Semester: Spring 2021

Name: Hamna Tariq

Roll no: CD532681
Course Name: Language Skills and Communication Abilities
Course Code: 964
Submitted To: Ma’am Ulfat

Assignment No. 2

Question no. 1
What are high frequency news stories? Mention the guidelines for writing.

Answer:
High Frequency News Stories:
According to Mehta D.S a renowned journalist:
“News Stories are particularly of two types straight news and interpretative or
explanatory or opinionated writing. A straight news story gives factual account
of what has happened in a simple, clean and accurate manner. This type of
story never distorts, misrepresents or gives wrong facts. It draws no
conclusions, makes no accusations, offers no opinions and does not indulge in
any speculation. ”
Interpretative news story, on the other hand, reports happenings in depth,
gives all sides of the picture, provides back ground and puts some meaning
into the news so that the reader can better understand and appreciate the
event.
In both cases the writer, assumes the point of view known as third-person
impersonal .i.e. the writer does not appear in the story. He tells about other
people and events while remaining anonymous. In other words a reporter tells
the public what happened.
A reporter digs out and presents the truth. But the truth according to Whom?
Whose version What happened? At least in theory, a reporter tells The Truth
and What Really Happened. He or she is concerned with facts rather than with
interpretations, conjectures and opinions.
The reporter's stance in relation to the event is one of distance and
detachment. Ideally the reporter writes without personal involvement without
taking sides or taking a position. A reporter describes a reporter does not
judge. A reporter is a spectator not a participant, A reporter stands apart from
what he or she is reporting and plays no favourites.
Some people argue that such absolute objectivity is not possible, that any
account of an event is to some degree an interpretation of that event because
of the choices all writers must make: What to include and what to exclude,
What to emphasize and what to ignore.
Characteristics of a good news story Writer:
 News story writers should have a nose for news.
 They should see the implications of a story, ask good questions and dig
up a story where apparently none exists.
 They should follow code of ethics.
 They should never manufacture news, never violate a confidence, never
hurt feelings or damage reputations just to make a story interesting or
amusing.
 They should emphasize accuracy, brevity and clearness - the ABC's of
news paper work.
Guidelines for writing a News story:
1. Try to record facts rather than opinions.
2. Make sure that the reader understands what happened.
3. Maintain your neutral view point: don't slant your language.
4. Follow news story form: headline, sub head, Iead etc.
5. State the source of every direct and indirect quotation.
6. Spell names correctly.
Establish the facts with the help of old journalistic formula: Who? What?
Where? When? How?
  Who was involved?
 What happened?
 Where and when did it happen?
 By what means did the action take place?
 Be careful if you deal with why?
There are variations on the order in which Five W's and the H are presented.
What and Who frequently make the best beginning. Why and How are often
used, Where and When are not very common. The best thing is to pick out the
W or the H that is more interesting or important and then questions such as:
What is the length of the sentences? What active verbs are used? What
grammatical construction is used? What details are given in the other
paragraphs? What is the topic sentence of each paragraph? How does the
arrangement of events differ from the arrangement in a short story?
The basic news writing story, can be seen as an "inverted pyramid". The
inverted pyramid simply means that the foundation of the story, the most
important information, comes first and the rest of the information follows in
descending order. The least important information appears at the end of the
story.
The beginning of a news story is generally referred to as a "lead" it may be one
or several paragraphs. There are two major kinds of leads. A story can be
either hard news, with most of the important facts told right away or the story
can be a feature with a "talk-in" or soft lend. In any case, it should contain as
much of the essential information as possible. The lead should be clean in
terms of the relationships that structure the information such as: Who are the
main characters? What did they do? The rest of the story should be essentially
an expansion, an elaboration of the facts in your lead.
The following are examples of stories that give you an idea of the type of
stories and the vocabulary you may find in an English language newspaper.
 Scan the story to find out the topic and the main points.
 Read the opening paragraph carefully and form questions that you
would like the story to answer.
 Finish the story and try to answer your questions. Form new questions
and try to answer them.
 Try to guess the meanings of unfamiliar words wherever possible.
Picture the story in your mind. Look for synonyms and explanations.
  Remember that the meanings of italicized words can be found in the
glossary. Do not overuse the glossary, however. Look up only those
words that are necessary to your understanding of the story. Later,
when you have finished and understood the story, you may want to go
back and look up additional words.
 When you finish a story, try to find similar stories in a newspaper. You
should recognize much of the vocabulary. If possible follow a story for
several days or even weeks. Note how quickly the vocabulary becomes
familiar.
Example:
SHIPPING
GENEVA, May 3 _ _
Developing countries have won important concessions that should increase
their share of the world's shipping business. At an international shipping
conference just completed, 31 wealthy ship-owning countries have agreed to
ratify a treaty reserving cargoes on regularly scheduled ocean liners to the two
countries involved in the transactions.
The treaty was a response to what the developing countries complained were
shipping cartels that fixed freight rates and divided the business of roughly
75% of the scheduled shipping lines.
The new treaty is designed to eliminate much of the influence of the cartels
and give the developing countries more say in how rates are set as well as
putting more cargoes in Third World ship bottoms. The agreement is also
expected to hurt the shipping companies operating their fleets under flags of
convenience since the states registering the ships would have a very small
percentage of the transactions. But observers noted that the treaty covers only
cargoes going on regularly scheduled ocean liners, therefore leaving the vast
majority of the shipping business unaffected.
Answer the following Questions
1. What is this story about?
2. What will the treaty do?
3. Who will the treaty help?
4. Who will the treaty hurt?
Question no. 2
What is editorial? Explain its characteristics. Also write brief editorial note on
“Solidarity with Kashmir”.

Answer:
Editorial:
An editorial is a journalistic essay which either attempts to inform or explain,
to persuade or convince and to stimulate insight on an entertaining or
humorous manner. As an essay the editorial may be having an introduction, a
body and a conclusion. In terms of various forms of composition, it may
employ exposition, narration, description or argumentation.
The editorial is the soul of the newspaper. It is said to be the mirror of the
newspaper since it projects the view point of the paper on a particular policy,
programme or event. Editorial's aim is much more than providing routine
information. There are four basic kinds of editorials.
 Civic editorials
 Policy
 Big news
 Obituary editorials
In all these kinds the editorial writer has to follow the paper's past policy on a
particular subject so that he does not contradict the previous line of action.
The arguments given in the editorial on a subject should be logical and in
keeping with the opposite viewpoint. Abusive language should always be
avoided. Brief and properly written editorials have a greater impact on the
reader, therefore, too much arguments should also be avoided. There are
several moods in which a writer may begin his editorial, such as, questioning,
critical, appealing, praise, prophetic, counselling, differing etc. but he should
always try to be reasonable, tolerant, understandable and persuasive. He
should not try to emotionalize but convince his reader through arguments.
The title of the editorial should be brief and interesting and the concluding
sentences should be decisive, convincing and forceful. It should be directed at
issues and not individuals.
Classification of Editorials:
A good editorial is one which succeeds in achieving the objective of its author
to communicate a particular message. It makes a point clearly and it provides
facts and arguments in support of it.
Editorials can be classified on the basis of functions, some of which are given
below:
 to influence opinion
 to call attention to a wrong/evil to enlighten readers
 to praise or to congratulate
 to comment lightly on the news.
Importance of Editorial:
Editorial page has occupied a place of supreme importance in the newspaper.
Editorials are not used for personal ends. They are not merely the mouthpieces
of the newspapers management. On the other hand they are positive and
constructive opinions regarding important national and international issues.
They give suggestions and can mould the opinion of the readers through
persuasive writings.
The editorials enable a newspaper to reflect current opinions on public issues
and other contents of the editorial page such as columns, cartoons, and letters
to the editor present alternative opinion to the reader. The editorial page is
valuable to both, the newspaper and to the readers. It gives the newspaper a
chance to present its policies and beliefs without colouring the regular news
stories with biased statements.
Broadly speaking, editorial page is vital for a newspaper and the community.
Editorial and other contents of the editorial page influence decision making
and actuate the readers to react positively or negatively. Surveys show that
editorial pages do not have the proportionately high readership enjoyed by the
comic or sports pages and other sensational reports but they do command the
attention of an important part of the population, those who make decisions.
Writing an Editorial:
 “Solidarity with Kashmir”
We celebrate Kashmir Solidarity Day on 5th February. This is observed to show
Pakistan's support and unity with the people of Indian-administered Jammu
Kashmir and Kashmiri separatist’s efforts to secede from India and to pay
homage to the Kashmiris who have died in the conflict. For more than seventy
years, our Kashmiri’s fellow Muslims been denied their right to be sovereign. In
these seven decades, they have made countless sacrifices, countless mothers
have lost their sons and enough blood of theirs has been spilled until now.
Nevertheless, the struggle goes on. Shots of bullets, crackles of clubs, fierce
sounds of explosions, screams of children, sighs of mothers and silenced voices
of resistance against oppression, we see, hear and observe them on our media
on regular basis. Kashmiris are fighting against occupying Indian security
forces, and more importantly to wake up conscience of the United Nation
Organisation (UNO) and its member countries to implement its resolutions and
exert pressure on India to grant the Kashmiris their fundamental right of self-
determination which it itself had committed on the floor of UN Security
Council. Kashmiris indigenous, unarmed struggle for freedom, which they have
all along been rejecting terming it illegal and against their aspirations and their
great sacrifices are more than enough to tell the international community that
India can continue killing the Kashmiris but it cannot suppress their sentiments
for freedom.
It is a bitter reality that Kashmir dispute remains on the UN agenda as
unresolved for very long period and at the same time the continued silence of
the international community in this respect is also deplorable. In fact,
unresolved Kashmir dispute remains a black spot on the face of the world
body. It is matter of great shame and regret that the international community
including so-called world human rights champion USA all are criminally silent
over India’s continued occupation and gross human rights violations. Kashmir
is the unfinished agenda of partition of the Indian sub-continent and in all
fairness the Kashmiri people are fighting to secure their birth right of self-
determination, freedom from Indian occupation and complete the Pakistan
Movement.
Pakistan and Kashmir have eternal bond of geography, culture and religion.
Pakistan has all along been supporting just indigenous, unarmed struggle of
the Kashmiris at all international forums. It has been and will continue to
extend political, diplomatic and moral support to the Kashmiris. Resolution of
Kashmir dispute is key to stable peace, prosperity and prosperity in South Asia.
Continued denial of right of self-determination to Kashmiris and even not
holding bilateral talks for resolving linger Kashmir dispute peacefully has
exposed the so-called democratic face of India. Pakistani people throughout
the country observed February 5, as the Kashmir Solidarity Day with the twin
purposes of reiterating continued support to oppressed people of Indian
occupied Kashmir and to draw the attention of the international community
towards Indian security forces oppressive brutalities and atrocities on the
Kashmiris men, women and children demanding freedom. The federal
government had done well in declaring a public holiday so that the people
could fully observe the Kashmir Solidarity Day by organising processions and
rallies in support of their Kashmiri brethren.
Kashmiris are bound to be free from forced Indian occupation sooner or later,
world conscience may suddenly wake up some day, come up in open support
of struggling Kashmiris and put its whole weight on India to let the Kashmiris
have what is their birth right to decide their future themselves. The day is not
far off when not only people of Pakistan but also the international community
at large will be supporting the Kashmiris ongoing freedom struggle. Kashmir
will never be sovereign unless we should try to get to fix the internal cracks in
Muslim Ummah. Unless the sectarian fire is extinguished. Unless our Muslim
stakeholders take pain for Kashmiris. Unless the Kashmir dispute is voiced well
in the international community. Unless the world comes to know the heinous
atrocities of so-called democratic India in Kashmir over seventy years. Unless
we are united. Unless we are devoted. Let's make a vow to God, to our
conscience, to our blood for surfacing the Kashmir issue with all zeal and zest.
With the immense hope that one day the sun of independence will dawn upon
the beautiful valley. And our fellow Kashmiris will have a peaceful and
prosperous life.
Indian throne will soon be reduced to ashes; Kashmir will be ours.
Pakistan Zindabad!

Question no. 3
Define columns and commentary. Also discuss their characteristics in detail.
Answer:
Column:
Column is the creative expression covering all fields of journalistic activities. It
is the personal opinion of the column writer that would not be tolerated in any
other kind of story. The columnist can pass judgments, make
recommendations, talk about himself or herself and otherwise violate most of
the accepted tenets of newswriting.
The style and approach in writing columns is neither serious nor deductive.
Columns can be humorous, can report on local life and people or can deal with
some speciality such as finance. Probably the most popular topic for columns is
politics and government.
Column Writing:
The personal opinion of a column writer is expressed on a subject in a column.
The writer has a fixed style of writing, and he generally writes on fixed subjects
and has fixed point of view. However, there are columns in a newspaper where
other persons also contribute in addition to the columnist who writes on a
variety of subjects such as political, economic, or cultural or on sports, radio,
films, books etc. Generally columnists write once a week though there is no
fixed rule about its frequency.
The columnist enjoys the privilege of writing what he pleases and in the
manner he wishes. He can make unrestrained and un-inhibited comment on
many issues and write about personalities making biting comments on them.
Literally a column means a vertical arrangement of items printed or written on
a page.
Columns are usually those writings which are published and printed in a fixed
space and on regular basis, under permanent topic or subject in the
newspapers and the periodicals.
There are many resemblances between a column and an editorial, which
makes their distinction really difficult. Columns are of multi-purpose nature
and can include diverse writings on national and international topics and
subjects, social and cultural issues, literacy and light topics, economics and
political subjects besides humorous.
Characteristics of Columns:
The feature, the column and the editorial are sometimes hard to distinguish,
qualities of each cross over and intermingle. But columns offer an opportunity
for variety in content that no feature or editorial can approach.
The column always carries the writer s by-line and, in some cases, the writer’s
photograph. Columns appear at regular intervals and usually in the same
location in the publication, so loyal readers will know where to find them.
Columns may be subject oriented, such as those in hobbies or crafts. Or the
columns can be reflection of the writer' s personality, offering humour, opinion
and anecdotes.
Unlike feature or editorial, which usually require considerable background and
experience, columns can be written by the newest member of the staff.
Commentary:
Commentary is a series of comments, explanations or annotations. It is an
explanatory essay. Usually commentaries are the records of facts or events.
Commentaries are short, narrowly focused articles of contemporary interest
and usually take one of the following forms:
 Discussion of an article or study that was recently published or that is
soon to be published and that is interesting enough to warrant further
comment or explanation. This type of commentary discusses specific
issues within a subject area rather than the whole field, explains the
implications of the article and puts it in context. Opinions are welcome
as long as they are factually based.
 Commentary that is more editorial in nature and covers an aspect of an
issue that is relevant to the journal’s scope for example, discussion of
the impact of new technology on research and treatment.
 Brief Reports are not simply descriptions of something but also explore
the potential impacts for evolution education and outreach such as
Museum exhibits, Online resources, Software Reports of major
conference/society, activity/working groups, Case reports from
educational projects that are not ready for a full article.
Characteristics of Commentary:
 Do not summarize the focal article, just give the reference. Assume the
reader has Just read it. Move directly to identifying the key issues you
want to raise.
  Do not include general praise for the focal article.
 Use only essential citations. For commentary purposes, cite only works
absolutely essential to support your point.
 Use a short title that emphasizes your key message.
 Do not include an abstract.
 Make clear your take-home message.
 Make sure there is full author information (name, affiliation, address,
phone, email) for all authors. Authors must be individuals.

Question no. 4
Describe different steps of précis writing. Also make precise of any small
paragraph as an example.

Answer:
Précis is a summary. To summarize or to reduce a paragraph or a text to its
central meaning without distorting the authors original thought and approach.
Normally a paragraph can be reduced to a single sentence. Very complex
paragraphs, however, may be reduced to more than one sentence.
Preparing summaries can help you to read with greater accuracy and to write
with greater conciseness and directness. You cannot summarize effectively if
you have not read carefully. Read the passage carefully to discover the authors
purpose and point of view. As you read, pick out the central ideas and notice
how they are arranged.
A simple or complex sentence rather than a compound sentence is used to
summarize a paragraph, unless the original paragraph itself is poorly
organized. A compound sentence implies that there are two or more equally
dominant ideas in the paragraph.
Following are a few guidelines for making a good précis that serves its actual
purpose. There are four basic steps in the process. Some of these steps
overlap.
1st Step:
Read the passage carefully at least twice. During your first reading. skim it
quickly to note the overall organization and to identify the major ideas. Pay
special attention to any subtitles, because they indicate the important points
made in the article.
The second time, you should read the article more carefully. Read the
introductory paragraph slowly and thoughtfully, since the whole idea of the
article is usually expressed there in a general way.
 Watch for signalling words and phrases that indicate key supporting
points.
 Underline or just remember the main ideas or aspects of the passage.
 Read the last paragraph carefully. It often sums up the major points of
the article.
2nd Step:
You should do very little copying from the given passage. If you find phrases or
lines that will be useful as a direct quotation in your summary, copy the exact
words accurately and enclose them in quotation marks. Use abbreviations in
your note taking. The notes you take should consist of only the main ideas or
the most important pieces of information in the passage.
 Omit examples, anecdotes, minor details and digressions.
3rd Step:
Your notes are ready. Now start writing the précis. Without using the passage,
write précis with the help of your notes. In case you have jotted down the
principal ideas in the order in which they have been presented in the article,
you need only write down these ideas in narrative form.
In the précis don't disturb the order of the ideas in which they have been
presented. Avoid repeating the exact words or sentences too closely. Do not
hesitate, however, to pick up the authors key terms and phrases, for they are
useful in binding the précis together. Discard any figures of speech, digressions
or discussions that are not essentially needed for the trunk and main branches.
When you are all through, you should find that you have reduced the material
to not over one-third of its original length. It needs to be followed strictly.
2nd draft of the précis should be almost half in length of the original. To
reduce it further replace less important details with shorter sentences. 3rd and
the final draft of the précis should be one third in length of the original.
Occasionally even a shorter length of the précis is desirable
 Remember a Précis is concerned only with the central thought, not
necessarily with retaining the author's style.
 It is like operating upon a passage in order to take out its heart
successfully.
 Do not include anything of your own in your précis.
 Try to write your answers or précis in the third person or in the indirect
speech.
4th Step:
Skim the passage rapidly, comparing your précis with it. Your check list should
be as follows:
 Is it complete and accurate?
 Is it written in your own words?
 Is it free of grammatical and mechanical errors?
Example:
Now let us try to do a précis together. Read the following passage a number of
times until you are sure of the meaning of the passage.
“ A few stars are known which are hardly bigger than the earth, but most of
them are so large that hundreds of thousands of earths could be packed inside
each and leave room to spare; here and there we find an immense star large
enough to contain millions and millions of earths. And the total number of
stars in the universe is probably something like the total number of grains of
sand on all the sea-shores of the world. Such is the littleness of our home in
space when measured up against the total substance of the universe.”
Now make a list of the main facts and ideas contained in the passage.
1. Only a few stars are known to be as large as the sun.
2. Most stars are large enough to contain hundreds and thousands of
earths.
3. There are some stars that could contain millions of earths.
4. There are nearly as many stars in the universe is there are grains of
sands on the sea-shores of the world.
 5. Our own little home is very tiny compared to the total size of the
Universe.
You have now reduced the subject matter of the paragraph to live points. Now
look at the language. There are so many words used for rhetorical purposes in
order to give you a feeling of immense space, e.g. hundreds of thousands,
millions and millions, total number of grains, measured up against the total
substance. These words can be reduced considerably. The language of the
metaphorical comparison of stars with grains of sand can also be reduced. The
first step is to throw out all the unnecessary material.
Let us now try to put together the five points listed above in a short paragraph
written in simple English.
“ Only a few known stars are close to the size of the earth. Most of them are
large enough to contain millions of earths. There are nearly as many stars in
the universe as there are grains of sands on the sea-shores of the world. Our
own little home is very tiny compared to the total size of the universe.”
The original paragraph contains 98 words. Our simplified paragraph contains
73 words. Therefore in the process of merely simplifying the passage and
concentrating on the facts contained in the passage we have not succeeded in
reducing the original passage to ever half its original length. To reduce it to the
required length we will have to give the bare facts in the least possible words
as follows:-
“ A few stars are as large as the earth. Many earths can be contained in most
stars and some stars can accommodate millions of earths. Stars cannot be
counted. The earth is only a tiny part of the universe.”
This précis consists of 39 words and is close to the required one-third length. In
the first re-written paragraph we had reduced and simplified the ideas. In the
final précis we have also reduced the language. Good précis writing requires
both the skills of comprehension and the ability to write short simple correct
sentences.

Question no. 5
Explain conventions and purposes of written communication.
Answer:
Writing Skill:
Writing has been viewed by the writers in several different ways. It has been
agreed that writing is a means of communication made possible through
graphic symbols, arranged according to certain conventions to form words,
which in turn are arranged to form sentences. The sentences are logically and
grammatically connected to form a piece of writing
Since writing is a means of communication like listening it involves a writer
(producer) and a reader (receiver). Communication through writing involves
negotiation or interaction between the writer (encoder) and the reader
(decoder), the text, context and task. In any piece of writing all the above
factors are present and all have significant parts to plays, with not necessarily
the same importance.
Communicative writing in addition means the use of orthography in order to
construct grammatically correct sentences which communicate a meaning to
the reader.
Orthography + lexis + grammar + meaning = Communicative Writing
Difference between Spoken and Written Language:
Both spoken and written discourse represent an interactive process of
negotiation. But the two processes, speaking and writing, are not identical.
Many writers have expressed their opinion regarding the differences between
writing and speaking. Some are as following:
A. Differences in Function
Speech is basically, interaction between the speaker and the listener. Written
language on the other hand, is mainly transactional in function.
B. Differences in Process
Speakers make use of linguistic, paralinguistic and prosodic features such as
stresses, speed, loudness, tone of voice, pauses, facial expressions and
gestures. Writers, however have to rely on linguistic and geographological
devices such as punctuation and capitalization to get their message across.
In speech, participants can interrupt, ask for clarification - not in writing. A
speaker can back track, clarify and revise ideas as listeners question or
disagree. A writer has to compensate for all of these disadvantages since
writing is a monologue.
Speech has to be heard in real times and it has to be processed as it is heard.
Written language on the other hand, can be stored so that communication can
take place over space and time.
An obvious advantage of writing over speech is that it can be reorganised
rewritten and revised to the satisfaction of the writer. It does not have to
remain in the order in which it is produced.
C. Differences in Product
Spoken communication can be planned or unplanned. in most cases it is
spontaneous. Written communication, on the other hand, is usually carefully
planned. It is more convention-bound which allows it to be understood by the
readers. Thus, it demands standard forms of grammar, syntax and vocabulary
from the writer. Spoken text does not necessarily observe these conventions. It
generally tends to exhibit syntactic irregularities, incomplete and overlapping
expressions, hesitations, pauses, false starts and other redundant features.
A good piece of writing should be coherent and cohesive. It should have a title
or heading, it should have an introduction, a development and a conclusion. It
should be clearly divided into paragraphs. Each paragraph should have a topic.
Sentences should be signalled by capital letters and full stops. All this is not
necessary for good speech.
In short, written language is different from spoken language in many aspects.
But sometimes spoken language is written and written language is spoken such
as formal speeches, news bulletins, dialogue in novels etc.
Conventions of Writing:
Smith (1982) suggests that every form of text, every register of writing, has
conventions that both writers and readers must respect in order for
communication to take place. Writing has its conventions for spelling, for
punctuation, for grammar, for paraphrasing and capitalization. There are
conventions for the ways in which words may be arranged grammatically and
meaningfully into sentences and conventions about how sentences themselves
are interrelated. And all of these conventions vary in conventional ways
depending on who is talking or writing to whom, their relative status and other
circumstances. Thus an effective piece of writing requires a number of things
including the graphic system of the language. Raimes (1983) considers the
following conventions essential for any piece of writing.
For a natural piece of writing coherence and cohesion are also extremely
important features. Coherence is the thread or the theme of the writing that
keeps the text together and cohesion is part of the system of a language,
expressed partly in grammar and partly through vocabulary. Cohesion is also
expressed in other features such as punctuation and intonation.
Purpose of Writing:
We Normally write to or for somebody with a definite purpose in mind. We
therefore, need to have some knowledge about what we are going to write
and to whom and for what purpose.
Three kinds of knowledge are essential for a writer in order to write
communicatively.
 Knowledge of the audience.
 Knowledge of the topic.
 Knowledge of the stored writing plans.
The intended audience often determines the manner of writing that is
selected. It provides the writer with a context without which it is difficult
exactly what or how to write and how formal or informal to be. Sense of
audience helps in the selection of content and style. Knowledge of the topic
and purpose provides incentive and motivates the writer to produce a good
piece of writing.
Process of Writing:
Writing is an extremely complex undertaking with a number of operations such
as generating ideas, planning and outlining, drafting, revising etc. going on
simultaneously, not necessarily in a fixed order. At any time a line can be
erased, a page thrown away, and even sometimes everything that has been
written can be changed, added to, deleted from and put into a completely
different order. Writing is thus viewed as a series of overlapping and
interacting processes. Linguists divide composition writing into three distinct
stages.
 Pre- Writing:
It is the preliminary, preparatory stage of composition which involves thinking,
reflecting and planning about what can go on.
 Writing:
It is the real act of putting ideas to pen, translating images into meaning. It is
process of discovering and exploring ideas and putting these on paper
 Post-Writing:
Once the text is written, it needs reading, reviewing and editing to be modified
and polished.