HONEY

Synonyms: Madhu, Mel

Source: Honey is a saccharine liquid produced by the hive bee, Apis mellifera and other species of Apis.
It is deposited by the hive bee in the honey comb.
Occurrence & Distribution: Honey is produced in a number of countries like West Indies, Chile,
California, Africa, Australia. New Zealand and India.
Organoleptic characters:
1. Invert sugar (a mixture of glucose and fructose) to the extent of 80 percent
2 Small quantities of sucrose, dextrin and formic acid
3. Small amounts of enzymes, vitamins and minerals

Chemical Chemical constituents:

Adulterants and their detection: The common adulterants of honey are artificial invert sugar, sucrose and
commercial liquid glucose. The presence of artificial invert sugar can be detected by
Identification test: Fiche's test: An ether extract of honey is treated with resorcinol in hydrochloric acid.
Honey adulterated with artificial invert sugar gives a cherry red colour This colour is due to the presence
of furfural in artificial invert sugar.

Uses:

 Vehicle for the administration of a variety of drugs.

 Nutrient for patients and infants.
 An ingredient of linctuses and cough mixtures.
 Demulcent and sweetening agent.

ARACHIS OIL
Synonyms: Ground nut oil, Pea mut oil.
Source: Anis oil is a fixed oil obtained by expression from the seeds of Arachis hypogone.
Occurrence & Distribution: Brazil, Africa, South America and India. Preparation.
Organoleptic characters:
Color: Colorless or yellowish liquid.
Odor: Nut like odor
Taste: Bland
The oil is lighter than water.
Chemical Chemical constituents:
Glycerides: Oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, arachidic acid, behenic acid, lignoceric acid
Uses:

 As a food article
 A solvent for intramuscular injections
 In the preparation of liniments and plasters.
 As a lubricant.
 In the manufacture of soap.

STARCH
Amylum.
Source: Starch consists of polysaccharide granules obtained from:
1. grains of maize
2. grains of rice
3. grains of wheat
4. tubers of potato

Zea mays L.Geographical occurrence:

MAIZE STARCH
1. Maize grains are soaked in water for 3 to 4 days in presence of sulphur dioxide (So, prevents
fermentation).
Oriza sativa L
Triticum aestivum L
Solanum tuberosum L

Starch is commercially produced in In India and USA, maize is used for the manufacture of

Synonym:
2. Now, water is added to the soaked grains. The embryo which floats is separated. The embryo forms the
source for corn oil.
3. The water is also separated. This contains minerals and soluble
proteins. This water is used as a culture medium for the production of antibiotics.
4. The starch material left behind is washed repeatedly with water and dried.

Rice Starch: Broken pieces of rice are soaked in 0.5 percent caustic soda solution. This softens the grains
and dissolves gluten. The softened grains are crushed and macerated with water. Starch is separated from
this suspension by centrifugation.

Wheat Starch: Dough is prepared from wheat flour by adding water. Gluten swells by this. The mass of
dough is shaken with water in rotters. The starchy liquid formed is dried. POTATO STARCH: Washed
potatoes are crushed and made into a slurry. It is then filtered to remove vegetable tissues. The milky
liquid obtained is centrifuged.

The starchy material that separates is washed, dried and powdered.

Organoleptic characters:
Starch grains vary in size and shape depending on the source.
Maize starch is white in color and alkaline.
Rice starch is white in color and alkaline.
Wheat starch is cream in color and acidic.
Potato starch is yellow in color and acidic.

Chemical Chemical constituents:

Starch contains two polysaccharides.
1. Amylose (25%) which is water soluble.
2. Amylopectin (75%) which is water insoluble. The gelatinising property of starch is due to amylopectin.

Identification tests:
1. One gram of starch is boiled with 15 ml of water. A translucent viscous jelly is formed on cooling. If
iodine solution is added to the jelly, it produces a deep blue colour. The colour disappears on warming
and reappears on cooling

Uses:
  As an absorbent in talcum powders.
 As an emollient and as a base for suppositories.
 As a disintegrant in pills and tablets.
 Starting material in the manufacture of glucose and dextrose.
 As an antidote in iodine poisoning.

KAOLIN
Synonyms: Kaolinite, China clay, Porcelain Clay.
Source: Kaolin (or hydrated aluminum silicate) is a pure variety of clay, powdered and freed from gritty
particles and other impurities.
Organoleptic characters:
Kaolin is a very fine and soft clay. It crumbles to powder when pressed between fingers.
2. It is white or faintly yellowish white in color.
3. It has a density of 2.3 and it is insoluble in water.
4. It is odorless when dry. But it has a clay like odor when moistened.
It has a slight carthy taste.

Chemical Chemical constituents:

1. Kaolin is almost a pure form of aluminum silicate. it may contain traces of magnesium, calcium and
iron.
Uses:
1. Light kaolin is used in the treatment of certain gastric and intestinal affections.
Heavy kaolin is used:
i) in filtration as a clearing agent
ii) as a pill excipient
iii) for making poultices

PECTIN
Source: 1. Pectin is a carbohydrate present in the inner portion of citrous fruits and in the pulp of apple.
2. The plants which produce citrous fruits are: Citrus limon L, Citrus aurantium.
Family: Rutaceae
Occurrence & Distribution: India, USA, Switzerland and some of the European countries produce
commercial pectin.
Organoleptic characters:
Color: Yellowish white powder
Odor: Odorless
Taste: Mucilaginous .
Solubility: Insoluble in alcohol or other organic solvents.

Chemical Chemical constituents:

1. Pectin is a neutral methoxy ester of pectic acid. The parent substance of pectin is protopectin.
2. On hydrolysis by pectose or by dilute caustic soda, pectin gives pectic acid and methyl alcohol.

Identification tests:
1. Pectin produces a gelatinous gel when shaken with 10 of water.
2. Aqueous solution of pectin and sodium hydroxide when produce a transparent gel. On shaking with dil.
produces a gelatinous precipitate. This precipitate becomes mixed HCI, it white on boiling

Uses:

 In the treatment of diarrhea and gastroenteritis.

 As a hemostatic for internal and external bleeding.
 As a substitute for blood plasma.
 As a thickening agent for pills and tablets.
 To promote wound healing.

OLIVE OIL
Synonyms: Oleum Olivae, Salad oil, Sweet oil.
Source: Olive oil is a fixed oil expressed from the ripe fruit of olive tree, Olea europoea
Family: Oleaceae
Occurrence & Distribution: Mediterranean countries, California and Southern Australia.

Color: Medicinal olive oil (virgin oil) is pale yellow or greenish yellow
Odor: Characteristic
Taste: Bland
3. The specific gravity varies from 0.915 to 0.918.
4. It is a liquid at ordinary temperature and a granular solid at 0°
5. It is slightly soluble in alcohol.
6. It is miscible with ether and chloroform.

Chemical Chemical constituents: Olive oil contains olein, palmitin, linolein and arachin. On
saponification, they yield oleic, palmitic, linoleic and arachic acid together with glycerol.

Uses:
1. As a demulcent, emollient, and laxative.
2. As a setting retardant for dental cements.
3. As a nutrient and salad oil.

Substitutes and adulterants:

The indications for the purity of olive oil are

1. Specific gravity
2. Refractive index
3. Iodine value - 1.4605 to 1.4635 at 40° - 79 to 87
4. Free acid - 0.915 to 0.918 - not more than 1 percent.

Olive oil is frequently adulterated with cotton seed oil, sesame oil and arachis oil. These adulterants are
detected as follows:

Identification test:
1. Cotton seed oil: It is detected by Halphen's test. 2 ml of oil is mixed with 1 ml of amyl alcohol and I ml
of 1% sulphur in carbondisulphide. The mixture is warmed for 10 minutes in water bath. Red colour
should not develop.

2. Sesame oil: 2 ml of oil is mixed with 1 ml of hydrochloric acid

containing 1% sucrose. On shaking, aqueous liquid should not become pink.

3. Arachis oil: It is detected by separating and purifying the fatty acids and determining their melting
points. It should not exceed 71°C.

LANOLIN
Synonyms: Hydrous wool fat, Adcps Lane.
Source: Lanolin is a purified fat like substance prepared from the wool of sheep, Ovis aries (Fam.
Bovidae
Occurrence & Distribution: Australia, USA and to a lesser extent India are commercial producers.
Organoleptic characters:
1. Lanolin is a pale yellow solid with an ointment like consistency.
2. It has a characteristic odor and bland taste.
3. It is insoluble in water. But soluble in ether or chloroform.

Chemical Chemical constituents:

1. Chief Chemical constituents are cholesterol and isocholesterol.
2. Also contains esters of fatty acids like lanopalmitic, caranubic, myristic and oleic acids

Identification test: A chloroform solution of lanolin is treated with acetic anhydride and sulphuric acid A
deep green colour is produced due to the presence of cholesterol.

Uses: As a base for ointments and creams.

BEES WAX
Synonyms: Cera Flava and Cera Alba
Sources: Bees wax is the purified wax obtained from the honeycomb of the hive bee, Apis mellifera and
other species of Apis
Family: Apidae
Occurrence & Distribution: It is commercially produced in Jamaica, Africa, West Indies, USA and
India.
Organoleptic characters:
1. Bees wax is a yellowish brown or yellowish white solid.
2. It breaks with a granular fracture.
3. It has a honey like odor and waxy taste.

Chemical constituents: Bees wax contains 1) myricin which is myricy!

palmitate 2) Cerotic acid

5) higher hydrocarbons.

3) Myricyl alcohol 4) Ceryl alcohol

Adulterants: The common adulterants of bees wax are hard parafffin,

colophony, stearic acid and Japan wax. Japan wax is not a true wax but only a fat. So it is saponified with
aqueous sodium hydroxide. But bees wax is a true wax. So it is saponified only with alcoholic potash and
not with aqueous sodium hydroxide.

Saponification cloud test: This test can detect adulterants like Japan wax and stearic acid in bees wax. 0.5
g of bees wax is boiled with 8 ml of 10% sodium hydroxide solution. It is cooled and filtered. The
filterate is acidified with hydrochloric acid. If a precipitate is formed, it indicates the presence of
adulterants (e.g. fats like Japan wax, fatty

acids or resins)

Uses:

1. In the preparation of plasters, ointments and polishes.

2. In cosmetics for lipsticks and face creams.

ACACIA

Synonyms: Acacia, Gum acacia, Gum arabic.

Source: Acacia is the dried gummy exudate obtained from the stem and branches of Acacia senegal Wild
and other specics of Acacia.

Geographical occurrence: This plant grows wild in Senegambia of

Western Africa, Upper Nile districts of Eastern Africa and also in Sudan,

India and Srilanka

Collection:

1. Incisions of 2 to 3 feet in length and 2 to 3 inches in width are put in the stem and branches of acacia
trees. Care is taken to see that the cambium and xylem are not injured. 2. The gum that exudes is scrapped
and dried in sun. The gum

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gets bleached. Also cracks and fissures develop on the surface.

The original transparent gum now becomes opaque and is ready

for sale.

Characters:

Form: Spheroidal or oval tears. Sometimes in angular fragments

Colour: White, yellow, pale, amber or opaque.

Fracture: Brittle and breaks easily

Odor and taste: No odor. Taste is bland and mucilagenous. Solubility: Soluble in water but insoluble in
alcohol.

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1. The main Chemical constituents of acacia is arabin. 2. Arabin is a mixture of calcium, magnesium and
potassium salts

of arabic acid. 3. On hydrolysis, arabin yields D-galactose

D-glucuronic acid

L-arabinosc

Chemical constituents:

Identification tests:

1. Acacia is insoluble in alcohol. But it is soluble in water forming an acidic solution.

2. An aqueous solution of acacia when treated with hydrogen

3. An aqueous solution of acacia'is boiled with dilute hydrochloric

acid. After cooling, Fehling's solution is added. A red

precipitate is produced due to the liberation of reducing sugars. 4. A copious white precipitate with lead
subacctate but no

precipitate with lead acetate. 5. No blue colouration with iodine solution (shows the absence of
starch and dextrin). No crimson colour with iodine solution (distincts from agar and tragacanth). 6. No
precipitate with ferric chloride (indicates the absence of

tannins) Uses:

1. As a suspending agent in mixtures. 2. As an emulsifying agent in emulsions.

3. As a binding agent in pills and tablets.

4. As a demulcent in cough remedies.

Substitutes and adulterants:

Ghatti gum obtained from the stems of Anogeissus latifolia (Fam Combretaceae) is a common adulterant.
The tears of this gum are round or vermiform. This gum gives only a slight precipitate with lead
subacetate.

Sennar gum, Talka gum and Somali gum are other East African

gums of inferior quality.

TRAGACANTH

1. Astragalus gummifer Labillardiere (Fam. Leguminoscae)

2. Other species of Astragalus.

Synonyms: Tragacanth, Gum tragacanth. Source: Tragacanth is the dried gummy exudate obtained from
the stems of Geographical occurrence: Tragacanth is produced in Iran, Iraq, Persia, Syria, Turkey and
India. Collection: Tragacanth plant is a thorny shrub, growing to a height of one meter. Collection of the
gum is done as follows: 1. A vertical incision is made in the stem of the plant two inches above the soil. 2.
A piece of wood is inserted to widen the incision. Characters: Form: Flat, lamellated or ribbon shaped
flakes or filaments.
3. The wood is removed two days after incision. The gum exudes with great speed and it is collected.

The gum may be ribbon-shaped or vermiform depending on the type of incision made in the stem.

Colour: White or pale yellowish white.

Fracture: Breaks with a short fracture.

Odor and taste: No odor and practically no taste.

Chemical constituents: Tragacanth contains two polysaccharides.

1. Tragacanthin which is water soluble.

2.

Bassorin which is water insoluble.

Also tragacanth contains minor amounts of starch and cellulose.

Identification tests:

1. Tragacanth on warming with an alcoholic solution of potash

produces a canary yellow colour.

2.
On boiling with iodine solution, a green colour is produced.

3.

An aqueous solution of tragacanth produces a white precipitate with lead acetate solution (this distincts
from acacia). Negative test for peroxidase enzyme (acacia shows a positive

4.

5.

test).

Not stained with rhuthenium red (this distincts from agar).

Uses:

1. Demulcent and emolient.

2. Suspending agent for insoluble substances.

3. Binding agent for pills and tablets.

4. Laxative because of swelling.

Adulterants and substitutes: The

substitutes are

common
and

1.

Karaya gum

2.

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SODIUM ALGINATE

Synonym: Algin

Source: Sodium alginate is the purified carbohydrate product extracted from brown seaweeds by the use
of dilute alkali. It is found in all species of brown seaweeds (class. Phacophyceae). The important species
are 1) Laminaria known as kelps or sca-tangles 2) Fucus known as Wracks.

Geographical occurrence: The countries which produce sodium alginate are USA, Norway, Chile, China,
Canada, Ireland and Australia

Preparation :

1. The dried seaweeds are washed in slightly acidified water. Then, they are chopped and ground in a
hammer mill. 2. It is later digested in a solution of sodium carbonate and filtered

while hot.

3. To the filtrate, calcium chloride solution is added. Calcium alginate that is precipitated is removed.
Treatment with hydrochloric acid produces alginic acid. It is purified by

conversion to sodium alginate.

Characters
1. Sodium alginate occurs as a coarse or fine powder. It is

odorless and tasteless. 2. It is white or slightly yellowish in colour. 3. It is readily soluble in water
forming a colloidal, viscous solution. 4. It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform and strong acid.

Uses:

1. Sodium alginate is used as a thickening, suspending and cmulsifying agent in pharmaceutical

formulations.

2. It is used in the manufacture of jelleys and ice creams.

AGAR

Synonyms: Agar-agar, Japanese Insinglass.

Source: Agar is the dried gelatinous substance obtained from various

species of Red algae like:

Gelidum Gracilaria

Pterocladia |

Africa, Atlantic and Pacific coasts of USA.

Collection and preparation :

1. Red algae grow on long bamboo poles planted in the sea.

The algae are scrapped.

3. The algae are then dried and shaken to remove the adhering

sand and shells. 4. The dried algae are washed with water to remove salt. The

hours. The hot decoction obtained is strained through cloth. 6. When the decoction is cooled, it sets into a
jelly. The jelly is

forced through wire netting to form agar strips.

7. Later, moisture is removed by freezing and thawing.

Characters:

Form: Strips, flakes or coarse powder.

Colour: White or pale yellow.

Odor and taste: No odor but taste is mucilagenous.

Chemical constituents: Agar contains two polysaccharides:

1. Agarose, a neutral galactose polymer. Agarose is responsible

for the gel strength of agar

2. Agaropectin, a sulphonated polysaccharide. Agaropectin

154
responsible for the viscosity of agar solution.

Identification tests:

1. Agar takes a pink colour when treated with ruthenium red

(distincts from acacia).

2. On warming with potassium hydroxide, agar produces a canary

3. A 0.2 percent solution of agar does not give a precipitate

tannic acid.

with

yellow colour.

4. Agar does not contain nitrogen. So it does not release ammonia when heated with soda lime.

with hydrochloric acid

Agar is hydrolysed to galactose and sulfate ions when boiled

a) Galactose reduces Fehling's

solution.

b) Sulfate precipitates with barium chloride. 6. An ash of agar is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid.
This
on microscopic examination shows fragments of diatoms.

7. With Millon's reagent, no precipitate is produced. This

distinguishes from gelatin.

1. As a bulk laxative. 2. In the preparation

of vaginal capsules and suppositories 3. As a culture medium in bacteriology.

4. As a suspending and emulsifying agent in industry.

GUAR GUM

Synonyms: Guar flour. Jaguar gum, Guaran, Guar cellupectinoid Source: Guar gum is obtained from the
powdered endosperm of the seeds

Geographical occurrence: The plant is an annual shrub. It is

cultivated for gum in India, Pakistan and USA.

Characters:

155.

1. Guar gum is a pale yellowish white powder.

2. It has a gummy taste and characteristic odor.

3. It swells in water forming a thick colloidal solution.

1. The main Chemical constituents are galactose (35%) and mannose (65%).

Both occur in water soluble portion of the gum.

2. Some proteins are also present in guar gum.

Identification tests:

Chemical constituents:

1. Guar gum gives a precipitate with lead acetate solution.

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2. It does not stain with ruthenium red (this distincts from sterculia and agar):

3. No colour with iodine solution (absence of starch)

4. Negative test with benzidine for peroxidase enzyme (this

distincts from acacia and also shows its absence)

Uses:

1. Thickening, binding and disintegrating agent.

2. In food processing and paper industry. 3. Appetite supressant.

4. Bulk laxative.
5. In the treatment of peptic ulcer.

GELATIN

Synonym: Gelatinum Source: Gelatin is a protein obtained by evaporating an aqueous

extract of skin, tendon and bones of various domestic animals such as ox and sheep. (Fam. Bovidae).

The first step is removal of fat. For this, skin and tendons are soaked in dilute milk of lime for about 40
days. But bones are

treated with organic solvents like benzene. 2. The materials are then extracted with boiling water and
steam

156

Preparation:

3. The resultant solution is filtered by electro-osmosis and

concentrated under reduced pressure.

4. It is then run in metal trays and allowed to form a jelley.

under pressure.

5. The jellies are dried on wire nettings at increasing temperatures

(between 30 and 60°C) for about a month

Characters:
1. The main constituent is glutin which is a protein. It is responsible for adhesiveness.

2. Also a number of aminoacids. Identification tests : is heated with soda lime in

1. Ammonia is evolved when gelatin

a dry test tube.

2. White precipitate is produced when an aqueous solution

of

gelatin is treated with 10 percent tannic acid solution. 3. Yellow precipitate is produced on mixing a
solution of gelatin

with picric acid solution. 4. White precipitate is produced by the addition of Millon's

reagent to a solution of picric acid. These tests are negative with agar. By these tests, agar can be
distinguished from gelatin.

Uses: 1. In the manufacture of capsules and suppositories.

coating pills and tablets.

2. As a culture medium for growing micro-organisms 3. As a substitute for blood plasma.