ∆E represents the change in total energy of the system and
Q represents heat added to the system and W represents work done on the system.
Now, what does it tell you whatever heat added to the system and work done on the system
goes towards changing the total energy of the system. Few points to be noted, first all terms
refer to the system and in terms of sign convention heat added is positive, work done on
system is positive. For heat added, the sign convention is universal, but for the case of work
done the sign convention is not so universal; work done on the system we are taking as a
positive. And what we will do now is, the express this first law of thermodynamics in terms
of rate with respect to time.
dE sys
dt
= Q̇net,in,sys + Ẇ net,in,sys
I will explain the subscript shortly. So, right hand side we have rate at which heat is added
and then rate at which work is done on the system. Left hand side rate at which the total
energy of the system changes.
1151
So, let us read it out formally, what this equation tells us. So, left hand side time rate of
change of the total energy of the system is equal to the sum of the net rate of energy addition
by heat transfer into the system, and the net rate of energy addition by work transfer into the
system.
So, left hand side it has rate of change of total energy of the system as usual we have been
very specific saying it is time rate of change. And right hand side we have two energy
addition terms; one is by heat transfer other is by work transfer. Of course, it is rate of energy
addition by heat transfer and rate of energy addition by work transfer. It has a term net both
for heat transfer and for work transfer. The reason is heat could be added or removed work
could be done on the system or by the system. So, net says it is net rate of heat addition and
similarly net rate of work done on the system this into the system and on the system are same.
And so, now, let us come to the subscript which I have used there net is of course,
representing as we have discussed now. This in represents heat added and work done on the
system, in is used to say heat transfer into the system and work transfer into the system
instead of out of the system. And of course, subscript system refers that we are writing for the
system.
So, very clear description of the terminology there in terms of subscripts. One is net tells
about both heat added and removed net heat added; taking into account the heat addition and
the heat removal. Similarly, this net represents the net rate of work done on system taking
into account work done on and by the system.
1152
And now we will introduce terminology, we introduce a notation small e which is
E
e= m
The E is the extensive property of energy and if you divide the extensive property by mass,
you get the intensive property of energy. So, when I say energy it represents some of all the
energies per unit mass namely internal kinetic and then potential energy. So, E represents the
extensive property energy; if you divide by mass you get the intensive property energy.
E v2
e= m
= û + 2
+ gz
So, of course, we have internal energy per unit mass kinetic energy per unit mass and then
potential energy per unit mass when you divide by m. Now, when we derived the Reynolds
transport theorem, we introduce the extensive property in terms of integral given by this
expression.
B sys = ∫ ρbdV ; d
B
dt sys
= d
dt ∫ ρbdV
sys sys
And we also wrote the rate of change of extensive property in terms of this integral. Just to
recall system quickly. So, that we can easily understand this example we have seen several
times as an example for system we have a cylinder a time t = 0; the gas inside a cylinder is
identified as system are sometime t later if you open the valve part of the gas escapes, but the
1153
system still consist of the gas remaining in the cylinder and whatever as escaped that is the
system.
Now in the present case B represents total energy which is E, this total represents extensive
property this energy represents sum of all the three energies. So, we can even say total-total
energy; first total for extensive property, second total for sum of all the three energies. And
extensive property here is E and if you write in terms of the intensive property it is
E = me
And we introduced b as the intensive property in this case it is energy which is total energy
per unit mass and in our nomenclature it is e.
b=e
So, now, what we will do is write down this expression for the present case wherever b is e; e
is total energy per unit mass.
E sys = (me)sys = ∑ ei ρi ∆V i = ∫ ρedV

i sys
To get the extensive property for the entire system, sum over all the volumes and then we
take the volumes smaller and smaller, we consider an infinite number of such smaller
volumes. And so, ∆V the volume of each region goes to 0. So, in this limit we can express
the summation as this integral what this means is, you are allowing for variation of density
and the energy within the system. And ρdV is a mass and e is the energy per unit mass. So,
when you integrate you get the total energy of the system.
So, now, let us write down the first law of thermodynamics in terms of rate, which we have
written in the previous slide. And then now let us express the E sys in the left hand side in
terms of this integral expression. So,
dE sys
dt
= Q̇net,in,sys + Ẇ net,in,sys
d
dt ∫
sys
ρedV = Q (
˙ net,in + Ẇ net,in )sys
1154
Why do we write in terms of this integral expression? Now you are able to express in terms
of the usually measured properties namely ρ , and e is the internal energy per unit mass,
kinetic energy per unit mass and then potential energy per unit mass.
So, expressing in terms of this integral to expressed in terms of usually measured or known
variables namely density, internal energy, velocity, elevation etcetera. How do you interpret
this equation? This is the first law of thermodynamics for a system made of fluid particles
that is the way we should visualize.
We usually apply first law of thermodynamics for let us say a gas inside a cylinder with a
piston which goes from one state and another state etcetera. The way in which we should
visualize this is, it is the first law of thermodynamics for a system and made of fluid particles
and the system is flowing, that is why we have expressed this first law of thermodynamics. In
terms of rate left hand side also it is rate of change of energy, right hand side rate of heat
transfer rate of work transfer.
Reason for expressing this is that this is first law of thermodynamics for a flowing system
made of fluid particles that is why we visualize this form of first law of thermodynamics.
d
dt ∫
sys
ρedV = Q (
˙ net,in + Ẇ net,in )
sys
1155
So, let us rewrite that equation. So, now, we will use the Reynolds transport theorem. And
this is the general form of Reynolds transport theorem for any intensive property b, which
relates rate of change of property by the system and to the rate of change of property for the
control volume and net rate at which property leaves through the control surface.
d
dt ∫ ρbdV = d
dt ∫ ρbdV + ∫ ρb v.n dA
sys CV CS
Now with the present case b is equal to e sum of all the three energies per unit mass.
v2
b = e = û + 2
+ gz
So, let us rewrite that equation replacing b with e.
d
dt ∫ ρedV = d
dt ∫ ρedV + ∫ ρe v.n dA
sys CV CS
So, now, how do you read this left hand side is rate of change of energy for a system; right
hand side rate of change of energy for the control volume and net rate at which energy leaves
the control volume through the control surface.
So, now what are we going to do? In the left hand side of the law of physics we are going to
use the Reynolds transport theorem. So, that it gets expressed in terms of control volume and
control surface. We are doing it the third time, first time for; first time for mass balance and
second time for momentum balance, now for energy balance.
d
dt ∫
CV
ρedV + ∫
CS
ρe v.n dA = Q (
sys
So, now, in this form the left hand side tells about rate of change of energy for the control
volume ok and the net rate at which energy leaves the control volume through the control
surface; right hand side still in terms of system. So, we will have to express this for the
control volume.
1156
How do we do that? Let us rewrite that equation again,
d
dt ∫
CV
ρedV + ∫
CS
ρe v.n dA = Q (
sys
Now, to express the right hand side in terms of control volume, we have discussed the
concept of coincident control volume and system what does it mean? At time t we consider
the system and control volume to be coincident that is shown in three different ways here as
earlier.
In the derivation of the Reynolds transport theorem for the simple geometry, we took the
control surface and system boundary at time t to be coincident with each other. Meaning that,
the control volume and system are coincident with each other. Second way of representing
the control volume is shown here we could consider system it is just entering this is partly
outside partly inside. We could consider a system whose boundary completely coincides with
the control volume or a system is partly leaving the control volume which is partly inside
partly outside.
What do we choose? We choose system which is coincident with the control volume. So, that
it gets well defined, its boundaries are well defined which is same as that of the control
volume and in terms of your animation. So, these are different possibilities for the system.
We consider the possibility where the system just coincides with control volume and that is
1157
the instant we consider. So, different possibilities for system are there we consider the case
where at time t the system and control volume coincide with each other, fine.
(Q˙ net,in + Ẇ net,in )

sys
= Q(
CV
So, now, what happens the right hand side which is for the system now becomes that for the
control volume. So, subscript now changes still remember it is net in both for the heat transfer
term and the work transfer term, but system now has been replaced with control volume. So,
let us now write down the complete internal energy balance equation, where all the terms
now correspond to the control volume.
d
dt ∫
CV
ρedV + ∫
CS
ρe v.n dA = Q (
˙ net,in + Ẇ net,in )CV
So, left hand side we have the rate of change of energy for the control volume, second term is
net rate at which energy leaves the control volume with the control surface. And now right
hand side net rate at which heat is added and then net rate at which work is done on the
contents of control volume.
So, like to mention we have done this system to control volume the third time. In the case of
mass balance, the right hand side was just 0; in the case of linear momentum balance it was
sum of all the forces acting on the system. Now, in this case it is the energy added term
namely by heat transfer and work transfer.
This system to control volume change is more clear in the case of momentum balance and
energy balance rare than the mass balance. Because we will be replacing 0 system with 0
control volume, we may not understand very clearly at that point of time. Now having done
two more times for linear momentum balance we replace this sum of forces acting on the
system by sum of forces acting on the control volume.
Now, similarly here net rate of energy addition by heat transfer and work transfer term for the
system has been replaced for the control volume. So, now it becomes clear how we go from
system to control volume; especially from linear momentum balance and the energy balance.
1158
So, let us write down the integral form of energy balance equation, which we have derived in
the last slide.
d
dt ∫
CV
ρedV + ∫
CS
ρe v.n dA = Q (
CV
Now, what are the significance of each term, ok? Left hand side, the first term tells about rate
of change of total energy within the control volume more specifically time rate of change of
total energy within the control volume.
And next term tells about net rate of flow of total energy out through control surface by
convention; remember total energy here means sum of all the three energies. And right hand
side what does it represent the first term represents net rate of energy addition by heat transfer
into the control volume. And of course, next term on the right hand side gives the net rate of
energy addition by work transfer into control volume.
So, left hand side we have the transient term, the first term is a transient term and then the
second term on the left hand side is the convection term and right hand side we have the heat
transfer term and the work transfer term. And, we should note that it is into the control
volume based on the convection which I have discussed earlier. And this term by convection
has a same meaning as we have discussed earlier for total mass balance and momentum
1159
balance. But now, the quantity of interest is the total energy or the property which are
focusing in this balance equation is total energy.
So, let us have an comparison between all the integral balance equations which are discussed
so far;
d
dt ∫ ρedV + ∫ ρe v.n dA = 0
CV CS
that is the integral mass balance. Let us write down all the equations and look at the
similarities between them and of course, what are the differences as well. So, that is integral
total mass balance equation and the significance.
Now, let us write the integral linear momentum balance of course, in the x direction say
vectorial equation. So, let us write down the equation in the x direction,
d
dt ∫
CV
ρedV + ∫
CS
ρe v.n dA = ( )
∑Fx
CV
And of course, right hand side is not 0 its sum of external forces acting on the control
volume. So, let us write down the integral energy balance equation which we have derived
now.
1160
d
dt ∫
CV
ρedV + ∫
CS
˙
ρe v.n dA = Q (
net,in + Ẇ net,in )
CV
How do we discuss all these equations? The better understand them we will have to keep in
mind the control volumes which we have seen earlier. So, all these equations can be applied
for control volumes drawn over entire equipments shown here for experimental setups or for
a physical geometry like this; writing total mass balance, momentum balance, energy balance
over the entire equipment where there is in flow and out flow.
Now, if you look at the first term on the left hand side; all of them tell about the time rate of
change of first equation for mass, second equation for momentum, the third equation for total
energy.
So, all of them tell about the rate of change of mass, momentum, and energy within the
control volume, well known to us as the rate of accumulation term. The second term on the
left hand side tells about the convection term, we have discussed about a convection term is
whatever is carried by bulk flow by a stream. Suppose if you have stream entering and then
leaving whatever property carried by this stream is the convection term.
And as we discussed now sometime back, the stream can be looked upon as carrying total
mass, momentum or energy. In fact, total mass, momentum and energy and that is what is
reflected by the second term on the left hand side. And of course, as per our sign convention
all of them are net rate of flow out through the control surface. What is the property? It is
total mass, linear momentum, and then total energy. The terminology has been maintained
same as the property changes from mass to momentum to total energy.
So left hand side is very much analogous a transient term and a convection term; one which
accounts for whatever is change happening within the control volume with respect to time
and one which accounts for whatever is taken in taken out.
Right hand side the terms are not same because the law of physics is different. For the total
mass balance it is zero for the linear momentum balance it is sum of external forces acting on
the contents of control volume. And for energy balance it is net rate of energy addition by
heat transfer and work transfer into the control volume.
The right hand side terms are of course, they are different, but left hand side terms are very
analogous. If we keep this in mind becomes very easy to understand all the integral balance
1161
equations and the relationship between them as well. And this view point that if you look at a
stream it carries total mass momentum energy, that view point helps us to write the especially
the second term on left hand side, because that is by convection.
And if you look at the tank and then say that mass could change, momentum could change or
energy could change with respect to time then that explains the first term on the left hand
side. Of course, right hand side depends on the property for which we writing the
conservation equation and that could be 0 could be forces or could be energy addition.
1162
Lecture - 103
Integral Energy Balance – Part 2
In the integral energy balance equation, right hand side, there are two terms both represents
energy addition term, net rate of energy addition, one is by heat transfer, one is by work
transfer. So, let us discuss the rate of energy addition by work transfer term that require some
discussion. So, let us discuss that; that is why the title says rate of work done.
𝑊˙𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑊˙𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡,𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊˙𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊˙𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠, 𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛
Now, how do we split their rate of work done? 𝑊˙ represents rate of work done, and of
course, net represents net rate of work done and then energy addition into the contents of
control volume.
Now, that rate of work done is split into three parts or three contributions. One is the shaft
work, other is the work done by pressure, and third contribution is the work done by viscous
stresses.
1163
So, rate of work done is equal to rate of shaft work, rate of work done by pressure plus rate of
work done by viscous stresses. Let see how do we express all of them.
Now, this shaft work is what we supply or take out. What is the example? The best example
is pump. If you take a pump water enters and then let us say water leaves and if you keep
adding power, or if you keep adding work to the water let us say in lifting or some pumping
over some distance which means that there is a shaft and or a pump impeller which has
energy. This work is what we call as the shaft work. It could be a hydro turbine where
because of water flow we extract work from water. So, either you supply work take out work
or could be a compressor where we once again supply power let us say to increase a pressure.
So, what is shaft work rate of work done by a shaft. In all this cases, we have a shaft
protruding through the control surface into the control volume. Though of course, the shaft is
not shown explicitly here. We can easily understand that we have a shaft which crosses
through the control surface. Why protruding through the control surface, remember whenever
we do energy balance even for streams we take only those streams which cross the control
surface.
Similarly, here also that work transfer term also should be across the control surface that is
why it says rate of work done by a shaft protruding through the control surface into the
control volume. So, this is mostly we usually find out this value or we give a known value.
So, we do not have an expression for this, usually this is the unknown quantity. For example,
to pump water for a over some distance what is the work to be done, what is the rate of work
done, what is the power to be supplied.
Now, coming to the next term which is rate of work done by pressure force. Also I like to
mention a very fine point when we say pressure we say here viscous stresses because
pressure is also force per area viscous is also force per area. When you say pressure force,
here you say viscous forces. So, now, 𝑊˙𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 represents rate of work done by pressure
force.
Let see how do we express this rate of work done by pressure force. Now, to understand that,
let us look at this figure. We have come across this figure earlier when we discussed pressure
force on the right hand side of integral linear momentum balance. The same figure here as
well with one small addition. Let us look at the figure a small control volume is shown, for
1164
convenience sphere is shown, but it could be any control volume surrounding control surface
also seen.
Now, we take a small area 𝑑𝐴 and n is the output drawn normal and p is the pressure acting
over that small area. So, that part is same as what we have seen earlier and what is shown
additionally is the velocity vector. So, there is flow through that small area, so velocity vector
is also shown. Of course, as earlier the normal vector is shown, the pressure is also shown.
Now, to write down the expression for the rate of work done by pressure force, let us proceed
with this expression which is known to us from physics.
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑟
What does this represent, the differential work done by a force in moving an object over a
length d r vector is given by the dot product of the F vector within 𝑑𝑟 vector. Left hand side is
the differential work done let us say a force moves a object by a small length in a particular
direction. So, if you take the dot product of F vector with 𝑑𝑟 vector, you get the differential
work done.
Now, we have been dealing with rate of course we need rate of work done. So, let us express
this equation in terms of rate with respect to time.
𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐹. 𝑑𝑡
So, left hand side we have the rate of work done; right hand side we have the force vector and
𝑑𝑟
then 𝑑𝑡
becomes the velocity vector.
𝑊˙ = 𝐹. 𝑣
𝑑𝑊˙ = 𝑑𝐹. 𝑣
So, how do we read this equation, rate of work done is given by the dot product of the force
vector and the velocity vector. Now, since we are focusing on a small area, first we will find
out what is the differential rate of work done by the pressure, so that is why we write this
equation in differential form.
So, let me quickly repeat this. We started with the force moving an object over a small length
which is given by 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑟, so that tells about that differential work done.
1165
We express that in terms of rate with respect to time. So, left hand side becomes rate of work
𝑑𝑟
done and in 𝑑𝑡
becomes velocity. So, rate of work done is equal to dot product of the force
vector and the velocity vector. We are interested in the differential rate of work done, now
because we are focusing on a small area. So, we will write it as differential rate of work done
is equal to differential force dotted with velocity. This expression is required to proceed
further.
Now, this is a very general expression, what we have discussed is a very general expression.
What is the differential force relevant to us. Now, the we are discussing the force due to
pressure, so that is given by pressure into area over which it acts. So,
𝑑𝐹 =− 𝑝𝑑𝐴 𝑛
Now, coming to the direction n is the outward drawn normal vector, and p is the pressure.
And we know that pressure is the compressive force which always acts into the control
volume, so which means that direction of p is opposite to that of n. So, this expression
including the direction becomes 𝑝𝑑𝐴 and the direction is −n vector. So, the differential force
is 𝑝𝑑𝐴 in terms of magnitude, along with direction it is − 𝑝𝑑𝐴 𝑛.
So, now let us use this expression for the differential force in this equation and what we get is
that differential rate of work done by pressure is
𝑑𝑊˙𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =− 𝑝𝑑𝐴 𝑛. 𝑣
𝑊˙𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒,𝑛𝑒𝑡 ,𝑖𝑛 = ∫ − 𝑝 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆
As I told you this is general expression, right now the relevant force is a force due to
pressure. So, when we express the differential force in terms of this expression, we get the
differential rate of work done by pressure. Now, what these represent, differential rate of
work done by pressure over this small area.
Now, for the entire control surface, we integrate over the entire control surface and that is
what is shown here. So, now 𝑊˙ represents net rate of work done by the pressure force over
the entire control surface. What is that we have done taken this expression and integrated
over the entire control surface, of course with the small rearrangement, so that is comes over
1166
well known form. So, this is the expression for the net rate of work done by pressure force.
And this is usually called as the flow work; flow work.
And to understand this flow work what it means, let us write down the expression which we
have derived in the previous slide.
𝑊˙𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒,𝑛𝑒𝑡 ,𝑖𝑛 = ∫ − 𝑝 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆
Now, what is shown here is flow in and flow out through a pipe. Let see what happens to this
rate of work done at the inlet surface. At the inlet we know that 𝑣. 𝑛 is negative and so this
rate of work done is positive. What does it mean in terms of our sign convention? At the inlet
work is done by pressure force on the contents of the control volume, because it is positive so
work is done on the contents of the control volume.
As I have told earlier also more precisely we should say contents of the control volume. Now,
which means that the pressure does some work in pushing the fluid into the control volume.
What happens to the outlet, 𝑣. 𝑛 is positive and the rate of work done by pressure is negative.
What does it mean? At the outlet work is done by the contents of control volume meaning the
fluid on the pressure force or I used on so that this sentence is opposite to this sentence.
To be more precise, you can use the word against pressure force. So, what happens is the
outlet work is done by the fluid against the pressure in leaving the control volume. So, at the
1167
inlet the work is done by the pressure in pushing the fluid into the control volume. At the exit
the fluid does some work to go out of the control volume against the pressure. This is what
we meant by flow work. We are here taken a pipe where there is one inflow one, outflow.
But, if you have a control volume with multiple inlets and outlets, wherever there is inflow
work is done by pressure, and wherever there is outflow work is done by the fluid and that is
why this takes care of all the regions of the control surface wherever there is inflow and
outflow. Of course, wherever there is a wall it would not contribute because velocity is 0.
Now, we have seen that the rate of work done is expressed in terms of the rate of shaft work,
rate of work done by pressure which I had discussed.
The third contribution is rate of work done by viscous stresses, let us see how to evaluate
that. Once again the same figure is shown here, as we have seen the previous slide with the
only difference is that instead of pressure I have shown a stress vector, stress vector acting on
the small surface.
So, let us see how do you express that once you have understood that this becomes easier, so
rate of work done by the viscous stresses or viscous forces.
𝑑𝑊˙ = 𝑑𝐹. 𝑣
1168
As we had discussed earlier and as I told you earlier, this expression is very general just
relates the differential rate of work done to the differential force on the velocity. Earlier we
applied that for taking the force due to pressure, now we are going to apply that taking the
force due to the stress vector or the viscous stresses.
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑡𝑛𝑑𝐴
What is that the differential force is nothing but the stress vector multiply by the area,
because we have a small area 𝑑𝐴 on that we have a stress vector acting. So, juts multiply the
stress vector with a differential area, you will get the differential force. Then just substitute
we can find out, what is the differential rate of work done by viscous stresses,
𝑑𝑊˙𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑡𝑛. 𝑣 𝑑𝐴; 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑛. τ
Now, we know that the stress vector can be expressed in terms of stress tensor as a dot
product between n vector and the stress tensor. Remember τ is the viscous stress tensor not
the total stress tensor why is it, we have taken the work done by pressure separately, so
obviously we have take only the viscous stress tensor part. Now, as we have done for rate of
work done by pressure, we will integrate over the entire control surface.
𝑊˙𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑛𝑒𝑡, 𝑖𝑛 = ∫ (𝑛. τ). 𝑣𝑑𝐴

𝐶𝑆
Now, looks like it’s too difficult becoming more difficult, because we are including stress
vector expressed in terms of stress tensor and then we have some two dot products, etcetera.
Now, however we are going to overcome this very simple, neglect it, very simple. Now, can
we neglect it, wherever we have a solid surface velocity is 0, so there is no contribution we
are safe.
Now, wherever inlet and outlet usually most of the time the velocity is normal to the area,
which means that when you take this 𝑛. τ etcetera, only the normal stresses contribute and the
normal stresses usually are negligible, they are in terms of the velocity gradients in the
direction of flow and so the normal stress are usually negligible. So, there again we can
neglect the contribution by the work done by viscous stresses. So, why are we neglecting on
the walls the velocity 0 does not contribute at all, wherever we have inlet outlet mostly the
flow is perpendicular to the phase.
1169
So, on the normal stresses play a role here and they are usually negligible and hence we are
neglecting. Within the scope of our course and throughout integral energy balance it is
neglected, it is negligible. However, expression for the rate of work done becomes rate of
shaft work plus rate of work done by pressure.
Now, if you observed all the figures shown including the figure which are discussed earlier
for linear momentum balance, there is one gravity force acting and purposely I have carried
over that gravity force in all the figures as well. But we are not discussed, rate of work done
by gravitational force why is it, that is what we are going to discuss now.
If you look at the linear momentum balance, right hand side we have both body force and
surface forces, we have both the forces on the right hand side. But now when we wrote the
rate of work done, we express that has the shaft work, work done by pressure, work done by
viscous stresses,
Which means that we have taken into account the work done by surface forces, this has been
taken into account. But what is that we are not done, we have not explicitly discussed about
rate of work done by body force why is it so.
1170
The reason for not discussing that is that we are already taken into account, the rate of work
done by gravitational force in the form of rate of potential energy on the left hand side. So,
we are not included in the right hand side the reason is that we have included that has a rate
of potential energy on the left hand side. So, effect of gravity can be included in two ways;
one is to include that as rate of potential energy on the left hand side along with the
convection term, the flow term that is one way that is the method we have followed.
What is the alternate way, do not include on the left hand side, include only internal energy
and then kinetic energy without any potential energy term, but include on the right hand side
as rate of work done by gravitational force. Two different approaches are there, you have
followed the first approach.
Of course, more advanced books let us say post graduate level books, follow the second
approach which is more formal, which is in lined with the linear momentum balance also. But
usual fluid mechanics books, especially the under graduate ones follow the approach which
we have followed.
So, let us write the integral energy balance.
1171
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ ρ𝑒𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ𝑒 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄˙𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊˙𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
( )𝐶𝑉
What you discuss so far, we have discussed this rate of work done term on the right hand
side. Now, we know how to express that so let us substitute for that of course,
2
^ 𝑣
𝑒 =𝑢+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧
And
𝑊˙𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑊˙𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡,𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 + ∫ − 𝑝 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑆
this expression we have seen in the previous to previous slide, expressing in terms of shaft
work and then work done by pressure. So, let us substitute both for e and for the rate of work
done term in the integral balance equation,
( ) ( )
2 2
^ ^
+ 𝑔𝑧 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄˙𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊˙𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡,𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 + ∫ − 𝑝 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑 𝑣 𝑣
𝑑𝑡
∫ρ 𝑢+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ 𝑢 + 2
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑆
The e is a only a notations, only representation, Only if expressed in terms of internal energy,
kinetic energy, potential energy, the equation is complete its in terms of usually measured
variables are known variables. So what is that there has been done, e here in the transient
term has been expressed in terms of the sum of the energies.
And similarly e in the convection term has also been expressed in terms of the sum of the
energy terms, and right hand side we have 𝑄˙𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 that is retained as such. The rate of work
done as been expressed in terms of rate of shaft work and rate of work done by the pressure
force. Now what do we do, we can do simplification, we have 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 on the right hand side
and left hand side, both terms are to do with convection to do with something with flow. So,
let us put them together on the left hand side. So,
( ) ( )
2 2
^ ^
+ 𝑔𝑧 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄˙𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊˙𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡,𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛
𝑑 𝑣 𝑝 𝑣
𝑑𝑡
∫ρ 𝑢+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ 𝑢 + ρ
+ 2
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
1172
Now, let us proceed further, let us rewrite the equation written in the last slide.
( ) ( )
2 2
^ ^
𝑑 𝑣 𝑝 𝑣
𝑑𝑡
∫ρ 𝑢+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ 𝑢 + ρ
+ 2
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
Now, what we are going to do is express sum of the two terms is enthalpy, let us see how do
we do that.
^ ^ ^ ^ 𝑝
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑢 + ρ
What is enthalpy? Like to mention that this u of course you have been mentioning several
time, there is internal energy per unit mass. Two nomenclatures are there usually, when you
generally say u it is molar internal energy that is internal energy per unit mole, when you say
^
𝑢 it is internal energy per unit mass.
^ ^
So, since all our terms are per unit mass we have used a notation 𝑢. Now, ℎ is the enthalpy
^ ^
per unit mass, 𝑢 is internal energy per unit mass of course p is pressure, 𝑣 is the specific
^
volume which is volume per unit mass. So, 𝑣 in terms of unit, it is volume per unit mass
1
which is nothing but ρ
.
So, let us write in terms of enthalpy. So,
1173
( ) ( )
2 2
^ ^
𝑑 𝑣 𝑣
𝑑𝑡
∫ρ 𝑢+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ ℎ + 2
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
Now, like to emphasize here that the time rate of change term the transient term what you
have is the internal energy only. The convection term the rate of flow term or the convection
term what to have is enthalpy, this should be kept in mind.
This distinction may not be emphasized in certain books, because most of the time we are
interested in doing steady state energy balance, so only enthalpy plays a role. But if you are
doing a transient energy balance, that to for a gaseous system this distinction becomes
important like to emphasize once again that in convection term we have enthalpy, in the
accumulation term or the transient term we have internal energy.
Why is it not important for liquid systems, 𝑐𝑝 and 𝑐𝑣 are almost same for liquids, so does not
matter whether you say change in internal energy or change in enthalpy; both are
approximately equal to 𝑐𝑝∆𝑇. But if you are considering a gaseous system, we know that if
you assume a ideal gas law, if you assume ideal gas behavior, then we know 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑉 = 𝑅, so
they are different.
So, if you are doing energy balance for gaseous systems, in the accumulation term we have
internal energy and in the float term or the convection term it is the enthalpy. Also when you
look at the enthalpy, what should come to your mind is internally energy plus flow work,
moment you look at enthalpy. So, let us say if you are looking at a stream flowing in and out,
what we say is first time when we came across we said the stream contains energy; the three
parts are internal energy, kinetic energy and then potential energy.
Now, slightly refine it and say that the stream carries enthalpy, internal energy and then
potential energy. When you say enthalpy, you are including the effect of internal energy and
the flow work. So, if this physical significance is clear, then we knowing clearly that the in
the convection term, we should include enthalpy. So, there is no such flow work term in the
rate of accumulation term that is way that is internal energy.
And of course, you have an example very nice application where we distinguishes internal
energy term, where we distinguish the internal energy term in the transient term and enthalpy
appearing in the convection term.
1174
Lecture - 104
Simplification of Integral Energy Balance
(Refer Slide Time 00:14)
Yeah, the Integral Energy Balance in its full form of course, looks scary with so many terms
in it, but we will see now how to simplify it.
( ) ( )
2 2
^ ^
𝑑 𝑣 𝑣
𝑑𝑡
∫ρ 𝑢+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ ℎ + 2
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
1175
So we are going to discuss about Simplification of the Integral Energy Balance equation, just
like we simplified the integral total mass balance equation. We did not simplify much the
integral linear momentum balance, we only looked at straightaway in the applications, but we
simplified the integral mass balance equation. So, this discussion will be roughly along those
lines.
So, let us write down the complete integral energy balance equation;
( ) ( )
2 2
^ ^
𝑑 𝑣 𝑣
𝑑𝑡
∫ρ 𝑢+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ρ ℎ + 2
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
Now, if we consider a control surface where there multiple inlets and outlets, this diagram we
have come across earlier also now how do we simplify. Now, we will make some
assumptions the total energy is uniform in the control volume, but which means within the
control volume and total energy is uniform across the inlets and outlets.
What does it mean? Within the control volume, the total energy is uniform and across inlets
then outlets the total energy is uniform which means there is no variation across the cross
section. Now, how do we usually split the control surface? Usually we split the control
surface let us say inlets, outlets and then the wall and wherever we have a wall the convection
term does not contribute because velocity is 0.
1176
Now, how do we simplify the term where there are inlets and outlets let us see that.
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
^ ^ ^
∫ ρ 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑚˙ ℎ +
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
∫ ρ ℎ+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 𝑣. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ℎ + 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 2
+ 𝑔𝑧
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡
We assumed that the total energy is uniform across the inlet and outlet which means that
( )
2
^ 𝑣
ℎ+ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 term does not vary across a cross sectional area. So, I can take out this term
outside the integral sign that is what I have done here and what is left out is the mass flow
rate.
So, I can write this as 𝑚˙ the mass flow rate into sum of all the energy terms and if we do this
for inlet, you will have a negative sign why is it? Because 𝑣. 𝑛 is positive for outlet and 𝑣. 𝑛 is
negative for inlet. So, now let us simplify use this and simplify the integral energy balance
equation.
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
^ ^ ^
𝑚˙ 𝑢 + 𝑚˙𝑖 ℎ + 𝑚˙𝑖 ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝑄˙𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊˙𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡,𝑛
𝑑 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 + ∑ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 − ∑ 2
𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑖=1 𝑖
Now, how do we simplify this convection term? The convection term is for inlets and outlets
and so we express that as sum over outlet and summed over inlet. And we have seen that we
can simplify that term as 𝑚˙ and the sum of the energies that is what has been used here for
every outlet i and same term here of course, the negative sign here, right hand side remains
the same.
So, what is the simplification? The total energy is uniform in the control volume and across
inlets and outlets. So, the transient term gets simplified and the convection term is over
outlets and inlets which is expressed as the mass flow rate into the sum of the energies; we
also taken into this sign ourselves.
1177
So, now let us proceed further; let us see how do we simplify this further. So, the same
equation is written here.
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
^ ^ ^
𝑚˙ 𝑢 + 𝑚˙𝑖 ℎ + 𝑚˙𝑖 ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝑄˙𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊˙𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡,𝑛
𝑑 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 + ∑ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 − ∑ 2
𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑖=1 𝑖
So, now this looks certainly simpler we do not have the integral signs ok. The integral sign
was take into account either variation within the volume or over the inlet and outlet because
we assume it is uniform integral signs are gone and we also expressed in terms of mass flow
rate.
Now, if we are operating under steady state condition; the left hand side, the transient term
goes to 0
( )
2
^
𝑚˙ 𝑢 +
𝑑 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 = 0
And then in a steady state operation usually the unknowns are rate of heat to be supplied or
the rate of shaft work. So, let us simplify that equation
( ) ( )
2 2
^ ^
𝑄˙𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊˙𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡,𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚˙𝑖 ℎ + 𝑚˙𝑖 ℎ +
𝑣 𝑣
∑ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧 − ∑ 2
+ 𝑔𝑧
𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑖=1 𝑖
1178
So, rate of heat addition, and rate of shaft work on the left hand side; why is that? Usually the
unknowns are on the left hand side.
Now, we will make few more assumptions and simplify further; if changes in kinetic and
potential energies are negligible why is it so? What is that we are going to assume now?
Changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible compared to change in enthalpy;
what does it mean? If you have a control volume let us say only one inlet one outlet, what is
the change in enthalpy between inlet and outlet? How does that compare with change in
kinetic energy change in potential energy.
To understand that comparison and justify this assumption that usually kinetic potential
energy changes are negligible; to justify that we have a small example here. Let us say we
have air flowing and then its temperature increases by just 1 degree centigrade, just 1 degree
centigrade air is flowing.
And so the change in enthalpy will be
^
(
∆ℎ = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 1000 ) 𝐽
𝑘𝑔
Here, 𝑐𝑝 is 1000 Joule per kg Kelvin; and ∆𝑇 = 1 so the enthalpy change in terms of per unit
mass is 1000 Joule per kg. Now, let us see what is the velocity change that should happen, so
that the kinetic energy change is 1000 Joule per kg. So, equate the kinetic energy change to
1000.
2 2
𝑣2 𝑣1
2
− 2
= 1000
Now of course, the change in velocity require for the kinetic energy changed to be 1000
depends on 𝑣1. So, let us take different cases of let us say inlet velocity 𝑣1 and what is shown
here is as a table; the inlet velocity and corresponding change in velocity that should happen
so that the change in kinetic energy is 1000 Joule per kg.
𝑣1
1 10 100
∆𝑣
44 36 10
1179
So, now if the let say inlet velocity is 1 m/s, the change in velocity should be 44 m/s; then the
change in kinetic energy is 1000 Joule per kg. If then it is 10 change should be 36, inlet is
100, then change should be 10.
Now, for usual equipments let us say heat exchanger, distillation column or reactors etcetera,
let us say the inlet velocity is order of 1 m/s, then the change should be 44 meter per second
which hardly happens that is why change in kinetic energies are negligible. But let say
suppose we have a steam turbine we have a compressor, then the velocity or somewhere in
the range let us say order of 100 meter per second, then the velocity can change by let say
order of 10 m/s. So, in those cases you will have to consider the change in kinetic energy
term for compressors, steam turbines etcetera.
Coming to the potential energy; what is the elevation required for the potential energy change
to be 1000 Joule per kg. So, let us equate potential energy to 1000 and so
( )
𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 = 1000; ∆𝑧 = 100 𝑚
Once again that is a too large a height for usual pros equipments. Remember that is for just 1
degree centigrade change usually temperature change are larger than that. So, once again the
potential energy changes also negligible that is why we are going to simplify for a more
practical case I would say where changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible.
So, let us take the case where there is no shaft work; why? For usual equipments where let us
say heat exchange, the distillation column there are no shaft work. Shaft work plays a role
when you have a pump compressor or you have a stirrer etcetera, then there is shaft work.
So, it gets simplified to

^ ^
𝑄˙𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 = ∑ 𝑚˙𝑖ℎ𝑖 − ∑ 𝑚˙𝑖ℎ𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
Of course, now becomes very simple; this is the energy balance mostly used in process
calculation course. Usually you would have considered steady state process and let us say if it
is without shaft work and you would have used the energy balance to find out the heat to be
supplied. And this is a form of energy balance which would have used in this simplest case
we can probably call this as enthalpy balance; only under this condition and we should note
that it is a most one of the most simplest forms of the total energy balance.
1180
Lecture - 105
Integral Energy Balance : Examples
Now, what we will do is discuss a few applications of the Integral Energy Balance equation
what we have derived. First example is finding out a heating load of a heater, second is the
calculation of power required for compression. These two examples are exactly same as you
would have done in a process calculation course, idea is to show that what I discussed is more
general form compared to what I have used or in fact, what you are solved as a integral
energy balance equation just to make that connection so, that you know that conceptually
they are same. Third example of course, a transient energy balance filling of a tank will be
considered. So, first two examples are exactly what you do in a process calculation course.
Let us read the example, assuming ideal gas behavior, calculate the heat that must be
transferred, when a stream of a nitrogen a flowing at a rate of 200 mol per minute is heated
from 20 degree centigrade to 100 degree centigrade. This example is from the book
Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes by Felder and Rousseau an excellent book for
process calculation. We are given the specific heat capacity
1181
kJ
cp
( 0
mol C ) −5 −8 2
=0.029+0.22 x 10 T +0.57 x 10 T
Solution:
So, of course, it is steady state. So, let us write the steady state integral energy balance
equation
Q̇ net ,∈¿+ Ẇ No . of outlets 2 No . of inlets 2 ¿

v v
shaft ,net ,∈¿= ∑
i= 1
( 2 )
ṁ i h^ + +gz −
i
∑
i =1
( )
ṁ i h^ + +gz ¿
2 i
Assumptions are, there is no shaft work it is just getting heated, there is only one inlet, one
outlet and as we have discussed the temperature changes about 80 degree centigrade and we
can easily neglect changes in kinetic and potential energy. So, the integral balance gets
simplified to
Q̇ No .of outlets No .of inlets

net ,∈¿= ∑ ṁi h^ i− ∑ ṁi h^ i ¿
i= 1 i=1
We have only one outlet and only one inlet. So,
Q̇ net ,∈¿=ṁ h^ out−ṁ ¿ h^ ¿ ¿

out
Now, in terms of the question the flow rate is given in terms of mole per minute and of
course, c p is also in terms of kilo joule per mole degree centigrade. So, let us rewrite this
equation in terms of molar units.
Q̇ net ,∈¿=ṁ out h^ out− ṁ¿ h^ ¿= ṁ ( h^ out −h^ ¿ )= ṅ (h out −h¿ ) ¿
So, ṅ now represents the molar flow rate and h out −h¿ now represents change in enthalpy in
terms of let us say Joule per mole.
1182
So, in molar units
Q̇ net ,∈¿=ṅ ( h
out −h ¿) ¿
Now we will have to evaluate the change in enthalpy, we will assume as a question says ideal
gas behavior in which case the enthalpy change depends on temperature change only. So,
dh=c p dT
Now, let us integrate
T out 100
−5 −8 2
h out −h¿= ∫ c p dT = ∫ ( 0.029+0.22 x 10 T +0.57 x 10 T ) dT
T¿ 20
Now simple integration will give us
kJ
h out −h¿=2.332
mol
So, let us substitute in this equation
Q̇ kJ
net ,∈¿= ṅ ( hout −h ¿)=200 x 2.332=466 =7.77 kW ¿
min
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That is the heat to be supplied ok, at typical process calculation example to emphasize that
that equation is nothing, but a integral energy balance equation. We have we had derived a
very very general form, but when we simplify we get the equation which I used.
Let us look at another example this example is from Fox and McDonald and let us read the
example, air at 101 kilo Pascal and 288 Kelvin enters a compressor at 75 meters per second
and leaves at an absolute pressure and temperature of 200 kilo Pascal and 345 Kelvin
respectively and speed of 125 meters per second. Look at the velocities now, as I told you for
compressors and the velocities are much higher. So, inlet velocity is 75, exit is 125 and of
course, there is a pressure change and temperature change as well.
The flow rate is 1 kg per second and because of compression there is lot of heat release will
have to remove that. So, the cooling waters circulating around the compressor casing
removes 28 kilo Joule per kg of air. Determine the power required by the compressor.
Solution:
So, this also a typical example which comes in a process calculation course once again of
course, steady state operation. Let us write down the steady state integral energy balance
equation
Q̇ net ,∈¿+ Ẇ No . of outlets 2 No . of inlets 2 ¿

v v
shaft ,net ,∈¿= ∑
i= 1
( 2 )
ṁ i h^ + +gz −
i
∑
i =1
( )
ṁ i h^ + +gz ¿
2 i
1184
Now, let us simplify, the assumptions are, one inlet and one outlet like in the last case and we
neglect changes in potential energy not in kinetic energy, we cannot in neglect, the velocities
are high, differences also high, we have seen that for 100 meters per second order of inlet
velocity even at 10 meters per second change in velocity can cause significant change in
kinetic energy if not very very high, it can cause.
Q̇ net ,∈¿+ Ẇ 2 2 ¿
vout v
(
shaft ,net ,∈¿=ṁ out hôut +
2 ) (
−ṁ ¿ h^ ¿ + ¿ ¿
2 )
Because it is only one inlet one outlet ṁ is same. So, let us take out that and write as
Q̇ net ,∈¿+ Ẇ 2 2
¿
[
shaft ,net ,∈¿=ṁ ( h ( 2 2 )]
^ out− ^h¿ ) + vout − v ¿ ¿
Now, we will have to evaluate the different terms and we will write that equation for the rate
of shaft work that is what is to be found out.
Ẇ
v2
[ 2
v2
2 (
shaft ,net ,∈¿= ṁ ( h^ out− h^ ¿) + out − ¿ − Q̇net ,∈¿ ¿ ¿)]
Now, we will assume air to behave as ideal gas and in this case we are let us assume the
specific heat capacity is a constant value and we have used
J
c^ p =1000
kg . K
1185
kg air
ṁ=1
s
T out =345 K ; T ¿ =288 K
So, the difference in enthalpy is
kJ
h^ out − h^ ¿=^c p ( T out −T ¿ ) =57
kg
So, it is specific enthalpy change. We have given the outlet velocity as 125 meters per second
inlet velocity as 75 meters per second. So, we can also find out what is the kinetic energy
change per unit mass,
m m
v out =125 ; v ¿=75
s s
v 2out v 2¿ kJ
− =5
2 2 kg air
As we have discussed it is not negligible it is not very significant also for this conditions it is
roughly about one tenth of the enthalpy change.
The Q̇ net ,∈¿ ¿ is the rate at which heat is added, remember it is heat removal here. So,
Q̇ kJ kg air J
net ,∈¿=−28 x1 =−28000 =−28 kW ¿
kg air s s
We had to pay attention to the minus sign the way in which we had defined is Q̇ net ,∈¿ ¿ is net
rate at which energy is added by heat transfer into the control volume. So, in this case
because heat is being removed it is minus 28 kilo Watts.
So, let us substitute all of them in the equation. So,
Ẇ v2
[ ( v2
)]
shaft ,net ,∈¿= ṁ ( h^ out− h^ ¿) + out − ¿ − Q̇net ,∈¿ ¿ ¿
2 2
Ẇ shaft ,net ,∈¿=1 x 57+1 x 5+28=90 kW ¿
So, the rate of shaft work is 90 kilo Watts and of course, that is the rate of work to be
supplied to the fluid and that is the power required by the compressor. So, once again this
1186
example the kinetic energy changes or not very significant they are not very high, but they
are also not negligible.
The last example based on the transient energy balance, let us read the example, a tank of 0.1
meter cubed volume is connected to a high pressure airline; both line and tank are initially at
a uniform temperature of 20 degree centigrade. The initial tank gauge pressure is 100 kilo
Pascal. The absolute line pressure is 20 mega Pascal, the line is large enough so that it is
temperature and pressure may be assumed constant. This line is very large and we are
connecting a say a small tank and so, we neglect the changes in the temperature and pressure
in the line.
The tank temperature is monitored by a fast response thermocouple, thermocouple is used for
measuring temperature and should respond fast and the instant after the valve is open. So,
you want to fill this tank you are opening the valve and so the temperature starts to rise inside
the tank and that temperature rise is given as 0.1 degree centigrade per second. So, at the
instant after the valve is opened the tank temperature rises at the rate of 0.1 degree centigrade
per second that is why we need a fast response thermocouple. Determine the instantaneous
flow rate of air into the tank is heat transfer is neglected we neglect heat transfer.
So, nice question it is difficult to measure the mass flow rate, but easy to measure the
temperature rise just put a thermocouple inside and then you can note down the rate of
change of temperature, from that using a conservation equation namely integral energy
1187
balance equation we are able to find out what is the rate at which mass enters the control
volume namely the tank here. It says instantaneous and it says initial etcetera because the
value keeps changing the temperature keeps changing pressure keeps changing in the tank.
Of course, the for the high pressure line we have assumed to be constant because very large,
but these values keep changing the temperature, pressure, the mass flow rate keeps changing
the tank as it is getting filled up. That is why at that moment the valve is open let us say at
sometime T equal to 0 we can calculate what is the instantaneous mass flow rate and these
values corresponds to that initial condition and this example a very nice example from Fox
and McDonald.
So let us start with the integral energy balance equation, specifically this time with the time
rate of change term that is main attention or main focus of this example.
2 2
d v ^ v +gz v .n dA= Q̇
∫
dt CV ( 2 )
ρ u^ + + gz dV +∫ ρ h+
CS
(
2 )net , ∈¿+ Ẇ shaft ,net ,∈¿ ¿ ¿
So, now, all the terms are there in the integral energy balance equation. Now, let us write
down the assumptions we will neglect changes in kinetic energy, potential energy, there is no
heat transfer as per the question there is no shaft also.
1188
So, in the control volume, there is no shaft work, there is no heat transfer as per the question
and with neglect a changes in kinetic and potential energy. So, let us see how the equation
gets simplified,
d
∫ ρ ( u^ ) dV +∫ ρ ( h^ ) v . n dA=0
dt CV CS
When we say neglecting changes in kinetic energy and potential energy, two implications are
there one is change with respect to time. So, that is why we are neglecting in the transient
term also and then changes between inflow and outflow of course, here there is no outflow,
but changes between inflow and out flow there again the kinetic energy changes, potential
energy changes are negligible.
So, both in the transient term and the convection term we do not consider the kinetic energy
and potential energy terms of course, right hand side there is no heat transfer term, no shaft
work etcetera. So, as I told you the idea of this question is to mainly focus on the transient
term. So, left hand side we have the transient term the internal energy is what plays a role,
remember in the convection term as we have discussed and emphasized also what plays a role
is the enthalpy and the convection term has got simplified.
So in this simplified form you can say that the first term tells about rate of change of internal
energy in the control volume and second term tells you net rate at which enthalpy leaves the
control volume through the control surface in this simplified form and want to emphasize
once again internal energy in transient term enthalpy in the convection term. Let us make
some assumptions to simplify further we will assume uniform properties in the tank when I
say in the tank inside the tank and also at the inlet you will also assume ideal gas behavior.
Now, if you take the first term the transient term
d d d
∫
dt CV
ρ ( u^ ) dV = ρ u^ V = u^ m
dt dt
Because the properties are uniform you can take ρ u^ outside the integral sign So, the first term
in left hand side has got simplified to the above expression.
1189
Now, let us take the convection term let us let us see how do we simplify that, the convection
term we have
p M air
∫ ρ ( h^ ) v .n dA=−ρ h^ vA =−ṁ (u^ + pρ )=−ṁ ( u^ +
RT
M air); ρ=
RT
CS
Once again as we have assumed we will assume the properties to be uniform across the area.
So, I can take out all the terms outside the integral sign and because it is inflow we know that
v .n=−v where v is the magnitude.
Now, ρvA is the mass flow rate so, which is denoted as ṁ we have a negative sign and
enthalpy because we have internal energy on the left hand side. We will express enthalpy in
terms of internal energy as I told you is an example where it discussing about the medium is
gas. So, we will have to distinguish between enthalpy internal energy changes.
So, let us substitute the two simplified terms in the integral energy balance equation before
there is also simplified.
d
∫ ρ ( u^ ) dV +∫ ρ ( h^ ) v . n dA=0
dt CV CS
So, let us substitute in this equation the transient term is
1190
d RT
dt (
u^ m− ṁ u^ +
M air )
=0
J kg
Remember R is 8314 , because density is in 3 .
kg mol K m
That is the equation you have seen in the last slide
d RT
dt (
u^ m= ṁ u^ +
M air )
Let us apply product rule to the left hand side
d d RT
u^
dt
m+m u^ =ṁ u^ +
dt (
M air )
d
Now, we will have to find an expression for m. So, what we will do is, to use the integral
dt
total mass balance equation with it time rate of change term that is why the title of the slide
says integral mass balance with time rate of change term.
Let us write the integral total mass balance equation.
d
∫ ρdV +∫ ρ v . n dA=0
dt CV CS
1191
So, that is way it is a good example where we use both the integral mass balance equation
and the energy balance equation, that is the integral mass balance equation. We will assume
uniform properties in the tank and at the tank inlet, which means that
d
ρ V −ρ vA=0
dt
d
m= ṁ
dt
So, how do we interpret, very simple rate of change of mass in the tank is equal to rate at
which mass enters the tank very simple interpretation of course, very well known to us, but
you have done more formally here. So, let us substitute this relationship in the equation. So,
d RT
u^ ṁ+m
dt (
u^ =ṁ u^ +
M air )
So, now left hand side we have u^ ṁ, right hand side we have once again u^ ṁ they cancel each
other. So, above equation gets simplified to
d u^ RT
m = ṁ
dt M air
Remember even intuitively the final equation cannot have an internal energy term standing
alone or enthalpy terms standing alone why is that they are all absolute values of internal
energy enthalpy do not have a meaning, always only change of internal energy as a meaning
change of enthalpy has a meaning.
So, look at this equation we had u^ certainly they cannot they cannot appear in the final
equation, they will appear only in terms of rate of change of internal energy or some change
of enthalpy etcetera. Suppose, if your equation final equation somewhere or somewhere
enthalpy has such if at all should be relative to some reference. Also once again like to
mention is rate of change of internal energy not enthalpy because it is in the accumulation
term.
1192
So, now we are almost few more steps to find out the flow rate of air into the tank that is
equation which we have written in the last slide.
d u^ RT
m = ṁ
dt M air
Now how do we express d u^ , we assume air to behave as an ideal gas
d u=
^ c^ v dT
This is what I have being trying to emphasize the change in internal energy is related to
change in temperature through specific heat capacity at constant volume. If we for example,
wrongly assume that in the transient term also you have enthalpy then we would have
wrongly used c^ p here, suppose if it were liquid then does not matter because c^ p and c^ v are
same for liquids or almost same for liquids. So, let us substitute. So, left hand side becomes
dT RT
m c^ v = ṁ
dt M air
So, ṁ is the unknown. So, let us keep that on the left hand side and bring all other variables to
the right hand side,
1193
dT dT
m c^ v M air ρV c^ v M
dt dt air
ṁ= =
RT RT
Now, let us list down all the data given in the problem,
3 p tank M air ( 100+101 ) x 103 x 29 kg

V =0.1m ; ρtank = = =2.39 3
RT 8314 x 293 m
0
J dT C K
c^ v =717 ; =0.1 =0.1 ;T =293 K ;
kg K dt s s
So, if we substitute all these values we will get
g
ṁ=0.204
s
So, very good example we have used both the integral mass balance and the energy balance
including the transient term. Practically how do you measure the flow rate entering the tank
very difficult, now indirectly we are measuring the flow rate I would indirectly measuring the
flow rate. I would say you are measuring rate of change of temperature that is easy to
measure using a conservation equation assumptions of course, new are I would say estimating
the rate at which estimating the rate of mass inflow into the tank and that is, this value is at
that instant as time progresses that keeps changing.
1194
So let us summarize the this part of the lecture on integral energy balance equation started the
law of physics first law of thermodynamics. Then from the law of physics we went to the
integral energy balance equation using a Reynolds transport theorem. We discussed in detail
about the rate of work done which could be by a shaft, by pressure, viscous stresses and work
done by pressure got added to the internal energy in the convection term. So, we emphasize
that the transient term as internal energy the convection term has enthalpy.
We looked at several levels of simplifications of the internal energy balance equation and we
arrived the equation which is usually used in a process calculation. Of course how do you use
that equation, mostly if you are finding heat to be supplied, also in a process calculation
course you would have done some adiabatic calculations where Q is 0 and you would have
used a same integral energy balance equation to find out the temperature of course, we are
not done any such example you would have done certainly several examples.
So, either the heat addition is a unknown or the temperature is unknown, but same integral
energy balance equation. We looked at few applications heater, compressor, filling of a tank,
mainly our objective was to find out at least under steady state conditions to find out the heat
and power requirements.
1195
Lecture - 106
Differential Energy Balance:
Introduction
We are in the energy transport part of transfer phenomena, we have derived the integral
energy balance equation, starting from the first law of thermodynamics, and looked at
applications. Now, we will derive the differential form of the energy balance equation and
also discuss Fourier’s law of heat conduction and look at applications of the differential
energy balance equation. And, those are the terms that are highlighted here, energy balance
within that differential balance and Fourier’s law and then, in applications differential
balance equations.
1196
So, what is the outline for the differential energy balance equation, we will start with the
chemical engineering applications of the differential energy balance equation, as applied to
heat transfer equipments, mass transfer equipments, and reactors. Then, you start deriving the
differential energy balance equation; it goes through a series of stages. First, we derive in
terms of the total energy that is internal, kinetic, and potential energy put together.
From that we get an equation in terms of internal and kinetic energy then, we derive a
separate differential energy balance equation for kinetic energy starting from the linear
momentum balance equation. And then, we can get an equation for the internal energy, and
from the differential energy balance equation for internal energy, using thermodynamic
relationship, we express in terms of enthalpy and then temperature.
We discussed Fourier’s law of heat conduction; we also simplify the differential energy
balance equation to forms which are usually used. And finally, look at the application of the
differential energy balance equation. The main application is to find out the temperature
profile. So, we find the temperature profile in a slab, extend that to a furnace wall and then
we find temperature profile in the planar Couette flow. Now, we are going to start with the
applications of the differential energy balance equation and that is why this bullet is
highlighted.
1197
Before discussing differential linear momentum balance equation, we discussed the chemical
engineering applications of the differential linear momentum balance equation along with the
continuity equation. So, similarly here we will discuss the chemical engineering applications
of differential energy balance equation before starting to derive that. So, that we know where
is it apply and why do we need a differential energy balance equation.
We are going to see the application with respect to heat transfer equipments, mass transfer
equipments, and reactors. Under heat transfer equipments, we are going to look at the heating
of fluid flowing through a pipe, heat exchanger and then microchannel heat sink. Under mass
transfer equipments, we will discuss application of and the energy balance to a packed bed
absorber and then membrane distillation.
We should also know that the main application of that energy balance equation, in the
chemical engineering literature, is for reactors, if you search let us say differential energy
balance equation, many of the papers which you come across will be the application for
reactors. So, we will take up a packed bed reactor, a membrane reactor, and then a carbon
particle.
1198
So, let us start with the heat transfer equipments, the first application is shown here (left hand
side image). We have a pipe through which water flows, we know the inlet temperature and
we need to find out the exit temperature. And, this pipe wall is subject to a constant heat flux
for example, you can wind with the heating tape, which will supply constant heat flux.
So, we can solve the energy balance equation to find out the exit temperature, what is shown,
is the temperature profile along the radius of the pipe. So, how do we get? We solve the
energy balance equation and get the radial temperature profile. And, then we can average this
temperature and then also get the variation of the average temperature along the length of the
pipe and that is what is shown here.
And, we can also get the actual variation of the temperature of the surface of the pipe and
under these conditions the temperature difference between them will remain constant. And,
so we can use energy balance equation to find out the exit temperature given the inlet
temperature,
The next application is for heat exchanges, different configurations of heat exchanger are
possible, where exchange of heat takes place between hot fluid and a cold fluid. Two simple
configurations are shown in the above slide image (top left side figure) cocurrent heat
exchanger and a counter current heat exchanger. In the cocurrent heat exchanger both the
cold fluid and the hot fluid, enter at the left hand side and leave at the right hand side. In the
1199
counter current arrangement, the flow in opposite direction. Cold is flowing from right to left
and hot is flowing from left to right.
Now, we can solve the energy balance equation to find out the temperature profile in these
heat exchanges. What is the practical application, you can use the energy balance equation for
the design of these heat exchangers, and also, you can predict their performance or use it for
the design of these heat exchangers.
The next example is a micro channel heat sink, which is used to remove the heat generated in
microelectronic equipments and that is what is shown in the above slide image, a micro-
processor is shown, in which heat is generated. And, micro channel heat sink is shown and
the channels through which a fluid is sent, it could be a liquid, it could be air or could be a
nano fluid.
Which helps to remove the heat that is being generated, we already seen this example when
we discussed applications for the linear momentum balance equation. The focus then was on
the pressure drop and the velocity profile but, now our objective is on the heat transfer part,
the study shown they have considered a micro channel heat sink of such a geometry, where
the walls are wavy and the fin is porous.
The idea of choosing such a geometry is to enhance the rate of heat removal. Now, suppose
we want to design a micro channel heat sink, which is very efficient, which means that it
1200
should remove heat very quickly. Then, that performance of the heat sink depends on the
temperature profile in the heat sink and which can be obtained by solving the energy balance
equation of course, you do have flow.
So, you solve along with the continuity and the Navier-Stokes equation and such temperature
profiles are also shown in the above slide image at different lengths along the channel. So,
you can use the energy balance equation to get the temperature profile and arrive at very
efficient design of this micro channel heat sink.
Now, let us move on to mass transfer equipments, the first example is an absorber. What is
the application? In power plants, we burn coal and generate a power but, the flue gas coming
from the power plant has lot of CO 2 in it. So, it cannot be let out to the atmosphere, we will
have to capture the CO2 and then let out to the atmosphere. How do you capture is what is
shown in the above slide image. So, the exhaust from the power plant is sent upwards through
an absorption column and it is brought in contact with the amine solution for example, mono
ethanolamine solution.
And, transfer of CO2 takes place from the gaseous phase to the liquid phase and the relatively
clean gas is let out to the atmosphere. What happens to the amine solution? It becomes rich in
CO2, we sent to a stripping column which strips off CO 2 from the amine solution and it is
recycled back to the absorber.
1201
Our focus here in this slide is on the absorption column, in the present study let us say we
want to predict the performance of the absorption column. What do we mean by that, let us
say we want to predict the percentage removal of CO 2 or we want to designs absorption
column for the best removal of CO2. Then, we need to solve the conservation equations, what
are the conservations equations? The energy balance equation and the species balance
equation.
So, the equations are been solved and the temperature profile along the length of the packed
column is predicted and compared with experimental data. Not alone that, in this work they
also study how the temperature varies along the length of the column under transient
conditions. What happens when you start the plant, and when you give a change in gas flow
rate or liquid flow rate. And, the authors predict how the liquid phase temperature will vary
along the length of the column at different time instance.
More importantly our main variable of interest is the percentage removal of CO2. So, the
authors also predict how the percentage removal of CO2 varies with time, under startup
condition and then when there is step change in gas and liquid flow rate. So, you can use the
conservation equations to predict the steady state performance and the dynamic performance
of the absorption column.
The next example is on distillation not the conventional distillation but, membrane
distillation. Which is used to separate water from a aqueous solution, let us say brine solution
1202
and the application would be to get water from seawater and such application is shown in the
above slide image, which is called as membrane distillation because, we use a membrane to
achieve this operation.
So, the membrane distillation unit is schematically shown, through the feed site, we send the
brine solution and the permeate site we send water and a hydrophobic membrane separates
these two sites. And, the driving force for the operation is the temperature difference between
these two streams; the feed stream is at a higher temperature, and the water stream is at a
lower temperature.
So, in the feed site water vaporizes, it diffuses through the hydrophobic membrane and when
it reaches on the other side it condenses. So, in that way we achieve separation of water from
the salt solution. And, we use a hydrophobic membrane. So, that liquid water does not pass
through it and suppose we want to design this membrane distillation unit, study the
performance of the membrane distillation unit, what do we mean by that? The main variable
of interest is how much of water has got transferred from the feed side to the permeate side.
So, to predict it is performance, we need to solve the conservation equations, what are the
conservation equations? We solve the continuity and Navier-Stokes equation because, you do
have flow here. And, we solve the energy balance equation to get the temperature profile,
temperature plays a major role as we have seen, that is a driving force. And, because water
vapor diffuses through the membrane, we solve the species balance also.
So, the temperature profiles in the feed site, the permeate site and the membrane as well is
shown in colored images. And, then the concentration of water vapor in the membrane, how
does it spatially vary and more importantly, what is the flux of water, how much of water
passes through the membrane, along the length of the membrane. So, all the conservation
equations to predict it is performance or arrive at an optimal design.
1203
Let us move on to reactors, first example is a packed bed reactor, the application is for the
production of methanol from synthesis gas, for which the flow sheet is shown in the above
slide image, our focus is on the methanol reactor. And, one of the designs is shown here; the
feed gas enters at the bottom and rise up through the inner tube and then flows down through
the annular tube. That is why the title says annular multi-tubular reactor, we are focusing on
one such tube there are several such tubes in the reactor. So, feed gas enters the inner tube
and then flows down through the annular region, where we have packed the catalyst, it is a
catalytic reaction and because it is exothermic we use a coolant.
Now, to efficiently design this reactor predicts it is performance, once again we will have to
solve the conservation equations, we have to solve the energy balance and species balance
equations. And, in this study the equations have been solved and the temperature profile in
the tube side, in the annular region vary of the catalyst bed, they have been predicted. And we
can also predict what is the concentration of methanol along the length of the reactor, they
have also compared with experimental data.
So, once the model is validated, we can use the model to study the effect of different
parameters for example, the author study what is the effect of pressure, on the temperature
profile, the methanol concentration profile. So, that you can arrive at the optimal operating
conditions and what is the objective to maximize the production of methanol.
1204
So, that is where the conservation equations play a role, in this case energy balance along
with the species balance equation. Next example is also a packed bed reactor but, it is a
packed bed membrane reactor, the application is for the production of ethylene from natural
gas or methane. Methane is sent through the tube side, which is packed with the catalyst and
then through the shell side we send oxygen, oxygen and methane react to give ethylene. Now,
the cell side is closed. So, what happens, oxygen enters into the tube, how does it enter? The
surface of the tube or the walls of the tube is made of an inorganic membrane.
So, oxygen diffuses through the membrane and reaches the tube site. So, in that way oxygen
is fed to the reactor along the entire length of the reactor. That is why it is called a packed bed
membrane reactor, you have a packed bed inside the tube and then the walls of the tube is
made of a membrane, it is also plays a role for allowing the oxygen to enter inside of the
tube. Now, to design such a membrane packed bed reactor or to predict it is performance, you
will have to solve all the 4 conservation equations, continuity, momentum, energy and
species equation also.
And, in this work our focus is inside the tube only. So, the temperature profile in the packed
bed is predicted and what is shown here is the ethylene mole fraction that is our final variable
of interest. So, how does ethylene mole fraction vary in the reactor that is also shown the
authors predict the temperature profile along the length of the reactor as a function of time as
1205
well. So, use the conservation equations including the energy balance equation to design such
reactors and predict their performance.
And, the last example is not a reactor but, just a single particle which could be inside a
reactor. Let us say we have a carbon particle let us say a few 100 microns and that is in
atmosphere of oxygen and CO2. So, carbon particles surrounded by oxygen and CO 2 of
different composition, we want to know what is the rate at with the carbon particle burns and
once again the all the conservation equation are solved, all the 4 conservation equations are
solved, including the differential energy balance equation.
And, the authors predict the temperature at the surface of the carbon particle and compare
with experimental results. They also predict what is the concentration of CO 2 surrounding the
particle, what happens at low velocity, what happens at high velocity and then they consider a
porous particle. And, see the temperature distribution inside the particle and the temperature
distribution outside the particle.
So, by solving the energy balance equation of course, along with other conservation
equations, we can do a detailed study even at the particle level that is why this example is
being discussed. Other example were at this scale of reactor, let us say few meters but, this is
order of few microns and this where is this carbon particle of course, that could be in inside
the reactor.
1206
And, eventually we can predict the performance of the reactor. So, those are the applications,
which I would say are high end applications as far as this course is concerned. I would say all
of them are researchable applications most of them, what is it we are going to discuss in the
present course. As usual our applications are going to be very simple, let us look at them.
We are going to apply that differential energy balance equation to find out the temperature
profile in a slab, whose true surfaces are at two different temperatures. And, then we will
extend that to a series of slabs, which would represent a furnace wall made of different layers
and here our objective would be to find out the heat flux through such a wall made of
different layers.
And, then we move on to our well known example of the planner couette flow, bottom plate
fixed top plate moving but, now with the difference, we will consider the case where the
bottom plate and the top plate are at two different temperatures. Our objective would be to
find out the temperature profile just like we focused on the velocity profile now; we will see
how to get the temperature profile between the 2 plates. So, those are the simple applications
which, we will discuss as part of this course.
1207
Lecture – 107
Differential Total Energy Balance
Part 1
Having looked at the different chemical engineering applications of differential energy

balance, now let us starts deriving the differential energy balance.
1208
So, as usual we will start with the control volume in our familiar experimental setups. The
left hand side shows the flow through the pipe and the right hand side set up shows flow
through the tank. And, in the left hand side we have one inlet one outlet and in the case of the
tank we have two inlets and then one outlet.
Now, what is a control volume which you should imagine over which you are deriving
differential energy balance? In the case of the pipe and in the case of the tank we take a small
control volume inside that domain and that is what is shown by the yellow color region in
both the experimental setups. And, so these are our control volumes, they are inside the
domain it could be in the pipe, it could be in the tank.
And for this control volume, we are going to take into account the rate of change of energy,
energy flowing in flowing out and then heat added to the control volume, and then work done
on the control volume. So, in sense we are going to apply the integral energy balance for this
small control volume.
1209
So, let us start with the integral form of energy balance equation, this is what we have been
doing while deriving all the differential balance equations, we will start with the integral form
of the corresponding balance equation. So, in this case we are starting with the integral
energy balance equation, so let us write down the integral energy balance equation.
d
∫ ρedV +∫ ρev . n dA=¿ ¿
dt CV CS
2
v
e= u^ + +gz
2
The first term tells about the time rate of change of total energy, next term tells about the net
rate at which energy leaves through the control surface. And the terms of the right hand side
tell about net rate of heat addition, net rate of work done. Now, for a fixed control volume as
we are done earlier we will bring the time derivative inside the integral sign.
∫ ∂∂t ρedV +∫ ρev .n dA=¿ ¿

CV CS
And now, it should be written as a partial derivative; the reason is that when that derivative
was outside we integrated over the control volume. So, all the spatial variations have been
taken into account and then only time remained as the only independent variable.
1210
d
So, we wrote it as, , but now it is inside the integral sign ρ and e can vary with space, so
dt
now both spatial variation and time variation are there. And, so we represent as partial
derivative and the remaining terms are same. Now, we are going to apply this integral energy
balance equation for the control volume shown in the above slide image and how should we
imagine, as we are done earlier and as seen in the experimental setups.
We should imagine this control volume inside a pipe and inside a domain, and because of our
restriction to Cartesian coordinates we should imagine a pipe of rectangle cross section. Also
like to mention that this small control volume could be in a solid as well we are talking about
energy balance, so it could be let us say a conduction in a solid. So, this small control volume
could be inside a pipe where that is a flow taking place or it could be a solid.
So, we are going to apply this differential energy balance for two examples, one for a solid
and one in a fluid domain. So, our objective in the next few slides is to apply this integral
energy balance equation for this small control volume.
So, let us proceed that is the integral energy balance equation which we have seen in the
previous slide written for fixed control volume,

CV CS
1211
Now, let us take term by term and apply for this small control volume. Let us take the
transient term
∂ ( ρe)
∫ ∂∂t ρedV = ∂t
∆ x∆ y ∆z
CV
As we have done earlier we will take an average value of ρ and e within the small control
volume. The control volume has dimensions of ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z and, because we are taking on
∂
average value it is a constant inside the control volume. So, ρe can be taken outside the
∂t
integral sign and then we are left with integral dV over the control volume and the volume of
this control volume is, ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z .
And like to mention and specify that e here represents the total energy per unit mass which
includes the internal energy per unit mass, the kinetic energy per unit mass, and the potential
energy per unit mass. And then like all the other differential balance equations we will
finally, divide by ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z and shrink to a point. So, what we will do is divide now itself
and keep the terms ready, so that finally, we can substitute in the integral energy balance
equation and then take the limit finally.
∂( ρe)
∂t
Now, let us proceed with the convection terms,
∫ ρev . n dA
CS
Now, let us look at the significance once again. It represents net rate of flow of total energy
out through the control surface by convection. So, it tells about the rate of flow of energy and
it represents a net rate of flow of total energy out through the control surface by convection.
Now, many terms are very familiar to us, we have looked at this several times in while
deriving other conservation equations. Only difference is that now we are applying for total
energy, what this tells us about the flow of energy.
And, now let us look at the control volume, the arrows represent the flow of energy entering
and leaving to the respective faces. So, we have a six faces energy enters through the left
1212
face, the bottom face, and the rear face and it leaves through the right face, the top face, and
the front face. And, now what we should do is express this integral expression for the six
faces let us do that.
3 inflow faces 3outflow faces
∫ ρev . n dA = ∑
i=1
ρ i v i A i ei − ∑
i=1
ρ i v i A i ei
CS
This has to be written for six faces, 3 outlet face, and 3 inlet face and for the outflow face v .n
is positive and that is way it is positive here. And, for the inflow faces v .n is negative and
that has been taken care by us explicitly. So, ∫ ρev . n dA has been expressed for the six faces
CS
in this expression 3 outlet faces, 3 inlet faces.
Now, what we will do is consider the faces pair wise and apply this expression here we are
considered the three outflow face and three inflow faces. So, we will take one outflow face,
one inflow face let us say the x direction and then see how to express that.
Now, let us look at the two faces along the x direction that inflow face and the out flow face
that is the left face and the right face. Now,
The rate of flow of total energy entering at x = ( ρ v x e ) ∨¿ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿
1213
Now, how do we interpret this, as we have been doing earlier you can interpret in two ways,
first the easier one v x is the velocity, we multiply by area, we get the volumetric flow rate.
Multiplied by density we get the mass flow rate and then we multiplied by the total energy
per unit mass then we get the rate of flow of total energy. So, velocity then multiply by area
gives volumetric flow rate, multiply by density gives mass flow rate, then if you multiply
with the total energy per unit mass, we get rate flow of total energy.
What is the other way of interpreting v x is the volumetric flux, and then if you multiplied by
ρ you get you get the mass flux, multiplied by area we once again get mass flow rate,
multiplied by the total energy per unit mass we get the rate of flow of total energy the ways
of interpreting. Now, ρ , v x , e all can vary specially, and the left face is that x the right face is
at x +∆ x .
So, you have indicated that the whole term is evaluated at x , the whole terms is evaluated
x +∆ x , so these terms put together represent rate of flow of total energy entering at x and that
is what is written here.
The rate of flow of total energy entering at x +∆ x = ( ρ v x e ) ∨¿ x+∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿
So, what we are discuses now is, how to express the rate of flow of total energy entering and
then leaving through the faces of the x direction.
1214
∫ ρev . n dA
CS
So, now let us extend this for all the other three directions, what we have seen in the previous
slide are these terms.
( ρ v x e ) ∨¿ x+∆ x ∆ y ∆ z− ( ρ v x e ) ∨¿x ∆ y ∆ z ¿ ¿
Now, what does this represent this represents rate of flow of energy leaving, and this
represents rate of flow of energy entering when I say energy at I mean total energy.
So, these two terms put together represents net rate of flow of total energy leaving the control
volume through the control surfaces in the x direction. So, let us write similarly for other
directions there is energy entering at the bottom face and then energy leaving at the top face
and those two terms are shown here.
( ρ v y e ) ∨¿ y +∆ y ∆ x ∆ z− ( ρ v y e )∨¿ y ∆ x ∆ z ¿ ¿
Once again we should take as rate of flow of energy leaving minus rate of flow of energy
entering, because this integral terms tells about net rate at which energy leaves the control
surface. Similarly, in the z direction
( ρ v z e ) ∨¿ z+∆ z ∆ x ∆ y− ( ρ v z e ) ∨¿ z ∆ x ∆ y ¿ ¿
So, as we are discussed earlier let us divide by ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z and keep it ready, so that later on
we can take limit ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z → 0, so that becomes a point.
( ρ v x e ) ∨¿ x ( ρ v y e )∨¿ y ( ρ v z e )∨¿ z
( ρ v x e )∨¿ x+∆ x − +( ρ v y e ) ∨¿ y +∆ y− + ( ρ v z e )∨¿ z+∆ z − ¿¿¿¿¿¿
∆x ∆y ∆z
So, now we should note that they once again represent rate of flow of total energy, the net
rate of flow of total energy leaving. But, now because we are divided by ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z , it is per
unit volume and now it accounts for all the three directions.
So, here it is in terms of only rate of flow of energy and then net rate of flow of energy
leaving that is for x direction and then for y direction, then for z direction. When we divide
we get here as per unit volume basis, also accounting for all the three directions.
1215
Now, like to compare this control volume with the control volume which we have discussed
earlier while driving the differential mass balance and differential momentum balance and
those control volumes are shown in the above slide image. So, this slide shows the three
control volumes; the first one, the left side one which we use while deriving the differential
mass balance. The second one, the middle one shows the control volume which are used
while deriving the momentum balance, the third one, the right side one which we have seen
just now. So, let us understand them, let us take one term, ( ρ v x )∨¿ x +∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿ it represents
the rate of flow of mass entering in the x direction.
And we interpreted that as the velocity into area the volumetric flow rate multiply by mass
gives a mass flow rate, then when we discuss the momentum balance what did we do we took
the same term, but now included v x , ( ρ v x v x ) ∨¿ x +∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿ . So, that now it represents the
rate of flow of x momentum entering the x direction. Why is it? Without v x it represented the
rate flow of mass we multiplied by v x which is the momentum per unit mass and then we got
rate of flow of momentum entering in the x direction.
Now what is that we have done once again taking the same term and then included a total
energy per unit mass, ( ρ v x e ) ∨¿ x+∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿ and now it represents rate of flow of total energy
entering in the x direction. So, it should be easy if you compare all the control volumes all the
terms of similar physical significance they represent the particular property. They represent
1216
the corresponding property brought in and brought out in all the three directions because of
convection.
So, if you understand that then from one control volume we should be able to draw the other
two control volumes. And in fact, that is how these figures have been prepared the first figure
was prepared then copied pasted added the, v x , then replace the v x with e and got the third
figure.
So, that also it may look like a copying and pasting and replacing, but that has a physical
significance behind it meaning that. All the three control volumes represent with these terms
represent the flow of that particular property entering and leaving and all these terms
represent the convection term.
Now, let us go back to your integral form of energy balance equation let us see what is it we
have done and where should we proceed further.

CV CS
Now, we have applied this integral energy balance equation for the small control volume, we
have expressed the left hand side for the small control volume, both the transient term and the
convection term.
1217
Now, we will focus our attention on the right hand side and in the right hand side we will
focus our term on the net rate of heat input or heat addition. So, what is that we are going to
discuss, now how do we express that Q̇ net ,∈¿ ¿ which represents net rate of heat put for the
small control volume. Now, we know that there are three modes of heat transfer; conduction,
convection, and radiation. Let us discuss what do we include here and what do we exclude
here; in fact, first we discuss the exclusion, so that we can include whatever is required.
 First radiation: radiation is significant only at high temperatures, so we neglect in fact,

not even high temperature it is at very very high temperature ok. Let us say 1000
Kelvin, 1000 degrees centigrade, order of such a high temperature radiation is
important, we will restrict to not so high temperature, so let us neglect radiation.
 Now, convection which represents heat transfer occurring at a fluid solid surface is
also not included.
The reason is that let us imagine this our fluid domain and our control volume is inside. So,
when you are considering a control volume inside that is not at the boundary between a let us
say a solid and a fluid, our region is inside. So, because we are considering a control volume
inside the fluid domain we are not including the heat transfer by convection which happens at
fluid solid surface. It does not mean you are ignoring that; remember we had a differential
equations we discussed about boundary conditions.
So, when we solve the energy balance equation, these convection terms appear as boundary
conditions. We may not discuss, we may not come across an example in this course such a
boundary condition. But, in your heat transfer course you will come across a case where the
differential energy balance equation is solved using the convective heat transfer as a
boundary condition.
So, radiation is not included, because we are not considering very high temperature.
Convection which represents heat transfer at fluid solid surface is not included in the
differential energy balance equation, in the conservation equation it is not included. Because,
that occurs only at solid fluid interface our control volumes somewhere inside. So, what is
left out is heat transfer by conduction and let us include the heat transfer conduction through
all the six faces of the control volume.
1218

CV CS
So, now our objective is to represent this rate of heat input through the control surfaces by
conduction only. And that is what is shown in this control volume through these different
terms here. Here q x represents the heat flux in the x direction, q x represents the heat flux in
the x direction due to conduction. And how do you represent heat flux we represent that as
rate of flow of heat per unit area. And when you multiply by the area we get the rate of flow
of heat, and this heat flux can vary with spatial location.
So we express that as q x ∨¿ x ¿ and similarly, q x ∨¿ x+ ∆ x ¿ . And, this represents rate of heat

input by conduction and rate of heat output by conduction respectively.
So, our focus is on the net rate of heat input or heat addition,
The rate of heat input by conduction at the x = q x ∨¿ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿
Once again one specify that q x represents heat flux in the x direction due to conduction and
flux is always any quantity per time per area.
So, we have rate of flow of heat which has per time unit per unit area multiply by the area
which is ∆ y ∆ z we get the rate of flow of heat and because it is inflow we are writing it as
rate of heat input by conduction. And, at the right face we have
1219
The rate of heat output by conduction at the x +∆ x = q x ∨¿ x+ ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿
So, now
q x ∨¿ x ∆ y ∆ z−q x∨¿ x +∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿ ¿
The first term represents heat input and second term represents heat output what we want is
net rate of heat input that is why we subtract output from input. So, we have input minus
output representing net input, this is in contrast to the convection term which was outflow
minus inflow.
So, this has to be kept in mind when we did the convection term it was net outflow. So, we
always throughout all the conservation equations we have been considering it as outflow
minus inflows, so that it represents net outflow. But, now on the right hand side we have net
rate of heat input, so we should take the term as input minus output or heat input minus heat
output. So, that does that term represents net rate of heat input ok, this convention has to be
kept in mind, so that we take care of the sign correctly.
So, let us do it for the other directions, the net rate of heat input by conduction in the x, y, z
directions you have to just repeat it for other directions with the corresponding area. So,
q x ∨¿ x ∆ y ∆ z−q x∨¿ x +∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿ ¿
1220
q y ∨¿ y ∆ x ∆ z−q y∨¿ y +∆ y ∆ x ∆ z ¿ ¿
q z ∨¿ z ∆ y ∆ x−q z ∨¿ z+∆ z ∆ y ∆ x ¿ ¿
So, as for the other terms on the left hand side here also we will divide by ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z and
keep it ready with us.
q x ∨¿x +∆ x q y ∨¿ y +∆ y q z∨¿ z+∆ z

q x ∨¿ x− +q y ∨¿ y − +q z ∨¿ z − ¿¿¿¿¿ ¿
∆x ∆y ∆z
So, here the significance is net rate of heat input by conduction and includes all the three
directions. When you divide by, ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ; now these terms represent net rate of heat input
per unit volume taking into account x, direction y, direction and x direction. So, here the
significance is net rate of heat put per unit volume.
1221
Lecture – 108
Differential Total Energy Balance
Part 2
Let us focus on the net rate of work done, that is the integral energy balance equation,

CV CS
We applied the transient term, the convection term on the left hand side for the small control
volume. And, we also discussed how to express the net rate of heat input term for the small
control volume.
So, now we will focus on the net rate of work done term on the right hand side of the integral
energy balance equation and let us see how do we apply that for a small control volume. So,
if we recall our discussion on this net rate of work done when, we discuss integral energy
balance equation. We split the work done in terms of shaft work and then work done by
pressure, work done by viscous stresses of course all in terms of rate.
Ẇ net ,∈¿=Ẇ Shaft .net ,∈¿+Ẇ Pressure , net,∈¿+Ẇ ¿ ¿

Viscous stress , net ,∈¿ ¿ ¿
1222
Now, let us see what are their terms we are going to take forward, first our controlled volume,
I am using this sometimes as a domain, sometimes as a control volume. Let us say this is our
domain, our control volume is somewhere inside. So, on there is no shaft to there.
So, within the small control volume we do not have a shaft and so the shaft work is 0,
Ẇ Shaft . net ,∈¿=0 ¿. Now, when we discussed the integral energy balance, we neglected the work
done by the viscous stresses. Similarly, here also we are going to neglect the work done by
viscous stresses, Ẇ Viscous stress, net ,∈¿ =0 ¿.
Now is it justified, when is it significant. It is significant when, let us say you have a very
viscous fluid flowing between let us say 2 parallel plates, the distance is very small and let us
say the top plate is moving at a very high velocity which means, that the velocity great it will
be very large So, in such conditions, the work done by viscous stresses will be significant.
So, the work done by viscous stresses is significant when, you have a very high velocity
gradient and your fluid is viscous. And, most of the cases almost may most of the times, this
is not significant and so we are going to neglect that. So, there is no shaft work and we are
going to neglect the work done by the viscous stresses and we are going to consider the work
done by the pressure forces only.
Though we had a split work into three terms, shaft work is not at all there, viscous work done
by viscous stresses we are neglecting it, we are neglecting it. And, we are going to consider
only the work done by pressure forces. Now, when we derived the integral form of energy
balance equation, the rate of work done by pressure force was expressed by this integral
expression
Ẇ
Pressure , net ,∈¿=∫ − pv . ndA ¿
CS
1223
This is a recall slide, if we recall this it will be easier for us to understand the next few slides.
What is that we are going to do to in the next slides? We are going to apply this expression
for our small controlled volume in fact, for the control surfaces.
Ẇ
Pressure , net ,∈¿=∫ − pv . ndA ¿
CS
What is that we discussed in this slide is that, this was discussed when we discuss the integral
energy balance equation, we applied this equations for the inlet flow through a pipe and the
outlet of flow through a pipe. At the inlet what happens? v .n is negative. So, the integral
term will be positive and work done is positive means that, work is done on the contents of
the control volume by the pressure force.
So, positive or negative is with respect to the fluid. So, when we say work is positive, work is
done on the fluid by the pressure, here written as work is done on the contents of the control
volume which is a fluid by the pressure force. And, at the outlet v .n is positive. And so, the
rate of work done term is negative and what does it mean when, you say negative work is
done by the fluid against the pressure force. And, this is what is written here is, work is done
by the contents of the control volume on pressure force.
So, to quickly recall we applied this for flow through a pipe, at the inlet v .n is negative, rate
of work done is positive which is which means that work is done on the fluid. At the exit v .n
is positive, rate of work done is negative, which means the work is done by the fluid.
1224
Now, before proceeding further let us understand the two control volumes shown here. The
left hand side control volume, the force due to pressure is shown.
Pressure is a compressive force that is why all the arrow marks are facing towards each other.
For example, on the left phase, the force is towards the positive x axis, on the right phase the
force is towards the negative x axis. We have seen that several times.
So, the left hand side control volume is we are familiar with we have discussed that during
the derivation of the differential momentum balance equation. Now, let us move on to the
control volume on the right, what has been done is that all the pressure terms has been
multiplied with the velocity in the respective directions.
Let us take an example, the left the face we have ( p v x )∨¿ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿, it has been multiplied by
v x . Similarly, on the right face we have ( p v x )∨¿ x+∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿, we have multiplied by v x and
similarly in the y direction ( p v y )∨¿ y ∆ x ∆ z ¿ , ( p v y )∨¿ y +∆ y ∆ x ∆ z ¿ and then
( p v z )∨¿ z ∆ y ∆ x ¿, ( p v z )∨¿ z+∆ z ∆ y ∆ x ¿. So, the pressure has been multiplied by the velocity
in the respective directions.
Now, what does these terms mean. So, let us take one term once again, ( p v x )∨¿ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿,
pressure is force per unit area, you are multiplying with the area over which it acts and hence
you get the force multiplied by the velocity, we get the rate of work. So, that all the terms in
1225
the control volume in the right hand side, represent rate of work done, it could be either on
the fluid or by the fluid. But, all of them represents rate of work done by pressure force.
So, quickly to recall, pressure is force per area multiplying by area you get force, you
multiply by velocity, we get rate of work done. And, so all the terms represent rate of work
done could be on the fluid or by the fluid and that is what we are going to discuss now. Now,
let us take the x direction and write down expression for rate of work done by pressure force
in the x direction.
Now, at the left face, the pressure or force due to pressure is along the positive x axis,
velocity is also along the positive x axis, always v x is along the positive x axis. So, the left
face pressure is along positive x axis, velocity is also along positive x axis.
Now, when a force is along the positive x axis, it does positive work, what is positive work?
Positive or negative work is with respect to the fluid. So, when we say positive work, work is
done on the fluid. So, at the x face, positive work, ( p v x )∨¿ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿. That work is done by
pressure force on the fluid in control volume, to be more formally it is rate of work done by
pressure force on the fluid in the control volume.
Other quick way of explaining is that, we have force due to pressure along positive x axis,
velocity also along positive x axis. And, then we know that rate of work is dot product of
these two terms and because they are along the same direction, we get p v x . So, all are
equivalent ways of explaining this term. So, to summarize this slide when, you multiply p
with the velocity the respective direction, you get the rate of work done. We have taken the
left face and seen that it represents the rate of work done by the pressure force on the fluid in
the control volume that is why we discussed this pipe. So, this inlet and this face are
analogous.
1226
So, now let us go to the right hand side face and find out the rate of work done by pressure
force in the x direction ok. Now, right hand side face what happens, the pressure is along
negative x axis, velocity as usual is along the positive x axis.
Now, at the right face p and v x are in opposite direction. So, pressure along negative x axis,
velocity along positive x axis. Now, a force and negative x direction does negative work,
force due to pressure, in the negative direction does negative work. And, so this term on the
right hand side, −( p v x )∨¿ x+ ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿, represents negative work, what is negative work? It
is work done by the fluid on the pressure or we say work done by the fluid against the
pressure.
So, if you want to take into account the sign than, it is with the minus otherwise
( p v x )∨¿ x+∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿ represents the rate of work done by the fluid against the pressure force.
And, other ways of course, the force due to pressure is along negative x axis, velocity along
positive x axis. So, if we take a dot product, you will get −( p v x )∨¿ x+ ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿. So, the
summary from this slide is the term here represents rate of work done by the fluid against the
pressure. And, that is analogous to the outlet of the pipe that is why we discuss the flow
through pipe before discussing these two slides.
1227
So, now let us find out that net rate of work done rate pressure force.
( p v x )∨¿ x ∆ y ∆ z−( p v x )∨¿ x +∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿ ¿
Once again we have to be careful here. The right hand side in the integral energy balance
equation, we are net rate of work done on the fluid and we said the first term represents work
done on the fluid and the second term represents work done by the fluid.
This should also be kept in mind; this convention is in line with the rate of work done term on
the right hand side. In the integral energy balance, we said Ẇ net ,∈¿ ¿, what does it represent?
Net rate of work done on the fluid that is why, we have on the fluid and then minus by the
fluid that should be kept in mind.
This is similar to the net rate of heat input term, where we took in minus out. For the
convection term it is out minus in. So, this difference has to be kept in mind, just to
summarize for the convection term it is out minus in, for the heat term it is in minus out. For
the work term it is work done on the fluid minus work done by the fluid. So, this has to be
kept in mind, in line with that is how we started with the first law of thermodynamics.
So, that should be consistently maintained throughout all the derivations. So, the net rate of
work done by pressure force in the x direction of course, we are discussing only the x
direction.
1228
Now, like to discuss this slide, what is shown in this slide are two different representations of
the rate of work done terms. Usually a control volume showing rate of work done is not
available in most of the books, it is represented in few books. But, the two different
representations are followed in the books. So, what you are going to discuss is nothing
conceptually new but, we have followed one way of representing, the rate of work done
terms, we are discussing two representations.
The right hand side is what we have used which we are discussed so far in the previous slide.
How was this shown see, rate of work done on the fluid is shown as an arrow mark entering
in. So, that represents work done on the fluid. The right hand side work done by the fluid is
shown by arrow mark leaving so, similar in other directions. So, left hand side entering arrow
marks shows that work is done on the fluid; right hand side arrow mark shows work done by
the fluid. So, it is shown as if something entering, something leaving and similarly other
directions so.
And we also interpreted this similar to the convection term, something entering, something
leaving, flow entering, and flow leaving. Similarly, we also interpreted the heat input term,
heat entering and leaving, this is the convention which we have followed. Now, there is other
way of representing the rate of work done by pressure force and that is what is shown in the
left hand side. The way in which this is shown is, look at this the terms are the same, p
multiplied by velocity in the respective directions.
1229
But, look at the arrow marks here, they are drawn same as the pressure force itself, the two
arrow marks are towards each other, in the respective directions. What we have used is, arrow
mark entering and leaving, left hand side convention is that, the rate of work done terms are
shown as two arrow marks towards each other. How do we interpret this?
Now, this we should interpret this as something similar to force, if you have arrow mark in
the positive direction that is positive, positive work which means work is done on the fluid. If
you have arrow mark in the negative direction that is negative work, work is done by the
fluid. So, when we draw a control volume with rate of work done terms like in the left hand
side then, the interpretation is like a force.
Right hand side, if you draw then the interpretation is like the convection terms. So, we are
chosen the right hand side But, very few books which give this some books may show the left
hand side representation. So, because it is not available in many books, I thought I will
discuss this. So, that it becomes clear, how do you represent the rate of work done, in terms
of a control volume.
Of course, we can mathematically do it as well, without the control volume also taking dot
product of first due to pressure with velocity. That is what essentially we have done.
1230
So, let us repeat it for all the 3 directions so, net rate of work done by pressure force on the
fluid in x y z directions, just repeat it for all the three directions. And, then divide by
∆ x ∆ y ∆ z . This is what we have discussed in the previous slides.
( p v x )∨¿ x ∆ y ∆ z−( p v x )∨¿ x +∆ x ∆ y ∆ z ¿ ¿
Similarly y direction,
( p v y )∨¿ y ∆ x ∆ z−( p v y )∨¿ y +∆ y ∆ x ∆ z ¿ ¿
Similarly z direction,
( p v z )∨¿ z ∆ y ∆ x−( p v z )∨¿ z+∆ z ∆ y ∆ x ¿ ¿
Now, let us divide by ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z and keep it ready for substitution.
( p v x )∨¿ x +∆ x ( p v y )∨¿ y +∆ y ( p v z )∨¿ z+∆ z

( p v x )∨¿ x− +( p v y )∨¿ y − +( p v z )∨¿ z − ¿¿¿¿¿¿
∆x ∆y ∆z
And, at this stage they represent a rate of work done, net rate of work done on the fluid and
moment you divide by ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z . They represent net rate of work done on the fluid per unit
volume, taking care of all the three directions.
1231
So, now it is time to put them all together, all the control volumes are shown. The first
control volume is for convection and of course, for the transient term also. The second
control volume is for the heat input term and third control volume is for the work done term.
Of course, rate of heat input, rate of work done.

CV CS
This is the integral form of energy balance equation; we have got expressions for these 4
terms separately. Now, we are going to put them all together. So, remember after dividing by
∆ x ∆ y ∆ z . We have already divided by ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z . So, the terms which are substituting here
are after dividing by ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z .
∂( ρe) ( ρ v x e )∨¿ x ( ρ v y e )∨¿ y ( ρ v z e )∨¿ z q ∨¿

+ ( ρ v x e ) ∨¿ x+∆ x − +( ρ v y e ) ∨¿ y +∆ y− + ( ρ v z e ) ∨¿ z+∆ z − =q x∨¿ x− x x
∂t ∆x ∆y ∆z ∆x
Now, we shrink the control volume to a point. So, as we have discussed earlier at this stage,
all of them represent average values. When, we write this term rho and e are some average
value within the control volume when, we write all these 3 terms, they represent average
values over the faces. When, we shrink all of them becomes point values so,
∆ x → 0 , ∆ y → 0 , ∆ z → 0. So, now they become instantaneous values and point values as
well. So,
∂( ρe) ∂( ρ v x e) ∂( ρ v y e) ∂( ρ v z e) ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂( p v x ) ∂( p v y ) ∂( p v z )
∂t
+
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z
=− +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+( −
∂x
+
∂y)( +
∂z )
So, left hand side we have positive derivatives, right hand side we have negative derivatives.
This has to be kept in mind and we have got the differential form of energy balance equation,
in terms of total energy. As we said the energy balance derivation goes to the series of stages,
what differs is the variable for which we write the energy balance for.
So, now we have derived the energy balance equation in terms of total energy, which means
left hand side we have total energy because, right hand said we have the heat input terms and
then the work done terms.
1232
∂t
+
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z (
=− +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ −)( ∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z )
Now, let us look at the significance of each term formally, of course, we know significance
you have been using it, I would not say I have used the formal terms every time, for the
purpose of brevity. But, now it is time to put them very formally. Once you know the
significance we can easily understand the terms as well.
Left hand side, first term represents time rate of change of total energy per unit volume. We
have been using very formally time rate of change of total energy per unit volume.
Of course, we know that in a differential balance equation all terms are per unit volume basis,
what does the next set of three terms put together represent? Net rate of flow of total energy
out by convection per unit volume; so, tell us about the flow of total energy and because
energy can flow in and out, it represents net rate of flow of total energy out. What is the
mechanism, by conviction and it is per unit volume basis.
Right hand side, first term, we have net rate of heat input or heat addition by conduction per
unit volume. That is a correct way of representing this term, it is represents heat input or heat
addition, what is the mode by conduction, it is net rate because, and it could be heat
additional removal. And, so net rate of heat addition by conduction of course, per unit volume
1233
And the last term represent, net rate of work done on the fluid by pressure forces per unit
volume. So, it represents work done is it on the fluid by pressure forces and represents rate of
work done and it is net rate of course, per unit volume.
So, every word there has a meaning, rate of work done it is net rate, it is on the fluid by
pressure forces, per unit volume. So, I would say a very precise way of writing the
significance of the different terms in the differential total energy balance equation.
So, now it is time to quickly compare the three differential balance equations which I derived.
So, let us list down them first, the differential total mass balance equation,
∂( ρ) ∂( ρ v x ) ∂( ρ v y ) ∂( ρ v z )
+ + + =0
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
The differential linear momentum balance equation
∂( ρ v x ) ∂ ( ρ v x v x ) ∂( ρ v y v x ) ∂( ρ v z v x ) ∂ τ xx ∂ τ yx ∂ τ zx ∂ p
∂t
+
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ( =
∂x ∂y
+ +)∂z
− + ρ gx
∂x
And the equation which is just know derived namely, the differential total energy balance
equation.
∂t
+
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z
=− (
+
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ −
∂x )( +
∂y
+
∂z )
1234
Let us quickly compare them, the left hand side we have the transient term, which represents
time rate of change of be it mass momentum or energy. When you say momentum, it is x
momentum, when you say energy it is total energy.
Then, we have the transport of property by convection that is represented by the three terms
in the left hand side. What is transported, it could be mass x momentum or energy. So, one is
a transient term, other is that conviction in short.
Right hand side of course, for a mass balance it is 0. For momentum balance I have used the
transfer phenomena convention or the moment and transport convention that is why we have
a negative sign here. If you are following a fluid mechanics convention it would have been
positive, which means that τ xx , τ yx etcetera represent components of the molecular momentum
flux tensor. And, it represents transport of momentum by molecular transport. Here the left
hand side represents transport of momentum by convection, right hand side we are
transporting momentum by molecular mechanism. And, we look at the energy balance once
again this represents the transport of energy by molecular mechanism, which is nothing but
heat.
So, in momentum balance, it represents transport of momentum by molecular mechanism, the

corresponding term, the analogous term the energy balance is transport of energy by
molecular mechanism. So, left hand side we have convection, right hand side we have
molecular transport. Similarly, in the energy balance also left hand side convection, right
hand side molecular transport. Now, let us look at the other terms of course, we have the
surface force due to pressure and then body force due to gravity in the right hand side of
linear momentum balance equation.
And, then in the energy balance equation, we have the rate of work done term of course, that
represents on the fluid. Also like to mention when you compare these two equations, these
two terms are analogous to each other, they are represent transport by molecular mechanism.
Now, the work done by pressure is represented by this term, coming to gravity the work done
by gravity is on the left hand side, we will discuss that later. It is including e as potential
energy, we will discuss that in detail later.
What is missing on the right hand side is the work done by viscous stresses because, we have
neglected it. So, like to repeat it again, the first term in right hand side are analogous, work
done by pressure is here, work done by gravity forces include as potential energy on the left
1235
hand side, which will discuss on later. We do not have one term corresponding to work done
by viscous stresses, if you interpret that as viscous stresses and that is not there because, we
have neglected, rate of work done by viscous stresses. So, that is how we should understand
this.
A more formal derivation if you look at a typical transport phenomenon book, will also
include rate of work done by viscous stresses to our level, we are neglecting it. And, it is not
a major limitation because, the differential energy balance equation without the viscous
stresses, it is applicable to almost I would say majority of the cases.
1236
Lecture – 109
Differential Energy Balance - Part 1
We are deriving the Differential Energy Balance equation. We have derived the differential
energy balance equation in terms of total energy. We started with the integral energy balance
equation and obtained the differential energy balance equation in terms of total energy. We
also looked at how to express the rate of heat in term; rate of work done term, in the energy
balance equation.
So, we proceed now to express the differential energy balance equation in other forms and
finally, we have to express in terms of temperature. So, we will be sequentially deriving the
energy balance equation in terms of these variables.
1237
Now, to proceed further to help us to express the energy balance in terms of these variables, it
will be convenient for us if we express the differential total energy balance which we have
derived from a material particle viewpoint and that is what we will do now. So, that all the
further derivations will become easier for us. So, let us write down the differential total
energy balance equation, which are derived in the previous lecture.
∂t
+
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z
=− +
∂x ∂ y ∂z(
+ −
∂x
+ )(
∂y
+
∂z )
You have the transient term, the convection term and then we have the rate of heat input term
and then rate of work done by the pressure forces. This is not new to us; we have already
done a similar exercise, when we derived the continuity equation and the linear momentum
balance equation from a material particle viewpoint. So, let us quickly do that, it requires re-
expression of the left hand side of the above equation. We expand all the derivatives using
product rule.
∂( e) ∂ ( ρ) ∂(e) ∂( ρ v x ) ∂( e) ∂( ρ v y ) ∂(e ) ∂( ρ v z )
ρ +e +ρ v x +e +ρ vy +e +ρ v z +e
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
Now, let us group the terms together,
∂ ( ρ ) ∂( ρ vx ) ∂ ( ρ v y ) ∂( ρ vz )
ρ [ ∂(e)
∂t
+v x
∂(e)
∂x
+v y
∂(e)
∂y
+v z
∂ ( e)
∂z ] [
+e
∂t
+
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ]
1238
Now, if you look at the terms within the second square bracket, we can easily identify that it
is an equation of continuity and hence it goes to 0.
∂ ( ρ) ∂( ρ vx ) ∂( ρ v y ) ∂( ρ vz )
+ + + =0
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
So, the second term drops off and now, if you look at the first term, we can easily identify
that it is the substantial derivative of total energy. So, let us express that, the temporal term
and the convection term. So, a left hand side becomes
∂(e) ∂(e) ∂(e) ∂ ( e) ∂ De

ρ [ ∂t
+v x
∂x
+v y
∂y
+v z
∂z ] (=ρ
∂t
+v .∇ e=ρ )
Dt
So, the left hand side of this equation,
De ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂( p v x ) ∂( p v y ) ∂( p v z )
ρ
Dt
=− (
+
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ −
∂x )( +
∂y
+
∂z )
This equation tells you the rate of change of total energy, if you follow a fluid particle and
that is the term on the left hand side of course, multiply by density and right hand side we
have net rate of heat input and net rate of work done. So, this expression was derived from a
control volume point of view or Eulerian point of view. We have expressed the same
equation from a Lagrangian point of view.
We express this for two reasons; one reason is that the further derivations will be easy, if we
express the energy balance equation from a material particle viewpoint. Other use is that, the
usual the form in with the conservation equations are used are usually in the material particle
viewpoint. And, anyway we have done this for the differential mass balance and the
momentum balance. So, analogously I have done for the differential total energy balance as
well. So, let us proceed further.
1239
So, next step is to derive the differential energy balance equation in terms of internal and
kinetic energy. What are the starting point? The starting point of the equation which are seen
in the previous slide, expressing the differential energy balance in terms of total energy
ρ
Dt
=− ( +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ − )(
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z )
This is the equation which we have seen and as I said we have written from a material
particle viewpoint. Let us expand e, what does e tell us e tells us? The total energy per unit
mass, which is sum of the internal energy per unit mass, the kinetic energy per unit mass and
the potential energy per unit mass.
v2
e= u^ + +gz
2
2
v
(
D u^ +
2
+gz ) ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂( p v x ) ∂( p v y ) ∂( p v z )
ρ
Dt
=− ( +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ −
∂x )( +
∂y
+
∂z )
So, what we have done is just substituted for e in terms of the individual energy components.
Reason is, we want separate out the gravitational part from this or the potential entity part
from this. Now to proceed further, we will have to discuss the coordinate axis. We will
1240
choose the coordinate axis, where y is along the horizontal direction, z is along the vertical
direction.
So now, g acts towards the negative z axis and so we express the g vector as
∂z ∂z ∂z
g=−gk=−g ∇ z=−∇ ( gz ) ; ∇ z= i+ j+ k=k
∂x ∂ y ∂z
Now, we will introduce the nomenclature for gz , we will express gz=φ remember g z is a
scalar. So, this expression tells you that, the g=−∇ φ , whereφ=gz and we can easily identify
that it is the potential energy per unit mass.
g=−∇ φ
Now, let us discuss what this equation tells us. Now, if you look at this equation left hand
side we have gravitational force and right hand side we have the gravitational potential
energy of course, both are per unit mass. So, this equation relates two viewpoints of g. What
is one viewpoint? You view it as force per unit mass on the left hand side on the right hand
side; we view it as a potential energy per unit mass. And how are they related? The
gravitational forces is related to the minus of the gradient of the gravitational potential.
So, the main objective of this equation is to relate the two viewpoints of g with one view
point; is we view g as a gravitational force per unit mass. We can also view g as gravitational
potential energy per unit mass and we are relating these two by this expression. So, we said,
D ( gz )
we want to separate the effect of in the left hand side. So, let us evaluate that rho into
Dt
the substantial derivative of gz or the substantial derivative of the gravitational potential.
Now,
D ( gz ) ∂ (gz )
ρ
Dt
=ρ( ∂t )
+v . ∇( gz) =ρ ( v .∇ ( gz) ) = ρ ( v .(− g) )=−ρ( g . v )
Now, what do we do? We retain only the substantial derivative of internal energy and kinetic
energy on the left hand side. Take the substantial derivative of gravitational potential to the
right hand side and so what you get
1241
2
v
( )
D u^ +
2 ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ ( p v x) ∂ ( p v y ) ∂ ( p vz )
ρ
Dt
=− (+
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ −
∂x )( +
∂y
+
∂z )
+ ρ( g x v x +g y v y +g z v z )
So, what we have done is started with the differential energy balance equation expressed in
terms of total energy and then in the left hand side, we have the substantial derivative of the
gravitational potential that, we expressed in terms of −ρ( g . v ) brought it to the right hand
side and it becomes + ρ (g . v). And now, left hand side is left only with the substantial
derivative of internal energy and the kinetic energy.
So now, let us understand, what is the meaning of this term and that is what we are going to
discuss now.
ρ ( g . v ) =ρ( g x v x +g y v y +g z v z )
Now, we know that rate of work done is given by the dot product of force into the velocity
vector.
Ẇ =F . v
So, if you compare these two expression, it is clear that this represents rate of work done, but
because g is force per unit mass, g . v represents rate of work done per unit mass. And
1242
because, you are multiplying by density, we eventually get rate of work done by gravitational
force per unit volume and it is on the fluid.
So, the term ρ ( g . v ) on the right hand side represents rate of work done why is it? Because, it
is a dot product between a force vector and a velocity vector, but force is per unit mass
multiplied by density. So, it becomes rate of work done per unit volume and the work done
by the gravitational force on the fluid. So, let us see how do we justify that this is on the fluid
and by gravitational force.
Let us take a small example, let us say you have a pipe and then water flows up through the
pipe that is what is shown here. Now, when the water is flowing up through the pipe, let us
evaluate this term, the rate of work done by gravitational force
ρ ( g . v ) =ρ (−gk ) . ( v z k ) =−ρgv
Because, the fluid is flowing up the velocity is v z into k vector. So, if you take the dot
product, we get −ρgv where v is the magnitude of the velocity which means, it is negative
and which shows that work is done by the fluid against gravity which is what we expect.
When a fluid is flowing up through a pipe work is done by the fluid against gravity and that is
why, we said this term represents rate of work done on the fluid by gravitational force of
course, per unit volume. So, that is the significance of the term ρ (g . v).
1243
Now, also like to discuss one more aspect; regarding the gravity term, if you look at this what
we have done this?
2
v
(
D u^ +
2
+gz )
∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂( p v x ) ∂( p v y ) ∂( p v z )
ρ
Dt
=− + (
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ −
∂x )(
+
∂y
+
∂z )
Of course, this is the energy balance in terms of the total energy.
D ( gz ) ∂ (gz )
ρ
Dt
=ρ (
∂t )
+v . ∇( gz) =ρ ( v .∇ ( gz) ) = ρ ( v .(− g) )=−ρ( g . v )
And, this we have seen in the previous two previous slide relating the substantial derivative
of the gravitational potential to −ρ( g . v ).
2
v
( )
D u^ +
2 ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ ( p v x) ∂ ( p v y ) ∂ ( p vz )
ρ
Dt
=− + (
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ −
∂x )(
+
∂y
+
∂z )
+ ρ( g x v x +g y v y +g z v z )
And, then we substituted here and then expressed in this form. What is that we have done, if
you look at this equation where we had substantial derivative of gravitational potential, it
played the role of flow of potential energy.
So, when it was in the left hand side, it represented rate of flow of potential energy and it was
in the left hand side. Now, when it came on the right hand side, it represents rate of work
done by gravitational force. So, now, two ways of including the effect of gravity in the
energy balance equation. When it is on the left hand side it is rate of flow of potential energy
why is it? We know that this represents convection term.
We have seen convection for velocity, convection for temperature similarly here we have
convection of potential energy. So, that is why, when it was on the left hand side it represents
rate of flow of potential energy. When we take it to the right side it becomes rate of work
done by gravitational force. So, two different viewpoints two different ways of including the
effect of gravity in the energy balance equation. We started with including as a rate of
potential energy, the reason is we started from the first law of thermodynamics, the law of
physics where left hand side we had all the energy which includes internal kinetic and
potential energy.
1244
Because, we started from that and from that we got the integral energy balance from that we
got the differential energy balance, the left hand side for us contained to begin with the effect
of gravity as a rate of potential energy, but now, we are proceeding towards deriving an
equation for temperature. So, finally, only internal energy should be left out. So, at this stage,
we are taking out the effect of the potential energy. You are not removing it from the energy
balance, we are taking the effect from the left hand side and taking it to the right hand side
and the significance becomes rate of work done by gravitational force. That is what we have
done here conceptually.
So, that on the left hand said we are left out only with the internal energy and the kinetic
energy. That is the whole objective of this exercise. And remember, when we discussed the
differential energy balance in this form for the total energy, we said this represents rate of
heat input term and this represents rate of work done by pressure and we said we are
neglecting rate of work done by the viscous stresses. Then we also said that there is no term
corresponding to the rate of work done by the gravitational force or the body force and then
we also said that that is hidden somewhere in the left hand side and now that is what we have
discussed now. Whatever is hidden on the left hand side, hidden I would say not as a work
done.
But as potential energy or flow of potential energy, now we have separated that out and
brought to the right hand side. So now, if you look at the energy balance equation, this is the
rate of heat input. And now, we have one term corresponding to rate of work done by
pressure force. And we have another term corresponding to the rate of work done by the body
force or the gravitational force. Of course, there is no rate of work done term corresponding
to the viscous stresses to our level of discussion; a full complete derivation will include that
term as well.
1245
Lecture – 110
Differential Energy Balance – Part 2
We have got one equation the Differential Energy Balance equation for internal energy and
kinetic energy. What will now do is we will derive a separate differential energy balance
equation for kinetic energy. That so that we can subtract that equation from this equation and.
So, we are proceeding towards deriving a differential energy balance equation for kinetic
energy. I said separate equation the reason is that, this equation I would say comes parallelly
not sequentially from the previous equation.
Which means that, the starting point for this equation is different. The starting point is the
linear momentum balance. So, let us write the x component of the linear momentum balance
equation. And let us see, how do we derive their differential energy balance for kinetic
energy from the linear momentum balance equation.
∂( ρ v x ) ∂ ( ρ v x v x ) ∂( ρ v y v x ) ∂( ρ v z v x ) ∂ p ∂ τ xx ∂ τ yx ∂ τ zx
∂t
+
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z
=ρ g x − (
∂x
+ +
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ )
1246
So, that is the linear momentum balance equation in the x direction; that transient term, the
convection term. And, then we have the body first term, surface force due to pressure and
viscous stresses. Now, as I told you the derivation of differential energy balance equation is
easier, if we express the equations in terms of substantial derivative or from the material
particle viewpoint. So, we will express the left hand side in terms of the substantial derivative
of velocity multiply by density, which we have already done, right hand side remains same.
D vx ∂ p ∂ τ xx ∂ τ yx ∂ τ zx
ρ
Dt
=ρ g x − +
∂x ( +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ )
So, linear momentum balance equation form a Eulerian view point. This is from a Lagrangian
view point. We have just now discuss that we have neglected the work done by viscous
forces. So, in the linear momentum balance equation also to proceed further, we will neglect
the viscous force on the right hand side. And keep only the body force and the surface force
due to pressure. So, that it is in line with our assumption.
So, let us write down that linear momentum balance equation, excluding the viscous forces
on the right hand side and that is nothing, but our Euler equation.
D vx ∂p
ρ =ρ g x −
Dt ∂x
So, we have taken the linear momentum balance equation expressed in material particle
viewpoint, neglected viscous forces and we have got the Euler equation. Now, what we will
do is multiply by v x on both sides we will understand why do we do that shortly. So, we have
D vx ∂p
vx ρ =v x ρ g x −v x
Dt ∂x
Now, the left hand side of this equation can be expressed as
2
vx
ρ
D
2 ( )
=v x ρ g x −v x
∂p
Dt ∂x
So, when you multiply the equation by v x on both sides, the left hand side can be expressed
as shown above. Now, let us repeat the exercise for the y direction and z direction,
multiplying by the respective velocity components. So,
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2
vy
ρ
D
2 ( )
=v y ρ g y −v y
∂p
Dt ∂y
Similarly the z direction as well,
2
vz
ρ
D
2 ( )
=v z ρ g z −v z
∂p
Dt ∂z
So, it is multiplied by respective velocities.
So, now let us write down the equations, which you have derived in the previous slide in all
the three directions.
v 2x
ρ
D
2 ( )
=v x ρ g x −v x
∂p
Dt ∂x
2
vy
ρ
D ( )
2
=v y ρ g y −v y
∂p
Dt ∂y
1248
2
vz
ρ
D
2( )
=v z ρ g z −v z
∂p
Dt ∂z
2
v
Now, you can only start recognizing that x is one part of the kinetic energy. So, if you sum
2
2 2 22
v v v v
all this equations what we have is x + y + z which is nothing, but ; we have a half there.
2 2 2 2
So, its means we have got the kinetic energy on the left hand side. That is why, we multiplied
every we multiplied each equation with the respective to velocity component.
So, if you sum the left hand side becomes
v2
D ( )
2 ∂p ∂p ∂p
ρ
Dt
=ρ( g x v x + g y v y +g z v z )− v x (
∂x
+v y +v
∂ y z ∂z )
That is what our objective was. Our objective was to get a separate equation for the kinetic
energy and so we have got a now a differential energy balance equation for kinetic energy.
Now, to proceed further and to make our derivation convenient, we will take this term and
express as a sum of two terms. What do we do? Take the last term in right hand side and we
will express in a form which will be convenient for further steps in the derivation. Let us do
that and then I will explain what is that we have done.
∂( p v x ) ∂ (v x) ∂ ( p v y) ∂ ( v y ) ∂ ( p vz ) ∂( vz )
( v ∂∂ px +v ∂∂ py +v ∂∂ pz )=
x y z
∂x
−p
∂x
+
∂y
−p
∂y
+
∂z
−p
∂z
∂ ( p v x) ∂ ( p v y) ∂ ( p v z ) ∂ ( v x) ∂ ( v y ) ∂( vz )
¿ [ ∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z
−p] [
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ]
Of course should be obvious to you should look at it. What is that we have done now? Use
the product rule, how to use the product rule? We know that
∂ ( p v x) ∂ (v x) ∂( p)
=p +v x
∂x ∂x ∂x
1249
∂ ( p)
What we have on the left hand side is v x . This is the term on the left hand side and that
∂x
we expressed as
∂ ( p) ∂ ( p vx ) ∂ ( v x)
vx = −p
∂x ∂x ∂x
That is all we have done. And similarly y direction; similarly z direction and now, we have
grouped the terms here and then grouped rests of the terms as a second term. So, let us
substitute them back here of course, we have minus here.
v2
D ( )
2 ∂( p vx ) ∂( p v y ) ∂ ( p vz ) ∂ ( vx ) ∂( v y ) ∂ ( v z )
ρ
Dt [
=ρ ( g x v x +g y v y + g z v z ) −
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ] [
+p
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ]
So, left hand side is of course same, right hand side first term is same but right hand side
instead of second term, we have now got two set of terms. So, just substituting this on the
right hand side of the this equation.
So, now this is the differential energy balance equation for kinetic energy. Now, what we will
do is look at the physical significance of each of the terms here.
To help us to look at the physical significance of each term we will re-express this from a
Eulerian view point just to help us a recall slide which we just now did.
1250
∂t
+
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z
=− +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+( −
∂x
+
∂y)( +
∂z )
What we did was, we had derived the differential energy balance from a control volume point
of view or a Eulerian point of view.
ρ
Dt
=− ( +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ −
∂x )( +
∂y
+
∂z )
So, now the left hand side was from a Eulerian point of view, we did a series of steps and
expressed in terms of the substantial derivative. The situation what we have right now is the
reverse of that, we have already the differential energy balance equation, the left side of that
in terms of substantial derivative. So, we like to go back here and express in terms of the
Eulerian view point.
So, let us look at the next slide then you will understand.
v2
D ( )
ρ
Dt [
=ρ ( g x v x +g y v y + g z v z ) −
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ] [
+p
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ]
That is the differential energy balance equation for kinetic energy, the left hand side is in
terms of the substance derivative. We expresses the left hand side in terms of the transient
and then the convection terms.
1251
2 2 2 2
v v v v
( ) (
∂ ρ
2
∂ ρ vx
2 ) (
∂ ρvy
2
∂ ρ vz ) (
2 ) ∂ ( p vx ) ∂( p v y ) ∂ ( p vz ) ∂ ( vx ) ∂
∂t
+
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z
= ρ ( g x v x +g y v y + g z v z )− [ ∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ] [+p
∂x
+
That is a transient term and then the convection term. So, this equation the first equation is
from a material particle viewpoint a Lagrangian viewpoint.
Second equation which is being written now is in terms of the Eulerian viewpoint. What is
that we have done I like to quickly repeat it. We have got the equation for kinetic energy with
the left hand side in terms of substantial derivative. What we are doing right now is just to get
a physical interpretation for the for this differential energy balance equation that is only
objective.
Now, earlier when we did for the total energy balance equation, the left hand side was from a
Eulerian point of view. We express that in terms of Lagrangian point of view. What did what
is that we have right now? We have already the substance derivative of kinetic energy per
unit mass, we like to express back in this form.
This once again I want to emphasis, this is done just to look at the physical significance of all
the terms in the different energy balance equation for kinetic energy. We will not carry
forward derivation using this form of the equation. As I told you, the convenient form for
derivation is only the Lagrangian form of equation.
Now, look at the significance of each term left hand side the terms are familiar to us. It is
time rate of change of kinetic energy per unit volume. We have come across earlier mass,
momentum then total energy. Now, we have come across kinetic energy.
What is the next set of three terms represent? They are the convection terms. So, they
represent net rate of flow of kinetic energy out by convection per unit volume. We have seen
this earlier for mass, momentum total energy now analogous meaning for kinetic energy.
Now, let us look at the right hand side, we have already seen the significance of this in detail;
tells rate of work done on fluid by gravitational force per unit volume. Now, we have also
seen the significance of the second last term that is net rate of work done on fluid by pressure
process per unit volume.
Now the last term is something which we have not come across, we will just write the
significance and then few slides later we will justify the significances. It just tells you that
1252
rate of conversion of kinetic energy into internal per unit volume. We will few slides later we
will discuss, why this term represents this physical significance which is conversion of
kinetic energy into internal energy.
What this equation tells you that the kinetic energy can change because of all these factors.
That is the overall concept which we can take from this equation. So, the terms are all
analogous to any conservation equation, the transient term, the convection term on the left
hand side and then we have rate of work done by gravitational force, pressure force and there
is a term which tells about the conversion of kinetic energy to internal energy, which we will
discuss little later.
We have derived equation for internal energy and kinetic energy, which we derived from the
total energy balance. And starting from the linear momentum balance, we have derived
equation for kinetic energy. So, now, becomes very simple for us to almost write down the
energy balance equation for internal energy.
So, let us do that here simple subtraction. So, we are back to the Lagrangian viewpoint.
2
v
( )=− ∂ q + ∂ q + ∂ q − ∂ ( p v ) + ∂ ( p v ) + ∂ ( p v ) + ρ( g v +g v +g v )
D u^ +
2
ρ
Dt ( ∂x ∂y ∂z ) ( ∂x ∂ y ∂z )
x x x x y z
x x y y z z
1253
D
So, all our left hand sides once again will be in terms of . Only just two slides in between
Dt
to discuss the significance of different terms in the kinetic energy equation, we went back to
the Eulerian description ok. That is the differential energy balance equation for internal and
kinetic energy.
2
v
D ( )
2 ∂p ∂p ∂p
ρ
Dt (
=ρ( g x v x + g y v y +g z v z )− v x
∂x
+v y +v
∂ y z ∂z )
And this is the equation which we obtained for the kinetic energy from the linear momentum
balance equation. And then we took the last term and expressed as sum of two sets of terms.
And now, we will understand why we really did that.
v2
D ( )
ρ
Dt [
=ρ ( g x v x +g y v y + g z v z ) −
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ] [
+p
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ]
So, let us subtract this equation from this equation, the equation for kinetic energy from the
equation for internal and kinetic energy.
∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ ( v x) ∂ ( v y ) ∂( vz )
ρ
D ( u^ )
Dt (
=− + +
∂ x ∂ y ∂z
−p) [
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ]
And so the left hand side we will be left out with the substantial derivative of internal energy
of course, multiplied by density. So, now we have got a very simple equation.
1254
Now, let us look at the significance of the different terms in this energy balance equation for
internal energy.
∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ ( v x) ∂ ( v y ) ∂( vz )
ρ
D ( u^ )
Dt (
=− + +
∂ x ∂ y ∂z
−p
∂x) [ +
∂y
+
∂z ]
Like we did for kinetic energy, we will express the left hand side back in terms of the
Eulerian viewpoint. So, that we can explain the significance of each term, with this also we
can explain you put in this form because we have explained the significance of all the
conservation equations earlier in this form only that is why to be in line with those
explanations, we are expressing the left hand side or the entire equation back in Eulerian
form.
∂ ( ρ u^ ) ∂ ( ρ v x u^ ) ∂ ( ρ v y u^ ) ∂ ( ρ v z u^ ) ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ q x ∂ ( v x ) ∂ ( v y ) ∂ ( v z)
∂t
+
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ( =− +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ ) [
−p
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ]
So, now, let us take the left hand side I think you should be able to write down the
significance now very easily. First terms tells about time rate of change of internal energy per
unit volume. Next set of three terms represent convection. So, net rate of flow of internal
energy out by convection per unit volume. Right hand side, we are familiar with this term.
Net rate of internal energy addition by conduction; what it tells you is because of conduction
there is increase in internal energy.
1255
Or because of heat input there is increase in internal energy that is very much understandable.
Now, let us come to the last term which requires some discussion. You also discuss the
importance of this term here and in the kinetic energy equation. What this tells you if you
read this significance rate of internal energy increase by compression per unit volume. How
∂ ( v x) ∂ ( v y ) ∂ ( vz )
do you explain this? For that, we know this term as + + =∇ . v , but remember
∂x ∂y ∂z
we also discuss this as a volumetric strain rate.
What does it tell you? Fractional rate of change of volume; so now, let us say there is a
decrease in volume what happens this term is negative and this will become positive and that
will result in an increase in internal energy that is what this tell you. When you say there is
decrease in volume it is which means that we have compression. So, rate of internal energy
increase by compression of course per unit volume.
So, just to repeat the last three terms put together represent fractional rate of change of
volume. And if there is compression there is decrease in volume that term is negative. So, the
entire term becomes positive, it adds to the internal energy and that is why this term tells you
rate of internal energy increase by compression per unit volume.
Now, let us look at the corresponding term in the kinetic energy equation, if you look at the
two terms here. Here it is − p(∇ . v) and here it is − p(−∇ . v ). Let us take the same case. Let
us say there is decrease in volume ∇ . v term is negative this entire term is positive. Now,
what will happen in the right side of the kinetic energy equation it will be negative which
means that, the increase in internal energy is because of decrease in the kinetic energy that
compression adds to the right hand side of the internal energy equation.
It results in subtraction in the right hand side of kinetic energy equation, which means that
there is a conversion of kinetic energy to internal energy. Now, not alone this the other way
can also happen. What is that? Let us say there is expansion. What will happen? This ∇ . v
will be positive. So, the whole term will be negative in the internal energy equation. So, it
will result in reduction in internal energy correspondingly there will be increase in the kinetic
energy. So, now, this term becomes very clear rate of conversion of kinetic energy into
internal energy per unit volume.
1256
We can explain the significance only after deriving the equation for internal energy that is
why we postponed the explanation for that particular term. Also like to mention that because
you can have either compression or expansion and so there could be conversion; conversion
of these two energies in both the directions. That is what we have seeing. It could be internal
energy to kinetic energy or it could be kinetic energy internal energy.
So, more formally we call this as reversible conversion of kinetic energy to internal energy.
So, what you have seen now is arrived at the differential energy balance equation for internal
energy, express that in Eulerian form and then looked at the significance of the different
terms in that equation for internal energy. And, also specifically one term which appears in
the internal energy equation and the kinetic energy equation with opposite sign, we have
discussed the physical significance of that term as well.
1257
Lecture – 111
Deferential Energy Balance – Part 3
Now, let us proceed to the derivation of the difference energy balance equation, in terms of
enthalpy and then later on in terms of temperature. Now, we start with the relationship from
thermodynamics. This is a well-known relationship, which relates enthalpy to internal energy,
^ u + p v^ =û + p
h=^
ρ
I like to mention h^ represents specific enthalpy. So, it is on a unit mass basis of course,
internal energy u^ , we know it is per unit mass and then pressure and volume ^v is also per unit
mass basis.
What we will do is express this relationship in terms of substantial derivative or saying it the
other way. We take the substantial derivative of this equation, both on the left hand side and
the right hand side, that is what you have done here
D h^ D u^ D p
ρ
Dt
=ρ
Dt
+ρ
Dt ρ ()
1258
These two terms are simple, let us see how to evaluate the last term. Just use product rule. So,
D h^ D u^ ρ Dp ρp −Dρ
ρ
Dt
=ρ + +
Dt ρ Dt ρ2 Dt ( )
Now, to proceed further we will use the equation of continuity from a material particle view
point,
Dρ ∂ vx ∂ v y ∂ vz
Dt (
=−ρ ( ∇ . v ) =−ρ +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ )
Dρ
So, we will substitute for , in this last term. So, I have got
Dt
ρp −Dρ ∂ vx ∂ v y ∂ vz
ρ
2 (
Dt
= p) ( +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ )
So, let us substitute in this equation,
D h^ D u^ Dp ∂ vx ∂ v y ∂ vz
ρ
Dt
=ρ +
Dt Dt
+p (
+
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ )
So, let us write down the equation which are derived for the substantial derivative of
enthalpy.
1259
D h^ D u^ Dp ∂ vx ∂ v y ∂ vz
ρ
Dt
=ρ +
Dt Dt
+p (
+
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ )
Now, we have already derived the differential energy balance equation for internal energy
and that is what is being written now.
∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ ( v x) ∂ ( v y ) ∂( vz )
ρ
D ( u^ )
Dt (
=− + +
∂ x ∂ y ∂z ) [
−p
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z ]
So, that we can substitute this on the right hand side so, let us substitute
∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ q x ∂ ( v x ) ∂ ( v y ) ∂ ( v z ) Dp ∂vx ∂ vy ∂vz
ρ
D h^
Dt
=−( +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ −p
∂x) [ +
∂y
+
∂z
+]Dt
+p (
+ +
∂ x ∂ y ∂z )
And, the two terms cancel each other, leaving us with
D h^ ∂ q x ∂ q x ∂ q x Dp
ρ
Dt
=−( +
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ )+
Dt
The first time we are coming across substantial derivative of pressure. Also like to mention,
we discussed about substantial derivative in the very beginning of the course. There it would
have appeared as if we are suddenly discussing a new derivative of course, we discuss the
physical significance but, now look at the utility of that substance derivative.
We are using the substance derivative very frequently especially in the derivation of the
difference energy balance equation. Not alone that when we introduce we said, we have
substantial derivative of velocity, temperature, concentration etcetera. But, now look at the
derivations we have substance derivative of all the energy terms, we have for internal energy,
we have for enthalpy, we have also got for a pressure.
So, significance is same the variable for which the substance derivative is expressed that
changes. So, it does have wide application, in terms of derivation and the corresponding
physical significance. So, now, we will be really convinced the discussion on substance
derivative in the beginning part of the course.
1260
D
We have been looking at limited scope; you have come across only of density for the
Dt
D
continuity equation, of velocity, we have come across. But, now the derivation of energy
Dt
balance, we have come across substantial derivative of different variables energy, pressure
etcetera.
Now, we are towards the last step, we are going to express the energy balance equation in
terms of temperature. Let us do that once again, we are going to use the thermodynamic
relationship. What is that? From thermodynamics we know that for a pure species, the
enthalpy is a function of temperature and pressure, h^ (T , p).
∂ v^
^
d h=c
[ ( )]
p dT + v
^ −T
∂T p
dp
And this equation, we will derive in a thermodynamics course when we derive, when we
discuss fundamental property relations, where we discuss Maxwell relations etcetera, we
discuss this derive this relationship.
What does it tell you? It relates the differential change in enthalpy, to the differential change
in temperature and the differential change in pressure. What is utility? This expression can be
used to find out change in enthalpy, if you are given change in temperature and pressure, that
1261
is a use of this equation. Now, once again we will express this equation in terms of
substantial derivative, let us do that and multiplied by density.
ρ
D h^
Dt
=ρ c p
DT
Dt
1
+ ρ −T
ρ [ ( )] ∂
∂T
( 1ρ )
p
Dp
Dt
So, the thermodynamic relationship has been expressed in terms of substantial derivative
number 1, number 2 the specific volume has been expressed in terms of density, we have
multiplied by density both the left and right hand side. Now, let us take the last term
multiplied by rho and simplify that. So, we have got
( ) ∂ ( 1ρ ) ∂ρ
−ρT
∂T p
ρT ∂ ρ
= 2 ( )
=
ρ ∂T p ∂T
ρ
T
() p
=
( ∂∂lnln ⁡(T⁡( ρ)) ) p
∂ρ
So, this term tells about term effect of temperature on density but, it is not tells about
∂T
change in ln ⁡( ρ) for change in ln ⁡(T ). Now, let us substitute that in this equation, left hand
side we have rho substantial derivative of enthalpy.
D h^ ∂ ln ⁡( ρ)
ρ
Dt
=ρ c p
DT
Dt
+ 1+
[ (
∂ ln ⁡(T ) ) ] DpDt
p
The previous step we have derived the energy balance equation in terms of enthalpy.
D h^ ∂ q x ∂ q x ∂ q x Dp
ρ
Dt
=− ( +
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ +
Dt )
So, in the left hand side, we will substitute the substantial derivative of enthalpy, in terms of a
the thermodynamics relationship, which we have seen now and that is what we will do now.
ρ cp
DT
Dt [
+ 1+
∂ ln ⁡( ρ)
(
∂ ln ⁡(T ) ) ] DpDt =−( ∂∂qx + ∂∂qy + ∂∂qz )+ DpDt
p
x x x
1262
Now, let us simplify this and just rewriting the same equation here that is a left hand side and
that is a right hand side. The right hand side is same as what we have seen earlier, in the
differential energy balance equation for enthalpy.
DT Dp ∂ ln ⁡( ρ) Dp ∂ q x ∂ q x ∂ q x Dp
ρ cp + + (
Dt Dt ∂ ln ⁡(T ) ) p Dt
=− ( +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ )+
Dt
Dp DT
So, now, cancels on both sides and then we will express the equation in terms of that
Dt Dt
has been our long standing objective. To get a differential energy balance equation in terms
of temperature, that is what we have done sequentially.
DT ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ ln ⁡( ρ)
ρ cp
Dt
=− ( +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ − )(
∂ ln ⁡(T ) ) DpDt
p
Also like to mention, this C p is in terms of mass units, is on a mass basis. So, it is SI unit is
Joule per kg per Kelvin.
Let us expand the substantial derivative, we already have derived the energy balance
equation, we will by expanding the substantial derivative, we have the local term and the
convection term.
1263
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂ q x ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ ln ⁡( ρ)
ρ cp ( ∂t
+v x
∂x
+v y
∂y
+v z
∂z
=− ) (+
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ −
∂ ln ⁡(T ) )( ) DpDt
p
When we first time, when we introduce substantial derivative, we discussed in terms of

velocity and in terms of temperature. Now, you really seen application or you have seen a
DT
conservation equation, where the occurs.
Dt
Of course, you can also put an vector notation. So,
ρ cp ( ∂∂Tt +v .∇ T )=−∇ . q−( ∂∂lnln ⁡(⁡(Tρ)) ) DpDt

p
So, we have finally, achieved our objective of deriving a differential energy balance equation,
in terms of temperature. Now, we are in a situation similar to what we were after deriving the
linear momentum balance equation, what is that situation let us see.
Let us have a recall slide. This is the slide which we discussed after deriving the linear
momentum balance equation, we listed the continuity equation, we listed all the linear
momentum balance equations in the three directions. We also express the equation of state as
density as a function of pressure and temperature.
1264
Then, we did a degree of freedom analysis, listed the number of independent variables,
density is 1 variable, velocity components is 3 variables, pressure is 1 variable and then we
have 6 independent components of the viscous stress tensor. So, they are another 6 variables
and gave as 11 independent variables. Number of equations 1 mass balance, 3 linear
momentum balance, 1 equation of state and which was number of equations was 5.
So, when you subtract we were left with 6 degrees of freedom (DOF = 11 – 5 = 6) and we
concluded that the components of the viscous stress is are unknowns and to close the system
of equations. We need to express those components in terms of velocity; velocity gradients
and we call this as a closure problem. Now, we are exactly in the same situation now, later
on, when we started the transfer phenomena part of the course. And, and we discussed
momentum transport, we interpreted τ as molecular momentum flux.
So, if you want to restate this from that view point, we can say that need to express molecular
momentum flux, in terms of velocity gradients, both are two different viewpoints. The second
view point will be more useful because, we are discussing about heat flux.
Now, we are in the similar situation now, let us see why is it. So, let us list down all the
conservation equations, which are derived so far. We will express from a material particle
view point.
1265
Dρ ∂ ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ vx ∂ v y ∂ vz
= +v x
Dt ∂ t ∂x
+v y
∂y
+v z
∂z
=−ρ +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ ( )
2 2 2
D vx ∂vx ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p ∂ vx ∂ vx ∂ vx
ρ
Dt
=ρ
∂t[ +v x x +v y x +v z x = ρ g x−
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
+μ ]
∂x
2
+
∂y
2
+ 2
∂z ( )
2 2 2
D vy ∂v y ∂ vy ∂v y ∂v y ∂p ∂ vy ∂ vy ∂ v y
ρ
Dt
=ρ [
∂t
+v x
∂x
+v y
∂y
+v z
∂z ]
=ρ g y−
∂y
+μ + (+
∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂ z2 )
D vz ∂ vz ∂ vz ∂ vz ∂vz ∂p ∂2 v z ∂2 v z ∂2 v z
ρ
Dt
=ρ
∂t [+v x
∂x
+v y
∂y
+v z
∂z ]
=ρ g z −
∂z
+μ +( +
∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂ z2 )
So, that is the equation of continuity, the linear momentum balance equation in the x, y, z
direction, written in terms of substantial derivative number 1, number 2 right hand side, I
have already substituted for the viscous stresses or the molecular momentum flux using the
Newton’s law of viscosity.
And, so what is shown here is the Navier-Stokes equation, not the linear momentum balance
equation. And, that is the energy balance equation which you derived just now in terms of
temperature;
DT ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ ln ⁡( ρ)
ρ cp
Dt
=ρ c p
∂t (
+v x
∂x
+v y
∂y
+v z
∂z
=− ) (
+
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ −
∂ ln ⁡(T ) )( ) DpDt
p
We also require an equation of state expressing ρ in terms of pressure and temperature.
pM
ρ=ρ ( p , T ) =
RT
So, these are all the equations which we have now. Let us do a degree of freedom analysis,
what are the number of independent variables, like earlier we have
No of independent variables=1 ( ρ ) +3 ( v ) +1 ( p ) +1 ( T ) +1 ( q ) =9
ρ as 1 variable, 3 velocity components adds to 3 variables, pressure is 1 variable. Earlier we

had the tau by 6 variable because, I have expressed in terms of the Newton’s law of viscosity,
they are not the variables now. And, what are the other variables, the energy balance has
temperature unit so, that is another variable. Energy balance has these components of heat
1266
flux vector due to conduction and they add 3 components q x , q y , q z , resulting in 9
independent variables.
No of equations=1 ( MB ) +3 ( NS ) +1 ( EB ) +1 ( EoS ) =6
What are the number of equations? 1 mass balance, 3 Navier-Stokes equation ok, not linear
momentum balance equation, we have already substituted the Newton’s law of viscosity. 1
energy balance equation, 1 equation of state, resulting in 6 number of equations. Let us
subtract find the degree of freedom it is
DOF=9−6=3
Which means that; the 3 variables are unknown, what are the 3 variables. The components of
heat flux vector in the x, y, z direction are the unknown variables, q x , q y , q z .
So, analogous statement just like we saw in the previous slide, what is that need to express
the heat flux in terms of temperature, temperature gradient. That is why I said in the previous
slide, the interpretation of τ in terms of molecular momentum flux is more useful now. And,
we said molecular momentum flux has to be expressed in terms of velocity, velocity gradient,
analogous statement now is need to express heat flux in terms of temperature, temperature
gradient so, very much analogous.
1267
Let us summarize what we have discussed so far. We have derived the differential energy
balance equation through a series of stages, first we expressed in terms of internal energy,
plus kinetic energy, plus potential energy, which is what we discussed in the previous lecture.
In this lecture, we took the effect of gravity from potential energy on the left hand side to
work done on the right hand side.
So, that we could get a differential energy balance equation in terms of internal energy and
kinetic energy, independently we derived an equation for kinetic energy from linear
momentum balance equation. Subtracted these two and got a differential energy balance
equation for internal energy. Used equation use thermodynamics relationship between
internal energy and enthalpy and got equation for enthalpy.
And, then once again used the thermodynamics relationship between enthalpy and
temperature and pressure and finally, arrived at the equation finally, arrived at the differential
energy balance equation in terms of temperature. Towards end the closure problem, what is
that need to relate heat flux to temperature, temperature gradient.
1268
Lecture - 112
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
We derived the differential energy balance equation in terms of total energy and then through
a series of steps, we expressed in terms of temperature. And we realized that, we have the
components of heat flux vector, which needs to be expressed in terms of temperature,
temperature gradient to close the system of equations and that is what we are going to discuss
in this lecture. And first, we are going to discuss about the Fourier’s laws of heat conduction
which will close the system of equations and then simplifications of the differential energy
balance to forms which are usually applied.
1269
Before, we discuss the Fourier’s laws of heat conductions; let us have a few recalls slides on
Newton’s law of viscosity. Now if you recall, we interpreted τ in two different ways. First
was in terms of viscous stress and we express the Newton’s law of viscosity as the viscous
stress; proportional to the velocity gradient and the constant of proportionality is the
viscosity.
Then when we came to the transfer phenomena part of the course, when we discuss
momentum transport, we viewed τ as molecular momentum flux.
1270
And, expressed the Newton’s law of viscosity as the molecular moment of flux proportional
to the velocity gradient, to take care of sign convention, we introduced the minus sign the
constant of proportionality was the viscosity. Now, this interpretation of τ as molecular
momentum flux is what is relevant for present discussion. Remember, when we discussed the
two viewpoints of τ , we said one advantage of interpreting τ as molecular momentum flux is
that. We can discuss the analogy between molecular momentum flux, molecular heat flux and
then species flux and that is what we will see now.
So, the discussion which follows now for a relating heat flux and temperature gradient will be
analogous to our discussion on relating molecular momentum flux and velocity gradient. It
will not be similar to that discussion on relating viscous stress and then velocity gradient.
That is one of the reasons for interpreting τ as molecular momentum flux. Let us see how
they are analogous.
1271
So, we will discuss the Fourier’s law of heat conduction analogous to the discussion we had
on Newton’s law of viscosity, where we interpreted τ as molecular momentum of flux. Now,
what we will do is consider two plates which are parallel to each other and whose area is A.
And, a slab of solid material is located between the two large parallel plates. The solid
material is shown in the above referred slide. So, we have two plates and then we have a solid
material between them. What is the difference? So, far we have seen this configuration as two
parallel plates with fluid flowing between them instead of that now, we have the two parallel
plates if we have a solid; slab between the two plates.
So, we will take the condition, where the two plates are maintained at two different
temperatures, the top plate is maintained at T 0 and, then the bottom plate is maintained at
temperature T 1 which is higher than T 0.
Now, here constant rate of heat flows required to maintain the temperature difference.
Constant rate of heat flow is required from the region of higher temperature to the region of
low temperature. So, that this temperature difference is maintained. Now, it is experimentally
found that that is a key word here, experimentally found that for a small ∆ T let us say
differing by let us say one degrees or 0.1 degrees centigrade.
What is experimentally found is that the rate of heat flow per unit area; area through which
heat flows which you call us heat flux. Because it is rate of heat flow per area, it has heat flux
1272
that is found to be proportional to the temperature decrease over distance y and that is what is
shown here.
Q ∆T
∝
A y
So, heat flux proportional to the temperature decrease over distance Y and the constant of
proportionality is the thermal conductivity of the slab material (k).
Q ∆T
=k
A y
Now for illustration, we have taken a solid slab between the two plates. When we discuss
Newton’s law of viscosity, we took a liquid or fluid between the two plates. What does the
reason why we have taken solid here? Remember conduction takes place in solids, liquids,
and gases as well. Now, what is the reason for considering solid in the present case for
discussing Fourier’s laws of heat conduction?
Let us say, if you have taken a liquid or a gas between the two plates, what will happen? The
bottom plate is at a higher temperature, and the top plate is at a lower temperature. So, the
fluid near the bottom plate will be at a higher temperature, it will have a lower density and
the fluid near top plate will be at a lower temperature, will have a higher density. So, which
means that this fluid will move here and there will be movement of liquid in the region which
you are considering, which will add to the complexity, which we call us convection.
So, to eliminate convection only, we have considered a slab of solid material between the two
plates. Further, if you have a fluid between the two plates there can be heat transfer because
of radiation. Of course, the radiation plays a significant role only at high temperatures, but to
eliminate radiation only, we have considered a slab of solid material between the two plates.
So, we considered a solid material between the two plates instead of a fluid so that we can
eliminate convection and radiation.
So, putting it the other way this equation or this experimental observation that rate of heat
flow per area is proportional to the temperature decrease over distance is valid for liquid and
gas also certainly, if convection and radiation are eliminated. So, that should be kept in mind.
1273
Q ∆T
=k
A y
We have seen this expression in the previous slide, which says that the heat flux by
conduction is proportional to temperature gradient. So, let us start using more formal words,
Q ∆T
so is heat flux, and is temperature gradient. So, heat flux by conduction is
A y
proportional to temperature gradient. Now, how do we express this in differential form? That
is expressing in terms of difference.
∂T
q y =k
∂y
So, left hand side we have q y . Why is that it is q y ? The example which you have considered,
we have x is along horizontal direction, y is along the vertical direction. And, flow of heat
takes place in the y direction from the lower plate to the top plate. And, that is why this is
heat flux in that y direction. Now, we know that a heat flows from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature.
So, in this case the direction of heat flow is along the positive y axis, but we know that it is
from a higher temperature to a low temperature, which means it is along the direction of
∂T
negative temperature gradient. So, if you substitute here what will happen is negative and
∂y
1274
heat flux will be negative, but whenever something flows let it be velocity or heat flow I want
it to have a positive value, when it flows along the positive y axis.
So, to achieve that sign convention, what is that? Heat flux to be positive when heat flows
along positive y direction in the present case, if you leave this expression as such q y will be
negative, but heat flow will be happening along positive y axis, but I want it to be positive,
when heat is flowing along positive y axis. So, I include a negative sign. So,
∂T
q y =−k
∂y
∂T
Now, what happens? If you apply this equation for the present case, is negative q y is
∂y
positive and it is flowing along the positive y axis.
And, that is the Fourier’s law of heat conduction or the one dimensional form of the Fourier’s
law of heat conduction. What you have discussed is once again analogous to what we
discussed under the momentum transport. To begin with, we had the molecular momentum
flux proportional to the velocity gradient alone, there again we wanted the momentum flux to
be positive, when there is transport of momentum along the positive axis. So, we include a
negative sign. Of course, there it was momentum flux transported molecular momentum flux
transported from a region of higher velocity to lower velocity, but otherwise the reason for
adding negative sign in both the case is analogous.
1275
We will express the Fourier’s law of heat conduction in the three dimensional form. We have
this expression in the x direction;
∂T
q x =−k
∂x
We will just extend, we will write similar expressions for the y direction and the z direction.
∂T
q y =−k
∂y
∂T
q z =−k
∂z
So, heat flux in a particular direction is proportional to the temperature gradient in that
direction. We can express these three equations in the vector form, which is very compact.
q=−k ∇ T
∂T ∂T ∂T
q=q x i +q y j +q z k ; ∇ T = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂ y ∂z
So, the left hand side is the q vector right hand side we have minus of gradient of temperature
of course, thermal conductivity is the material property.
Now, if you look at this expression, I have used the same thermal conductivity in all the three
directions; you have q x , q y , q z . So, there is a direction attached to the left side. I have also
∂T ∂T ∂T
attached a direction to the gradient of temperature , , , but k has been taken as
∂x ∂ y ∂z
same along the three directions. And, that we know defines isotropic material. So, this
Fourier’s law of heat conduction which are discussing is applicable for homogeneous,
isotropic material. Why is it isotropic? At the same point the thermal conductivity is taken to
be same in all the three directions.
This may not be applicable for all the materials as you have seen earlier wood is a good
example for non-isotropic material thermal conductivity will differ depending on the
direction. And this is the second constitutive relation which you are coming across. The first
one is the Newton’s law of viscosity. This is second constitutive relation, which is the
Fourier’s law of heat conduction. As a quick recap what is a constitutive relation? Relate
1276
unknown variables in terms of known variables. What is the unknown variable here; the heat
flux known variable temperature. And this relationship closes the conservation equation
energy balance here.
Once again it is experimentally obtained, we are not deriving it we only stated that and then
describe behavior of material there it was a mechanical behavior, but now, it is a thermal
behavior. It is example for a constitutive relation. We will come across one more when we
discuss species balance.
What is the units of k? If you take this equation
q=−k ∇ T
Left hand side we have heat flux, which is watt per meter squared. Right hand side we have
temperature gradient and if you divide these two we will get Watt per meter Kelvin.
2
W /m W
Units of k= =
k/m m. K
That is a unit of thermal conductivity; k can take on a wide range of values it could be as low
as 0.01 for gasses up to 1000 for pure metals very wide range. And, the thermal conductivity
is a function of temperature and pressure.
1277
This figure from Welty and others from the book Fundamentals of Momentum Heat and
Mass Transfer shows the effect of temperature on thermal conductivity for solids liquids and
gases. For the gases thermal conductivity increases with temperature, but for solids and
liquids you see different trends, it could be increasing it could be decreasing similarly here
also could be increasing decreasing. So, different trends are possible.
Let us have a very quick application of the Fourier’s law of heat conduction. We use the
Fourier’s law of heat conduction, in heat flux sensor to measure the heat flux. Let us read the
example, a thin film heat flux sensor is used to measure heat flux incident on a surface and
that is what is shown in the figure, we have a surface here and heat flux is incident on the
surface. A thin barrier thickness 0.2 mm of polyamide of thermal conductivity k equal to 0.25
W/m K is attached to the surface.
The temperature difference measured across the barrier is 5 0C. For example, let us say you
have a thermo couple here, you measure that temperature you put a thermo couple here you
measured the temperature here. So, the temperature the difference measured across the barrier
is 5 0C, determine the heat flux incident on this surface.
Solution:
So, let us use the Fourier’s law of heat conduction. Let us use in terms of magnitude that is
what we want.
1278
∂T
|q y|=k ∂ y
In terms of difference
∂T ∆T 5
|q y|=k ∂ y =k ∆ y =0.25 x =6250 W
0.2 x 10−3
That is the heat flux incident on the surface. Like to mention that by using this expression,
what we have done is; indirectly measured heat flux though it says measure heat flux it is not
direct measurement. We have measured only temperature difference directly and using
Fourier’s law of heat conduction, we have found out or determined the heat flux which means
you are measuring heat flux indirectly. Similar to our molecular momentum flux, velocity
gradient is measurable.
Molecular momentum flux is not measurable; similarly the viscous stress also not, it’s not
measurable. Similarly here also heat flux is not measurable only temperature; temperature
gradients are measurable. So, this example also illustrates that.
Now, let us compare the one dimensional form of Newton’s law of viscosity and the
Fourier’s law of heat conduction. And, see whether they are similar or not similar. Let us
write down the Newton’s law of viscosity the one dimensional form.
1279
∂vx
τyx =−μ
MomT
∂y
And, for this we are going to interpret tau as molecular momentum flux that is why we have a
minus sign here. Let us write down the Fourier’s law of heat conduction, once again the one
dimensional case
∂T
q y =−k
∂y
Now, if you look at them they are similar expressions, both of them expresses a flux in terms
of a gradient of a measurable variable with the negative sign. So, left hand side in both the
cases, we have flux molecular momentum flux, heat flux, right hand side velocity gradient,
temperature gradient. In both the cases, the coefficient of proportionality is the physical
property characteristic of the material the first case viscosity second case thermal
conductivity.
So, based on this we can conclude that the molecular transport of momentum and heat are
mathematically analogous. Not alone that from a physical picture also they are analogous that
is what is shown in the two figures. For this discussion we will take the two parallel plates
case and for the present discussion, we will consider the space within the two plates to be
filled with gas. That will help us for easier discussion and that is why it is shown in green
color.
Now, what happens in the case of a molecular momentum transport, the molecules in the
bottom layer will have a higher velocity higher x momentum, molecules in the above layer
will have a lower velocity lower x momentum. And, hence x momentum is transported in the
y direction. Molecular x momentum is transported in the y direction because of the random
motion of the molecules.
Analogously in heat transfer, the molecules at the bottom layer will have a higher
temperature which means they have a higher internal energy. The molecules in the above
layer will have a lower temperature or lower internal energy. Now, because of molecular
motion, internal energy gets transported from the molecules in the bottom layer to molecules
in the layer above and that is what we call as heat.
1280
So, in the first case molecular momentum flux x molecular momentum flux gets transported
in the y direction, from a region of high velocity to a region of low velocity. In the second
case heat flux gets transported from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature. So, in terms of molecular mechanism also they are analogous.
Now, having said they are analogous, let us compare the 3 dimensional Newton’s law
viscosity and the Fourier’s law of heat conduction. So, let us write down the Newton’s law of
viscosity of course, now we have to write six equations there are six components of the
molecular momentum flux tensor. So, we will have to write all the six equations for the
Newton’s law of viscosity.
∂vx ∂ v y ∂ vx
τ xx=−2 μ
∂x
; τ xy=τ yx=−μ ( +
∂x ∂ y )
∂vy ∂ vz ∂ v y
τ yy=−2 μ
∂y
; τ yz =τ zy=−μ( +
∂ y ∂z )
∂vz ∂ v x ∂ vz
τ zz =−2 μ
∂z (
; τ zx =τ xz =−μ
∂z ∂x
+ )
Once again, we are interpreting in terms of molecular momentum flux. And objective is to
find out whether they are similar or not? Just like we did for the one dimensional case now,
1281
let us write down the Fourier’s law of heat conduction once again the three dimensional
version. Now, we will have to write three equestrians one for each direction.
∂T ∂T ∂T
q x =−k ; q =−k ; q =−k
∂x y ∂y z ∂z
Now, very clear even the way I started and the way in which I explained they are not
analogous. I said write six equations there write three equations here they are not analogous.
There are they are different why is it so?
Heat as we know it is a scalar, but molecular momentum is a vector. Heat flux is a vector,
molecular momentum flux is a tensor. So, there is one tensorial order of difference. So, in this
sense molecular transport of momentum and heat are not mathematically analogous. So, the
strict analogy is applicable only for the simpler one dimensional case. If you go to the three
dimensional case, the mathematical analogy breaks down. In one case you have scalar and
then vector for the case of heat for the case of momentum it is vector and then tensor. So,
they are not mathematically analogous.
So, let us go back to our differential energy balance equation, where we left a few slides
back.
DT ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ qx ∂ ln ⁡( ρ)
ρ cp
Dt
=− ( +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ − )(
p
1282
The left hand side in terms of the substantial derivative of temperature right hand side was in
terms of the components of the heat flux vector. And that is where we said need to close the
system of equations, which means that we need to express the heat flux in terms of
temperature, we know now it is in terms of temperature gradient and that is what we have
done now using the Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
So, let us write down the Fourier’s law of heat conduction, the three dimensional version and
then we will have to just substitute in the above equation.
∂T ∂T ∂T
q x =−k ; q y =−k ; q z =−k
∂x ∂y ∂z
And, this is system of equation now becomes closed. So, let us do that
DT ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ln ⁡( ρ)
ρ cp
Dt
=
[ ( ) ( ) ( )] (
k + k + k
∂ x ∂x ∂ y ∂ y ∂ z ∂ z
−
p
What is the big change that has happened? In this equation it was in terms of heat flux.
Unmeasurable unknown, but now I have expressed that in terms of the temperature which is a
measurable variable. So, this equation is also a differential energy balance equation for
temperature, where right hand side now has been completely expressed in terms of
measurables.
1283
Lecture - 113
Simplification of Differential Energy Balance
We will look at different levels of simplifications, of the different energy balance equation, to
forms which are usually used. So, let us start the equation, which I have seen in the previous
slide.
DT ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ln ⁡( ρ)
ρ cp
Dt
=
[ ( ) ( ) ( )] (
k + k + k
∂ x ∂x ∂ y ∂ y ∂ z ∂ z
−
p
Now, let us say we have an ideal gas, let us see how the above equation gets simplified. For
an ideal gas we know
pM
ρ=
RT
Now, let us take logarithm on both the sides.
ln ( ρ ) =ln ( pMR )−ln ⁡(T )
1284
And,
( ∂∂lnln ⁡(T⁡( ρ)) ) =−1

p
So, we can just substitute that here, it becomes still simpler.
DT ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T Dp
ρ cp
Dt
=
[ ( ) ( ) ( )]
k + k + k
∂ x ∂x ∂ y ∂ y ∂ z ∂ z
+
Dt
So, this is the differential energy balance equation for an ideal gas. Now, let us say we have a
Dp
fluid flowing at constant pressure, what happens? =0 , so the last term vanishes when, I
Dt
say constant pressure, pressure is not a function of time and space.
DT ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
ρ cp
Dt
=
[ ( ) ( ) ( )]
k + k + k
∂ x ∂x ∂ y ∂ y ∂ z ∂ z
Dp
Remember it is , it has variation of pressure with time and spatial variation also. So,
Dt
pressure is just a constant, it is not varying both with time and spatial location. And, because
pressure is constant the last term drops out. Let us go back to the first equation, in this
equation if you consider density as constant for example, let us say water is flowing. The
∂ ln ⁡( ρ)
effect of temperature on density of water is not significant. So, the term, ( ∂ ln ⁡(T ) ) will not
p
be significant or if it is independent then it is 0. So, once again that term drops out. In this
case because pressure is constant, in this equation because density is constant, both result in
the same equation.
DT ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
ρ cp
Dt
=
[ ( ) ( ) ( )]
k + k + k
∂ x ∂x ∂ y ∂ y ∂ z ∂ z
1285
Now, let us simplify further, this is the equation which I have seen in the previous slide.
DT ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
ρ cp
Dt
=
[ ( ) ( ) ( )]
k + k + k
∂ x ∂x ∂ y ∂ y ∂ z ∂ z
At this stage, we have k inside the spatial derivative. So, thermal conductivity can change
with spatial location, if you assume thermal conductivity to be a constant. Why should k
change with spatial location, thermal conductivity as you have seen is a function of
temperature.
So, if you have a solid object with different temperatures then, k can vary with spatial
location also because, it is depends on temperature. If you assume k to be constant then, you
can take this out of the spatial derivative and that becomes a second order derivative.
2 2 2
DT ∂T ∂T ∂ T
ρ cp
Dt
=k
(2
+ 2+ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z )
Left hand side, I have expressed the substantial derivative in terms of the local component
and the convective component. Right hand side, I have expressed in terms of the Laplacian of
temperature.
ρ cp ( ∂∂Tt +v .∇ T )=k ∇ T
2
1286
So, this is the better representation of this equation. Now, let us say we have a solid and then
a stationary solid now, what happens for a stationary solid. The substantial derivative of
temperature which has two components, only the first component will be remain, the second
component which represents convection will become 0, v .∇ T =0.
DT ∂T
So, will become and that is what is shown here.
Dt ∂t
∂T ∂ 2 T ∂2 T ∂ 2 T
ρ cp
∂t
=k
(2
+ 2+ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z )
Now, suppose if it is 1 dimensional heat conduction in the solid,
2
∂T ∂T
ρ cp =k
∂t ∂x
2
Further if it is steady state,
2
∂T
2
=0
∂x
If you look at this equation should be really happy at it, the way in which we started taking all
the energy terms in to account and work done term, heat input term. Several levels of
simplification, you get a very simple nice looking equation. So, if you have a solid 1D, if you
have solid 1D and then transient is also there and solid, 3D transient.
So, that is why the in one sense the discussion energy balance is simpler than the than the
discussion on momentum transport or fluid mechanics. One big difference is fortunately q is
the vector, the heat flux is the vector, it is the big simplification for us, τ was a tensor and
many terms drop out in the energy balance equation, the terms which contribute are only few
or one of them, I would say.
1287
So, let us look at the analogy between momentum transport and heat transport in terms of the
conservation equations. You have already seen these two equations and discussed the
analogy.
∂( ρ v x ) ∂ ( ρ v x v x ) ∂ ( ρ v y v x ) ∂ ( ρ v z v x ) ∂ τ xx ∂ τ yx ∂ τ zx ∂ p
∂t
+
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z (=−μ +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ ) −
∂x
+ρ g x
∂( ρe) ∂ ( ρ v x e ) ∂ ( ρ v y e ) ∂ ( ρ v z e ) ∂ qx ∂ q y ∂ qz ∂ ( p v x ) ∂ ( p v y ) ∂ ( p v z)
∂t
+
∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z (
=− +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ − )( ∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z )
Same equations we will write again now, in terms of the measurable variables.
2 2 2
D vx ∂vx ∂vx ∂ vx ∂ vx ∂p ∂ vx ∂ vx ∂ vx
ρ
Dt
=ρ [
∂t
+v x
∂x
+v y
∂y
+v z
∂z
=ρ g x− ]
∂x
+μ + (
+
∂ x2 ∂ y 2 ∂ z 2 )
This is the linear momentum balance; this is the Navier-Stokes equation. Substitute at for τ ,
the molecular momentum flux in terms of the velocity gradient using the Newton’s law of
viscosity.
Let us write the energy equation once again in terms of measurables,
2 2 2
DT ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂ T ∂T ∂ T ∂ ln ⁡( ρ)
ρ cp
Dt
=ρ c p
∂t (
+v x
∂x
+v y
∂y
+v z
∂z
=k 2
+) (
∂x ∂ y ∂z
2
+ 2
−
∂ ln ⁡(T ) )( ) DpDt
p
1288
I have expressed the heat flux or the components of heat flux, in terms of temperature
gradient, using the Fourier’s law of heat conduction and return this equation. So, now, the
equations are analogous, we have the transient terms and convective transport terms,
molecular transport terms and then surface force due to pressure, body force rate of work
done by pressure force. And, if you look at this form of the conservation equation, once again
they are analogous.
Left hand side, they are written in terms of the substantial derivative. And, right hand side we
have Laplacian of velocity here, Laplacian of temperature of course, other terms are also
there. Of course, we should know that, three such equations are there for the momentum,
energy balance only this one equation alone.
Let us summarize this lecture, we have discussed the Fourier’s law of heat conduction, which
relates heat flux to temperature gradient, we have also discussed the analogy between
Fourier’s law of heat conduction and Newton’s law of viscosity. In 1D they are analogous; in
3D they are not analogous.
And, using the Fourier’s law of heat conduction, we express the energy balance completely in
terms of temperature. We also looked at the simplifications of the differential energy balance
equation. And finally, the terms that were left out were the transient term, the convection
term and the heat conduction term. Only those were the terms finally, which remained in the
differential energy balance equation.
1289
Lecture – 114
Heat Conduction in Slab
We have derived the differential form of energy balance equation starting from total energy
and expressed in terms of temperature. Also closed it using the Fourier’s law of heat
conduction simplified it, and now it is time to look at the applications. Let us look at simple
applications, of course, the main application is to find out the temperature profile we are
going to find out the temperature profile in a slab and then extent that to a furnace wall and
then in a planar Couette flow.
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So, let us start with the first application which is heat conduction in a slab, what we have is a
slab like and, then the two surfaces are maintained at two different temperatures, let say T 0
and then T L. The thickness of this slab is L and what is that we are interested in, what is the
temperature profile across the thickness of this slab, how temperature varies with the
thickness of the slab.
We will consider the case where the left hand side surface is at higher temperature, and the
right hand side surface at a lower temperature. And, so the heat flows from higher
temperature to lower temperature along the positive x axis and takes place by conduction.
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We will consider steady state condition and we are going to consider only one dimensional
heat transfer and that is why it says, steady state one dimensional heat conduction. So, we
will start with an assumption that the thermal conductivity is a constant meaning that it does
not vary with temperature.
Now, we have seen different simplifications of the energy balance equation, so now we
should take the form which is applicable for solids, because we considering a solid slab
material.
2 2 2
∂T ∂ T ∂T ∂ T
ρ cp
∂t (
=k 2
+ 2+ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z )
So the energy balance for solids was shown to be this form. Now, this gets further simplified
because it is steady state, so the left hand side becomes 0, because it is one dimensional these
two terms become 0. And, we are left only with the temperature variation along the x
direction.
2
d T
2
=0
dx
This is second order in differential equation. We require two boundary conditions to solve
this second order ODE and the temperatures are specified both ends of this slab and those are
the boundary conditions at x=0, the left hand the left surface of this slab.
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So, the temperature is
T =T 0 at x=0 ,
T =T L at x= L
So those serve as the boundary conditions.
So, let us summarize them here
d2 T
2
=0 ; T =T 0 at x=0 ; T =T L at x=L
dx
The energy balance has finally, simplified to just a simple second order ordinary differential
equation with the right hand side 0, does not even look like energy balance now. But, we
know the physics behind it we know how we arrived at that particular equation, and these are
the boundary conditions which we have discussed.
So, we integrate once it becomes
dT
=C 1
dx
Integrate once again we get
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T =C 1 x +C 2
Now, we need to evaluate the two constants, we will use both the boundary conditions at
T =T 0 at x=0. So, if we substitute in this equation we get
C 2 =T 0
Now, let us use the second boundary condition T =T L at x= L.
T L=C 1 L+C 2
So, if you rearrange we get the constant C 1 as
T L−T 0
C 1=
L
So let us substitute both the constants in the equation. And, we get
T= ( T −T
L )
L
x+T0
0
This gives the temperature profile across the thickness of this slab at x = 0 we have T 0. And,
x = L we get T L and that is a temperature profile shown in the figure.
We can also express this in dimension less form, so
T −T 0 x
=
T L −T 0 L
So, we can express the temperature profile in this dimensionless form as well, unless evaluate
the heat flux heat flux is given by
dT T L−T 0 T 0 −T L
q x =−k =−k C 1 =−k =k
dx L L
What do we observe? The heat flux is a constant. Because L is a constant, the end
temperatures are constant; we assume the thermal conductivity to be constant. So, all
variables here are constant the heat flux is just a constant; it does not vary throughout the
thickness of this slab you have only one heat flux value.
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We should also know that in the previous slide we have discussed all the physics and what
you have discussed in this slide is just pure maths. At this stage the physics ends and then the
maths starts, so that should also be kept in mind. So, that we clearly understand what is the
physics of the problem, what is the maths of the problem.
If we carefully recall our discussion on the previous two slides many steps many words also I
would say would be same as what we discussed earlier for the case of planar Couette flow.
So, let us now discuss the analogy between momentum and heat transport by using the two
examples, one is this planar Couette flow. And then the other one is the present example of
heat conduction in a slab.
Let us see how they are very much analogous, so left hand side we have velocity profile in a
planar Couette flow, the flow between two parallel plates the bottom plate fixed, the top plate
set in motion. Right hand side we have temperature profile in a slab we have a slab the left
and right surfaces are maintained in two different temperatures
So, the plates we have two different velocities 0 and then velocity of the plate, and in the slab
we have two different temperatures. What is the governing equation? The governing equation
just becomes
2
d vx
2 =0
dy
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And, the governing question in heat transfer is
2
d T
2
=0
dx
The boundary conditions for the case of planar Couette flow are
v x =0 at y=0 ; v x =v p at y=h
For slab
T =T 0 at x=0 ; T =T L at x= L
Of course, the direction is different first it is along the y axis here is along the x axis.
Now, how do we solve, so the physics of the problem ends here, the governing equation and
the boundary conditions. Now, we start solving them
For Couette flow we integrate once we get
d vx
=C 1
dy
Then for slab we integrate once we get
dT
=C 1
dx
Integrate again we get
v x =C 1 y +C 2
T =C 1 x +C 2
We evaluate the two constants we use the boundary condition; the first boundary condition at
the bottom plate and find
C 2=0
And for slab once again we use a boundary condition at the left surface and find out the
constant
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C 2 =T 0
Next we use the second boundary condition which is velocity of the top plate and find the
constant as
vp
C 1=
h
Similarly for slab, we use the boundary condition in terms of temperature at the right surface
and find out the constant
T L−T 0
C 1=
L
Substitute the constants and then get the expression for the velocity profile,
vp
vx= y
h
And, substitute the constants get the expression for the temperature profile.
T= ( T −T
L
L )
0
x+T 0
At this stage they may look different, but moment we express in terms of dimensionless form
they become very much analogous;
vx y
=
vp h
The dimensionless velocity for the Couette flow,
T −T 0 x
=
T L −T 0 L
For slab again dimensionless temperature, both the profiles are linear.
We use the arrow mark to show velocity, but for temperature as a scalar, so we do not use an
arrow mark. And, in both the cases we should know that the term which remained in the
conservation equation was due to molecular transport. In the case of a fluid flow it was the
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molecular transport of momentum, and in the case of a slab it is the molecular transport of
heat.
So, only those terms remained and the solution, procedure, the profile all are very much
analogous, what is the reason we discussed the previous lecture that momentum and heat
transport are mathematical analogous when it is one dimensional case. Because we are
discussing one dimensional case both momentum and heat transport are mathematically
analogous.
1298
Lecture – 115
Heat Conduction in Furnace Wall
So, now let us extend the discussion what they had for a singles slab to a series of labs. What
is an application? This can be taken as an example for a series of slabs. The application
would be in a for a furnace wall, furnace is an equipment where we have very high
temperature inside and we use it for carrying out high temperature reactions.
And, because the temperature is high inside and outside is ambient there can be very high
heat loss through the walls of the furnace. So, usually furnace walls are made of several
layers and they are made of materials which have low thermal conductivity. So, that they can
provide good insulation and that is what is shown in the image in the above slide snap, here it
is shown as a series of slabs.
But, what we can imagine is this to be a furnace wall let us say high temperature here and let
us say a low temperature here. So, that is the application what we are going to do is extend
the discussion for single slab to multiple slabs. And, what is the object to find out that heat
flux through a series of slabs like this, so let us do that.
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So, as I told you furnace wall made of series of layers or series of slabs, so we discuss in
terms of multiple slabs. We will use a this result which you have seen in the case of single
slab that is the temperature gradient or the slope of the temperature profile
dT T −T 0 T 0 −T L
=C 1 = L =
dx L−0 0−L
So, now let us write down the expression for the heat flux in each of the layers, this figure is
from Bird, Stewart, Lightfoot, three layers are shown and each layer is made of a different
material called as substance 01, 12 and 23. We will just call them as 1, 2, 3 for easy
discussion and each material has it is own thermal conductivity k01, k12, and then k23.
Left surface is at a temperature T 0 naught and the right surface is at a temperature T 3, so now
let us write the expression for heat flux in the first layer. So, heat flux in the first layer is
equal to minus thermal conductivity in the first layer multiply by that temperature gradient in
the first layer. So, we have
01
∂T (T 0 −T 1 )
01
q =−k
x
01
( )
∂x
=−k 01
x 0 −x1
So, this equation gives the heat flux through the first layer in terms of the temperature
difference and x 0 − x1 , is the thickness of that layer and also in terms of the thermal
conductivity of the first layer.
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So, let us similarly write down the expression for the second layer and the third layer.
12
∂T (T 1 −T 2 )
12
q =−k
x
12
( )
∂x
=−k 1 2
x 1 −x 2
23
∂T (T 2 −T 3 )
23
q x =−k
23
( )
∂x
=−k
23
x 2 −x3
So, these are the equations for the heat flux through the second layer and through the third
layer.
The temporary difference for the second layer is T 1 −T 2 and the temperature difference for
the third layer is T 2 −T 3 in the corresponding thicknesses. Now, like in the last case we are
considering steady state condition, so the heat flux through all this labs should be same; slab
1, slab 2, slab 3 all the heat flux should be same.
So, let us put down that in terms of a equation
01 12 23
q x =q x =q x =q0
So, now, let us express this equation in terms of the thermal conductivity and the temperature
difference and the thickness using these 3 expressions.
01 ( T 0−T 1 ) 12 ( T 1−T 2) 23 ( T 2−T 3)

−k =−k =−k =q 0
x 0−x 1 x 1 −x 2 x 2 −x3
Now, what we will do is from this equation we will write expressions for the difference in
temperature across the 3 slabs. So, from this expression we write
( x 1−x 0 ) ( x2−x 1) ( x 3 −x 2 )
T 0 −T 1=q 0 01
; T 1 −T 2 =q 0 12
; T 2−T 3 =q0 23
k k k
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So, let us write down all the three expressions for the temperature difference across the 3
slabs and you understand why we are doing this,
( x 1−x 0 )
T 0 −T 1=q 0 01
;
k
( x 2−x 1)
T 1 −T 2 =q 0 12
;
k
( x 3 −x 2 )
T 2 −T 3 =q 0 23
k
Now, what we do is just add all these three questions,
( x 1−x 0 ) ( x 2 −x 1 ) ( x 3−x 2 )
T 0 −T 3 =q0
[ k 01
+
k 12
+
k 23 ]
The reason is that we know only the n temperatures, we know only T 0, we know only T 3 the
n temperatures are known. The interface temperatures; interface temperatures meaning, the
temperature at the interface of the two materials T 1, T 2 are not usually known that is why
what we have done is eliminated T 1, T 2 from the above equations.
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So, when you add left hand side we have you have only T 0 −T 3, right hand side of course, q 0
is common and then multiply by thickness by thermal conductivity for each slab, slab 1, slab
2 and slab 3. As I said our objective is to find out the heat flux through this series of slabs, so
let us rearrange this expression for q 0. So,
T 0−T 3
q 0=
( x 1−x 0 ) ( x 2−x 1 ) ( x 3−x 2 )
[ k 01
+
k 12
+
k 23 ]
So, what is the use we can calculate the heat flux through the furnace wall [inaudible], we
know T 0, we know T 3, we know the thickness of each slab or each layer, we know the
thermal conductivity of the material of this slab. So, simple substitution we can find out what
is the heat flux through the furnace wall.
Other way of using this equation would be suppose let us say you want to limit the heat flux
to a particular value then q naught is known. Of course, a temperature difference is known to
us then you can find out the thickness of one of the layers. Now, this equation can be
interpreted in a different way let us see how do we interpret that.
For that let is write the Fourier’s law of heat conduction in terms of difference. So,
∂T ∆T
q x =−k =−k
∂x ∆x
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Now, let us do a small rearrangement on the right hand side
−∆ T
qx=
∆x
k
How do we interpret this equation left hand side we have heat flux right hand side we have
temperature difference in the numerator. The denominator we can call this as conduction
resistance, because that determines the resistance to conduction.
Temperature difference
Hear flux =
Conduction resistance
Suppose the temperature difference is same the higher the conduction resistance lowers is the
heat flux. So, what can result in higher conduction resistance either the thickness can be large
or it can be a material which has a very low thermal conductivity.
So, either the thickness is a large or the thermal conductivity is low then the conduction
resistance will be high and for the same temperature difference heat flex will be reduced.
So, it acts as a resistance to conduction heat flux and this expression is similar to our well
known expression for a current expressed as potential difference by electrical resistance. So,
now, if you go back to our expression for heat flux through the three slabs we can interpret
that as
T 0−T 3 Overall temperature difference

q 0= =
( x 1−x 0 ) ( x 2−x 1 ) ( x 3−x 2 ) Sun of conduction resistance
[ k 01
+
k 12
+
k 23 ]
So, the heat flux through this series of three layers can be expressed as the overall
temperature difference divided by some of the conduction resistances. And this also very
quiet popular representation of heat flux or any flux expressed as ratio of the driving force by
the resistance.
1304
Let us take a numerical example to illustrate the theory which are discussed now for heat
conduction of furnace wall. Let us read the example the furnace wall consists of three layers,
the inner layer of 10 cm thickness is made of firebrick is thermal conductivities 1 W/m. K.
The intermediate layer of 20 cm thickness is made of masonry brick, the thermal conductivity
is 0.8 W/m. K, followed by a 5 cm thick concrete wall whose thermal conductivity is 1.25
W/m. K. As I told you there are multiple layers, three layers here each is made of different a
material they have their own thermal conductivity and of course, different thickness as well.
And, the figure shown in the above slide image is only a qualitative representation of this
furnace wall. When the furnace is in continuous operation the inner surface of the furnace is
at 1000 0C, while the outer concrete surface is at 100 0C. Calculate the rate of heat loss per
unit area of the wall, the temperature of the interference of the fire brick and masonry brick
that is the first two layers.
And the temperature at the interface of the masonry brick and concrete that is an interface
between the second and third layers. And we are also asked to draw the temperature profile
across the furnace wall,
Solution:
Now, let us find out the numerical values we have discussed the theory.
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T 0−T 3
q 0=
( x 1−x 0 ) ( x 2−x 1 ) ( x 3−x 2 )
[ k 01
+
k 12
+
k 23 ]
So, we have seen this expression for the heat flux expressed in terms of the temperature at the
inner surface and outer surface and in terms of thickness of each material and thermal
conductivity of each material.
So, it is just a matter of simple substitution
0 0
T 0 =10000 C ; T 3 =100 C
x 1 −x 0 =0.1 m ; x 2 − x 1=0.2 m ; x3 − x 2=0.05m
W W W
k 01=1 ; k 12=0.8 ; k 23 =1.25
mK mK mK
So, simple substitution will give us
W
q 0 =2308
m2
That is a rate of heat loss per unit area of wall. So, when we say area we should take this area
that is the area of heat transfer that is the area that is about 2300 W/m 2. Now, so that answers
part a we will have to find out the interface temperatures let us do that.
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The values from the previous slide are shown here for convenience; now let us write down
the expressions which we discussed in the theory behind this example.
01 12 23
q x =q x =q x =q 0
01 ( T 0−T 1 ) 12 ( T 1−T 2) 23 ( T 2−T 3)

−k =−k =−k =q 0
x 0−x 1 x 1 −x 2 x 2 −x3
That is an expression for the equality of heat flux through all the 3 layers and now this
equation expresses that in terms of the temperature gradients.
( x 1−x 0 ) ( x2−x 1) ( x 3 −x 2 )
T 0 −T 1=q 0 01
; T 1 −T 2 =q 0 12
; T 2−T 3 =q0 23
k k k
And, this equation are written for the temperature difference and we need these equations,
because we need to find out the interfaced temperatures and that is why these equations are
shown here again. So, let us take the first equation, so
( x 1−x 0 )
T 0 −T 1=q 0 01
k
And, we know the value of q 0, we have just now determined and we know the thickness of
this first layer. We know it is thermal conductivity if you substitute you get
1307
0
T 0 −T 1=230.7 C
So, that is a temperature difference across the first slab and we know T 0 , so we will evaluate
T1
0
T 1 =T 0−230.7=769.3 C
Now, let us use the third equation the equation for the third layer,
( x 3 −x 2 )
T 2 −T 3 =q 0 23
k
And we know thickness, we know the thermal conductivity, we have found out q 0 in the
previous slide if you substitute you get
0
T 2 −T 3 =92.3 C
And we know T 3, so
0
T 2 =T 3 +92.3=192.3 C
And the second equation for the second layer is not required, but we can just use it for
crosschecking let us do that let us use this equation.
( x 2−x 1)
T 1 −T 2 =q 0 12
k
If you substitute the values you will get
T 1 −T 2=577 0 C
And if you find out the difference between T 1 and T 2 it is in fact, 577 degrees centigrade it is
only a crosscheck. And, the temperature profile is shown in the above slide image within
each slab the profile is linear and we also found out the interface temperatures, that is why we
are able to plot the temperature profile.
But, within each law it is just linear that is because we have assumed thermal conductivity to
be constant. If thermal conductivity depends on temperature this profile would not be linear
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and what about the slope if you look at these equations, those slopes are inversely
proportional to the thermal conductivity q 0 is a constant.
So, the slopes are inversely proportional to the thermal conductivity, so the slope of this
temperature profile in the second slab is higher than that in the first slab. And, the slope of
this temperature profile in the third slab is lower than the slope of temperature profile in the
first slab. Because, second slab the thermal conductivity is lower than that of the first slab, so
slope is higher. And for the third slab thermal conductivity is higher, so slope is lesser in
comparison to the first slab.
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Lecture – 116
Non Isothermal Planar Couette Flow
Now, let us proceed to the next example, very familiar example. The flow between two
parallel plates, the top plate set in motion which is a planar Couette flow. We have solved the
velocity profile earlier, but now we are going to take the two plates to be at two different
temperatures. Earlier we had the two plates the top plate was set in motion, but we never even
talked about the temperature. Because, we are focusing on the Navier stokes equation our
attention was on the velocity profile.
But now, we are considering a case where the top plate is moving bottom plate is stationary,
but now they are at two different temperatures; bottom plate is a T 0, top plate is at T h, the top
is a higher temperature than bottom plate. Now, what is an application? We said the flow
between the two parallel plates approximates flow between two coaxial cylinders and that
happens in a viscometer or in a shaft barring. And by considering the two plates to be at two
different temperatures we are allowing for the rotating shaft and the housing to be at two
different temperatures, which is more realistic than assuming them to be at the same
temperature. What is the objective, to find out the temperature profile in this region.
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So, let us proceed with that flow between two parallel plates; one plate stationary, other plate
moves at a constant velocity v p till that it is same as the earlier description. Now, this
condition is different the plates are maintained at two different temperatures T 0 and T h.
So, now this is almost a recall slide, but with some more discussion. The first step is to find
out the velocity profile, we already found out the velocity profile for this planar Couette flow.
So, in that sense it is recall, but some more discussion is required. So, let us proceed with
that, what are the assumptions we made? It is steady state and then we have only x
component of velocity, there is no y component of velocity, there is no z component of
velocity. And then we also said the x component of velocity does not vary in the z direction.
∂ ∂vx
=0 , v x ≠ 0 ; v y =0 ; v z =0 ; =0
∂t ∂z
And we use the continuity equation
∂ vx ∂ v y ∂ v z
+ + =0
∂x ∂ y ∂z
And when we used these conditions v y =0 ; v z =0, we concluded that based on the continuity
equation
∂ vx ∂ vx
=0 ; ≠0
∂x ∂y
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This means that the x velocity does not vary along the x direction. Based on this, we arrived
that the x velocity varies only along the y direction.
Now, till this the discussion is same, but to proceed further which mean that to solve for the
velocity profile, we earlier used the Navier-Stokes equation. Now to proceed further, we need
to make an assumption, what is that? We are going to assume the viscosity is not a function
of temperature. Now question arises why this assumption is required? Earlier the two plates
were at the same temperature or we did not even mention that.
Now, they are at two different temperatures; so, there is going to be a temperature profile
here. Now if viscosity varies, if viscosity is a function of temperature, then viscosity will also
vary between the two plates, which means that first, we will have to solve the energy balance
get the temperature profile and then solve the linear momentum balance equation including
the variation of viscosity with space. So, by assuming viscosity as not function of temperature
we have decouple the momentum balance in energy balance equation, what does it mean? We
can solve momentum balance separately energy balance separately.
Just to quickly recall, assumption of viscosity not to depend on temperature is required reason
is temperature varies between the two plates. So, viscosity will also vary between the two
plates, if you assume it to depend on temperature, and which means that first we will have to
solve the energy balance then come to the momentum balance to solve for velocity profile.
But, we are avoiding all the difficulties to make the problem simple by assuming viscosity is
not a function of temperature. So, that we can solve the momentum balance energy balance
separately that is the first point.
Now, what is the second point let us write down Navier-Stokes equation. And then we will
see what is the other implication of assuming viscosity not to be a function of temperature,
∂vx ∂ vx ∂vx ∂ vx ∂p ∂2 v x ∂ 2 v x ∂ 2 v x
ρ ( ∂t
+v x
∂x
+v y
∂y
+v z
∂z ) = ρ g x−
∂x
+μ (
∂x
2
+
∂y
2
+ 2
∂z )
That is the Navier-Stokes equation. What is shown here at the last steps in the derivation of
the Navier-Stokes equation. The right hand side alone is shown in the right hand side only the
viscous terms alone are shown or the momentum flux terms alone shown.
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Now, this was the step we had and then we assumed viscosity as a constant, then we did
simplification and arrived at this expression which was in terms of the Laplacian of the
velocity. But now, if viscosity is not a constant then this expression is not valid, we will have
to use this terms as such why is that? Because, we assumed viscosity as a constant what does
it means? Viscosity not varying with spatial location we could take out the viscosity outside
of this spatial derivative.
But now if we assume viscosity to depend on temperature, viscosity will also vary spatially.
So, I cannot take it out and get this expression, I will have to solve the linear momentum
balance equation with those terms as such. So, to simplify that as well, where we assumed the
viscosity to be constant; so, two implications; one decouples the momentum balance and
energy balance equation we can solve them separately. Second to enable us to use the Navier-
Stokes equation itself, otherwise we will have to take the form of linear momentum balance
equation which includes the special variation of viscosity.
So, once we have justified this or made assumptions such that the Navier-Stokes equation can
be used, then if you apply the usual simplifications we arrived at this differential equation for
the velocity profile. And if you solve we get the linear velocity profile, but now we should
know the assumptions behind this equation.
1313
Now, let us proceed towards solving the temperature profile. Let us write down the energy
balance equation. Now, we will assume the density is constant and the thermal conductivity is
also a constant, and so, this is the relevant energy balance equation.
2 2 2
DT ∂T ∂T ∂T
ρ cp
Dt (
=k 2
+ 2+ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z )
Once again we looked at the several levels of simplification; if you refer the particular
discussion we will find out that this is the equation applicable for the case of constant density
and constant thermal conductivity.
To quickly recall, thermal conductivity is constant so, we could take out and we could get a
second order derivative for temperature. We get another term here which was, effect of
temperature on density because we have assumed density to be constant that term does not
DT
appear. And left hand side we have capital , remember because we are applying for fluids
Dt
∂T
in motion, when you applied for solid it was .
∂t
Now, let us expand the substantial derivative, so that we can see how to simplify that
2 2 2
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂ T ∂ T
ρ cp ( ∂t
+v x
∂x
+v y
∂y
+v z
∂z ) (
=k 2
+ 2+ 2
∂ x ∂ y ∂z )
∂T
Now assumptions, steady state so, =0 there is only x component of velocity which I have
∂t
already discussed. There is no component of velocity along y direction, z direction already
discussed.
∂ ∂T ∂T ∂T
=0 ; v x ≠ 0 ; v y=v z =0 ; =0 ; =0 ; ≠0
∂t ∂x ∂z ∂y
But now to proceed further, we need to make more assumptions what is that? Temperature
does not vary along the flow direction and then temperature does not vary along z direction.
So, temperature will vary only along y direction. The whole idea is to make sure that there is
only one spatial dependency, the temperature or velocity, we make it to vary along one
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direction. So, that we result in a ordinary differential equation. For the present case, this
assumption is called as fully developed temperature profile for the present case.
So, now, let us look at the left hand side, because it is steady state
∂T ∂2T
(
ρ c p 0+ v x 0+0
∂y ) (
+0 x 0 =k 0+ 2 +0
∂y )
So, the entire left hand side vanishes or putting it the other way, we have made assumption
such that the substantial derivative vanishes, what is the reason? As I told you we want to
retain only one spatial dependence and make the problem simpler. So, it becomes
2
d T
2
=0
dy
So, energy balance once again becomes very simple, but we should be aware of the
assumptions which you have made to arrive at this equation.
So, now we will have to solve the second ordinary differential equation. The temperature of
both the plates are specified; so
T =T 0 at y =0
T =T h at y =h
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So, we have
2
d T
2
=0
dy
This subject to these two boundary conditions, which have at this stage it is similar to the
equation which you have seen for the case of slab. So, we get the same linear temperature
profile
T h −T 0
T= y +T 0
h
So, that is the temperature profile shown here varying linearly from T 0 to T h. So, same
temperature profile only the directions is different, there we considered a slab like this here
we considered two plate like this. But, this temperature profile as we have seen as several
assumptions behind it.
Now, just to discuss we have already discussed about this, just to I would say summarize;
suppose, if you have taken viscosity and thermal conductivity to depend on temperature what
will happen, momentum balance energy balance become coupled. First you have to solve the
energy balance equation for the temperature profile. Now because thermal conductivity
depends on temperature we will not get a linear temperature profile. Then once you know the
temperature variation, you know the viscosity variation also along the y direction.
So, include the dependency of viscosity and temperature; viscosity directly depends on
temperature because temperature depends on y viscosity indirectly depends on y and then
solve the momentum balance equation for the velocity profile not the Navier-Stokes equation.
So, that way it becomes very involved, that is why to suit the level of this course. We have
made several of the assumptions and the profile I would said is not very interesting just
linear. And looks as if we have the same profile even when we have flow and when you have
a solid, but we should keep in mind the assumptions here.
1316
So, let us summarize we have looked at the applications of the differential energy balance
equation. I would say very very simple application; one to find out temperature profile in a
slab extended that to a furnace wall also found out the heat flux. Next is to find out
temperature profile in non-isothermal planar couette flow. So, far we have been looking at
planar Couette flow, because it is a two different temperatures we call it as the non-
isothermal planar Couette flow.
1317
Let us summarize what we have discussed under differential energy balance equation. First
looked at the chemical engineering applications of differential balance equation with respect
to heat transfer equipment, mass transfer equipment and reactors. Then we derived the
differential energy balance equation in terms of the total energy internal kinetic and potential
and from that we got the equation in terms of internal and kinetic energy.
Separately derived an equation for kinetic energy from linear momentum balance equation,
from these two equations we got the differential energy balance equation in terms of internal
energy. Then based on thermodynamic relations, we expressed the equation in terms of
enthalpy and in terms of temperature as well. We discussed the closure problem where we
realize that the heat flux term has to be expressed in terms of temperature more precisely
temperature gradient.
To close the energy balance equation, we discussed the constitutive equation namely the
Fourier’s law of heat conduction, which says the heat flux is proportional to the temperature
gradient including a negative sign. We discussed the analogy with Newton’s law of viscosity.
Using the Fourier’s law of heat conduction we expressed the energy balance equation
completely in terms of temperature.
We also simplified the differential energy balance equation to forms which we usually use
and finally, it act transient convection heat conduction terms. Looked at applications to find
1318
out the temperature profile in a slab, furnace wall and then non-isothermal planar Couette
flow.
1319
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CONTINUUM MECHANICS AND

S.NO TOPICS PAGE.NO

1 Measurement and Prediction - Part 1 7

2 Measurement and Prediction - Part 2 22

3 Overview of Transport Phenomena 33

6 Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions - Part 1 69

7 Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions - Part 2 82

8 Substantial Derivative Part 1 91

9 Substantial Derivative Part 2 101

10 Substantial Derivative Example 1 112

11 Substantial Derivative Example 2 127

12 Visualization of Flow Patterns: Streamline, Pathline 137

13 Visualization of Flow Patterns: Streakline 148

14 Streamline, Pathline: Steady Flow Example 156

15 Streamline, Pathline, Streakline: Unsteady Flow Example 166

16 System and Control Volume 178

17 Reynolds transport theorem : Introduction 193

18 Reynolds transport theorem : Simplified form 205

19 Reynolds transport theorem : General form - Part 1 217

21 Integral and differential balances 245

22 Integral total mass balance 254

23 Integral total mass balance : Simplification 265

24 Integral total mass balance : Examples 279

25 Differential total mass balance - Part 1 293

26 Differential total mass balance - Part 2 305

27 Differential total mass balance : Examples Part 1 312

28 Differential total mass balance : Examples Part 2 325

29 Integral linear momentum balance Part 1 338

30 Integral linear momentum balance Part 2 351

31 Integral linear momentum balance : Examples Part 1 361

32 Integral linear momentum balance : Examples Part 2 371

33 Integral linear momentum balance : Examples Part 3 386

34 Differential linear momentum balance : Introduction 394

Differential linear momentum balance : Transient, convection and

36 Stress vector - Part 1 422

37 Stress vector - Part 2 436

38 Stress tensor - Part 1 449

39 Stress tensor - Part 2 460

40 Cauchy's formula 471

42 Properties of stress tensor - Part 1 503

43 Properties of stress tensor - Part 2 509

44 Total stress tensor for fluids 520

45 Comparison of solids and fluids 532

46 Fluids at rest 541

47 Differential linear momentum balance : Surface force terms 554

48 Differential linear momentum balance : All terms 568

49 Convective momentum flux tensor 575

50 Differential linear momentum balance : Closure problem 587

51 Normal Strain and Shear Strain â€“ Part 1 598

52 Normal Strain and Shear Strain â€“ Part 2 610

53 Displacement Field and Displacement Gradient â€“ Part 1 621

54 Displacement Field and Displacement Gradient â€“ Part 2 632

55 Strain Displacement Gradient Relation : Example 644

56 Strain Displacement Gradient Relation : Normal and shear strain 653

Strain Displacement Gradient Relation : Rotation and volumetric

58 Strain Displacement Gradient Relation : Examples 671

59 Displacement Gradient Tensor 683

60 Components of Total Displacement â€“ Part 1 698