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A Linearized Model For Estimating The Performance of Submerg - 2008 - Renewable
A Linearized Model For Estimating The Performance of Submerg - 2008 - Renewable
Abstract
A realistic performance analysis of oscillating water column wave energy converters (WECs) addresses to a set of non-linear
differential equations that need to be integrated in time, by using a stochastic approach, under the hypothesis of random wind-generated
sea waves, for all the sea states which characterize the location of the system. Non-linearities of the differential equations have several
origins:
minor and major losses of the unsteady flow of water and air;
compressibility of air and heat exchange with the walls of the air chamber;
non-linear characteristics of the turbine.
Under the hypothesis of random sea waves with Gaussian distribution, the authors propose an original methodology for linearizing
the differential equations that describe the flow motion inside a wholly submerged WEC. Under such hypothesis, the linearized model
can be used for predicting the power output by means of the calculations in the frequency domain and for control design. The developed
methodology has been applied to the estimation of the performance of the new ‘‘resonant sea wave energy converters’’, called REWEC,
patented by Boccotti in 1998, and consisting of several caissons, characterized by a structure similar to the caissons of the traditional
breakwaters and placed on the seabed, close one to each other, to form a submerged breakwater. Each caisson is connected to a vertical
duct wholly beneath the sea level, where a hydraulic Wells turbine is placed.
The matching between turbine and resonance characteristic of the system is carefully analysed in order to maximize the energy
conversion efficiency.
Some results, given for a small installation in the Mediterranean sea, confirm that the REWEC system is able to absorb a large share of
the incident wave energy due to a very simple regulation system which permits the tuning on sea states with different significant heights.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Wave energy; Wells turbine; Stochastic methods; Wave energy converters
0960-1481/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2007.03.018
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632 P. Filianoti, S.M. Camporeale / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 631–641
The turbine-type WEC devices may be ‘‘overtopping’’ or flow, which moves one or more Wells turbines. The Wells
‘‘OWC’’. The overtopping WECs work like a hydroelectric turbine [7,8] is a kind of self-rectifying axial flow turbine
dam where the waves roll into a collector which funnels the suitable for the extraction of energy from oscillating air
water into a hydro turbine [6]. The most highly developed flows. Several approaches have been used to model and
turbine-type devices are the OWC (oscillating water optimize OWC devices. The theoretical investigations
column) devices, which are actually the only ones [9–11] began assuming the incident waves to be regular
accredited for industrial application, being the most mature or monochromatic and performed the analysis in the
WECs in terms of the number and duration of ‘‘in-sea’’ frequency domain. Stochastic methods [12,13] offer the
prototypes tested to date. OWCs can be placed on the advantage of a strong reduction in the computational times
shoreline or near the shore. The nearshore devices can be and the capability to provide the basic design of wave
fixedly moored to the ocean bottom, or slack moored so as power plants, including the specification of the power
to respond to changes in mean water level (i.e. tides). equipment [14].
OWC converters are essentially composed by a partially The resonant sea wave energy converters (REWEC) [15]
submerged plenum chamber, with an opening to the sea, is a new sea wave energy absorber. It consists of a caisson
and an upper duct which vents to the atmosphere. Under with a vertical duct. The caisson is placed on the seabed
the action of the incident sea waves, the water oscillates and is wholly beneath the sea level. Several caissons can be
vertically in the plenum chamber; acting as a fluid piston, placed close one to each other, to form a submerged
the motion of the water surface causes an oscillating air breakwater. Such a plant has no visual impact, protects
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P. Filianoti, S.M. Camporeale / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 631–641 633
where V ¼ Q/At is the mean value of the axial flow turbine damping factor Bt results to be almost independent
velocity, Utip is the tangential velocity at the blade tip and from fU When the flow coefficient reaches high values
Dp is the pressure drop through the turbine. The turbine (higher than 0.15), the pressure drop coefficient has no
efficiency, given by the ratio between the shaft power Pt more a linear behaviour, because the high incidence angle
and the available power Pp causes flow separation around the blades. It can be shown
Pt Pt that, until the flow coefficient is small, the turbine damping
Zt ¼ ¼ , (2) factor depends mainly on solidity and hub-to-tip ratio [8]
Pp DpQ
and, for low solidity turbines with constant chord, can be
is shown with Dp* obtained in Fig. 3. It appears that Dp* conveniently approximated by [19]
increases at constant rate for low values of f, so that the Bt ffi psð1 þ hÞ, (3)
where h is the hub-to-tip ratio and s is the turbine solidity.
Under unsteady flow conditions, pressure drop Dp
and axial velocity V vary continuously with time; the
mean absorbed power during a time period T is then given
by
Z
1 tþT
P̄p ¼ DpQ dt: (4)
T t
3. Mathematical model
Fig. 3. Turbine efficiency Zt and non-dimensional pressure drop Dp* as a function of f for stationary flow condition.
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P. Filianoti, S.M. Camporeale / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 631–641 635
inside the plant becomes Eq. (7) has been validated and calibrated against the
X experimental results obtained on the small-scale model
c z d2 z l duw
þ ¼ HA HB Y, (7) without turbine [18]. Details on the calibration of the
g dt 2 g dt exponent m of the polytropic law and the coefficient Ki/s of
where l is the length of the vertical duct, z is the height of the minor losses in Eq. (11) can be found therein.
the air pocket, c is the height of the inner room, uw is the
velocity in the vertical duct (positive upward). The total 4. Linearization procedure
head HA is related to the (absolute) pressure pair in the air
chamber by Design and performance estimation have been carried
2 out by using a linearized form of Eq. (7). The linearized
pair ðdz=dtÞ
H A ¼ ðc0 þ zÞ þ þ , (8) form is a second-order ordinary differential equation
rg 2g similar to the equation that describes a well-known
where c0 is the level of the ceiling of the air room below mechanical spring–mass–damper system.
m.w.l. Assuming a polytropic law for the variation of the The terms that need to be linarized are:
pressure inside the chamber, the pressure pair can be
evaluated as a function of the chamber volume, that, in the the characteristic curve [Dp* ¼ f (j)] of the low solidity
simple geometry described in Fig. 1, is directly propor- Wells turbine;
tional to the height z of the air chamber. Therefore, it polytropic law of air in the air pocket (acting as a gas
results spring);
m friction and minor losses.
z
pair ¼ ½rgðc þ z0 Þ þ patm 0 ,
0
(9)
z
It is possible to linearize the differential equation,
where z0 is the height of the plenum in the chamber in considering small oscillations around the position of static
steady-state condition, and m is the exponent of the equilibrium:
polytropic law. Continuous frictions losses can be ex-
pressed in the form valid in the case of permanent flow d2 y dy
A þF þ Py ¼ ghB ðtÞ, (14)
dt2 dt
f juw juw
Yc ¼ l , (10) where y ¼ z z0 is the displacement of the water surface in
4R 2g
caisson. Terms A and P follow straightforwardly by the
where R is the hydraulic radius, and f is the friction factor. Taylor series polynomial of degree 1 of Eqs. (7) and (9),
The head losses in the vertical duct should be estimated respectively, while the coefficient of the first-order term, F,
alternatively either as losses due to a sudden opening or as is given by:
losses due to duct entrance, depending on the flow
F ¼ F t þ F s, (15)
direction. For simplicity, a unique loss coefficient, inde-
pendent from the flow direction is adopted, so that where Ft takes into account the characteristic curve of the
Wells turbine and Fs is obtained from the linearization of
1
Y i=s ¼ K i=s juw juw . (11) head losses. It can be easily shown that the total head drop
2g
across the turbine becomes
The flow velocity in the vertical duct, uw, is related to the F t dz
time derivative of z by the continuity equation: Yt ¼ , (16)
g dt
AA dz
uw ¼ , (12) and the coefficient Ft, called ‘‘applied damping factor’’,
AB dt results equal to
where AA and AB are the cross section of the chamber (at Bt U tip AA
the air–water interface) and the cross section of the duct, Ft ¼ . (17)
2 At
respectively, while the axial velocity V crossing the turbine
can be obtained from the continuity equation Considering operating conditions into which the turbine
damping factor Bt is almost constant, the coefficient Ft can
AB
V¼ uw . (13) be determined from the geometrical characteristics and the
At rotational speed of the turbine.
The substitution in Eq. (7) of the above expressions for In order to describe the procedure adopted to linearize
HA, SY and uw, leads to a non-linear second-order the term of head losses, we suppose first that the wave
differential equation that can be solved numerically for acting on the system is a simple sinusoidal wave. Under
given hB(t) and initial conditions. Because wind-generated- such hypothesis, the integration of the non-linear differ-
waves are chaotic, energy per unit weight hB(t) represents a ential equation (7) leads to a periodic response y(t) that is
random process, which may be given by numerical not far from a sinusoidal function of time. Assuming for
simulation (see [18,19]). The mathematical model given in y(t) a sinusoidal form with period T, power losses due to
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636 P. Filianoti, S.M. Camporeale / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 631–641
continuous and minor losses in the vertical duct can be fluctuations inside the vertical duct, it is possible to show
evaluated from that
Z tþT R1
rgAB U 1=3 C L pðu; su ¼ wÞ du
P̄w ¼ kt juw ju2w dt, (18) C L1=3 ¼ R 1 , (24)
T
U 1=3 pðu; su ¼ wÞ du
t
The incoming mean wave energy rate per meter has been
estimated by means of the relation
1
F ¼ 0:85 rg2 H 2s T p , (35)
64p
which is characteristic of a sea state (i.e. a sequence of a few
hundred of wind-generated waves) with a significant wave
height Hs and a peak period Tp [22]. The significant wave
height is defined as four times the standard deviation of the
surface displacement. Eq. (30) has been obtained analyti-
cally from the general theory of sea states [23] applying the
mean JONSWAP (Joint North Sea Wave Project) spec-
trum expression [24] with the dispersion function proposed
by Mitsuyasu [25]. For this spectrum, the following
relationship can be considered valid [16]
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Fig. 4. Average turbine efficiency under unsteady flow with Gaussian Hs
distribution. T p ¼ 8:5p : (36)
4g
Under the hypothesis that hB(t) is a Gaussian process, The resonance condition is obtained whenever the eigen-
also j(t) is a Gaussian process. Therefore, neglecting the frequency of the system
effects of unsteadiness on the instantaneous turbine pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
on ¼ P=A (37)
efficiency, the average power output is given by
Z þ1 is equal to the peak frequency op ¼ 2p=T p of the spectrum
1
P̄t ¼ rU 3tip At Bt ZðjÞj2 pG ðj; sj ¼ wÞ dj, (33) of the incident wave. In order to meet such a condition, the
2 0 geometry of the caisson has been designed taking into
where Zt(j) is the turbine efficiency got under stationary account the typical range of Tp for the considered location.
conditions. The average turbine efficiency Z̄t can be Adjustment of the height z0 that allows the system to meet
obtained from the resonance condition can be obtained by varying the
R þ1 amount of air in the plenum chamber through the
P̄t Zt ðjÞj2 pG ðj; sj ¼ wÞ dj regulation system.
Z̄t ¼ ¼ 0 , (34)
P̄p s2j In order to evaluate the system behaviour under the
wave action, the total head hB at the depth of the outer
which shows that, under the hypothesis of a Gaussian
opening of the vertical duct were numerically simulated
process, the average turbine efficiency can be determined
using the linear theory of random wind-generated waves
from the steady-state turbine efficiency as a function of
[21] and assuming that these pressure fluctuations depend
jrms sj , as shown in Fig. 4. It appears that under unsteady
only on the frequency spectrum [16] which was assumed to
flow condition, the maximum of the average turbine
be the JONSWAP spectrum [24]. The effects of amplifica-
efficiency, Z̄t , is lower than the maximum of the stationary
tion due to the reflection of the wave on the breakwater
efficiency, Zt. The reason is that, during part of the period of
were not considered.
the flow oscillation, the turbine works in conditions where the
In order to validate the linearization procedure, the
efficiency is low or negative. Nevertheless, being Zt weighted
system has been numerically simulated by means of the
averaged by absorbed power as weight, this decrement of the
stochastic method and by numerically integrating in
efficiency is relatively small, since when the turbine works
the time domain the non-linear differential equation given
with low efficiency, also the absorbed power is small.
in Eq. (7). Initially, in order to outline the linearization
procedure as far as continuous and minor losses are
6. Results concerned, the turbine damping coefficient Bt has been
evaluated from the ideal coefficient given in Eq. (1). Time
The system examined in this work (Fig. 5) has been integration has been carried out considering a long time
designed for a breakwater to be installed off La Spezia interval equal to 2000 times Tp in order to reduce the effects
(Italy) coasts. The main difference from the scheme in of the initial conditions and random variability.
Fig. 1, concerns the clepsydra shape of the vertical duct, Here, the turbine diameter has been assumed equal to
adopted in order to reduce the turbine diameter, while the duct diameter with a hub-to-tip ratio h ¼ 0.66, and
increasing its rotational speed. The integration of the local solidity s ¼ 0.1.
derivative qv̄=qt of Eq. (7), along a streamline correspond- Table 1 shows the results obtained by applying both the
ing to the clepsydra axis is straightforward, taking into numerical procedures to the evaluation of the average
account the geometrical shape of the duct. power P̄a ¼ ðP̄p þ P̄w Þ absorbed by the REWEC system,
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638 P. Filianoti, S.M. Camporeale / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 631–641
Fig. 5. Scheme of the submerged wave energy converter with clepsydra shape vertical duct [15].
the average power absorbed by the turbine, P̄p , and, finally, relationship with the rms of the flow coefficient:
the average turbine power output, P̄t . The results obtained Z þ1
by integration of the non-linear differential equation are B̄t ¼ Bt ðjÞpG ðj; sj ¼ wÞ dj. (38)
given under the columns indicated by ‘‘N.L.’’, while the 0
results obtained by the stochastic approach to the
linearized differential equation are given under the column The above equation provide a time average of Bt on the
indicated by ‘‘L.M.’’. The percentage of difference between basis of the probability of obtaining a flow coefficient j
the results of the two methods are given under column during a sea state characterized by a standard deviation
‘‘diff.’’. It appears that, for every considered sea state, the sj ¼ w.
according between the results obtained through the two The simulations have been repeated considering the
numerical methodologies is almost complete, even with actual characteristic for the non-linear model and the
high significant wave heights. At high values of Hs, the average value of Bt for the stochastic method. The results
numerical simulation in the time domain has revealed that given in Table 1 show that Pa, Pp are well predicted by the
the outer opening of the duct may be sometimes not stochastic method while the power output Pt is over
submerged. This introduce a non-linear effect that was not predicted by about 15–20%. The error is, however, less
considered; however, its influence on the time averaged than 1% if it is evaluated as a percentage of incident wave
results seems to be negligible. power.
The proposed method is strictly applicable if the turbine The results show that the power output reaches its
characteristic (Dp*-j) is linear. The characteristic curve maximum for an intermediate value of Hs ¼ 2.75 m; for
obtained from simulation (Fig. 3) appears to be linear only higher values of Hs the power output decreases due to the
for the very first part, with very low velocity fluctuations. lower turbine efficiency. At high values of Hs (42.75 m),
In order to take into account the real turbine characteristic the actual turbine characteristic causes high values of jrms,
curve, the turbine damping coefficient Bt, has been put in and, consequently, low average turbine efficiency.
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P. Filianoti, S.M. Camporeale / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 631–641 639
Table 1
Comparison of the plant performance given by the non-linear model (N.L.) and by the linearized model (L.M.)
N.L. L.M. Diff. (%) N.L. L.M. Diff. (%) N.L. L.M. Diff. (%)
Fig. 6. Influence of the turbine damping factor on the plant performance at different sea states.
The influence of the turbine damping coefficient Ft on in HS,i, the probability pi of a sea state with HS,i
the system behaviour is examined in Fig. 6. It appears that 70.25 m is obtained from the Weibull distribution in two
Pp is maximized by low values of Ft but, at such low values parameters:
of Ft, the corresponding values of jrms are too high to give
good average turbine efficiency, as it is shown in Fig. 4. up h up 1 h up
pW ðH s ¼ hÞ ¼ exp , (39)
The best trade-off for Ft, which maximizes the annual wp wp wp
energy output, has been found in proximity of the values of
Ft able to determine a range of variation for jrms for which where the parameters up and wp assume characteristic
the turbine can be operated within the best efficiency values, depending on the examined location [16].
conditions. The energy contribution of each sea state is represented
in Fig. 7 which shows, for each sea state, the annual energy
7. Annual energy production absorbed by the plant, Ea, the turbine available energy, Ep,
and, finally, the energy output, Et. Calculations have been
In order to evaluate the contribution of each sea carried out assuming the parameters of the Weibull’s
state to the annual energy output, for the locality of probability distribution, up and wp, equal to 1.023 and
La Spezia (Italy), the range of significant wave heights 0.731, respectively. In this case the turbine rotational speed
[0.5 m, 6.0 m ] has been divided into 11 intervals 0.5 m was assumed Utip ¼ 11 m/s, constant for all the sea states.
each. For each interval of significant wave heights centred The sea states with significant height Hso0.5 m have been
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640 P. Filianoti, S.M. Camporeale / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 631–641
Fig. 7. Annual energy contribution of different sea state (turbine rotating at constant speed).
Fig. 8. Annual energy contribution and optimal tip blade velocity of a variable speed turbine.
not taken into account since, in these cases, the axial energy output is much improved. Fig. 8 show also the
velocities are too small to produce useful power output. optimal Utip at the different sea states obtained from
It appears that the annual energy output of the sea states simulation. It appears that the optimization procedure
with Hso0.5 m is low due to a poor turbine efficiency ‘‘drives’’ the rotational speed to the values able to optimize
caused by very low values of jrms obtained under this the turbine efficiency, since the available power, Pp, seems
condition. The most relevant contribution to the energy to be less sensitive to the variation of Utip.
output are from the sea states within 1.25–2.25 m, while a The global (wave-to-shaft) conversion efficiency ob-
significant decrement of the turbine efficiency is observed tained in this case is 23.2%, corresponding to
for HsX2.75 m, due to the high values of jrms. The global Et ¼ 5289 (kWh/m)/year, while the energy absorbed by
wave-to-shaft conversion efficiency [26] (annual energy the plant is 30.7% of the incident wave energy. The
output/incident wave energy) is around 15% while the advantages given by variable speed turbine operation
energy absorbed by the plant is globally about 32% of the suggest the opportunity of evaluating, from an economical
incident wave energy. point of view, the use of the electric frequency conversion
The energy output can be much improved by varying the equipments needed to operate the turbine at variable speed.
turbine rotational speed. An optimization procedure has
been carried out in order to determine, for each sea state, 8. Conclusions
the optimal rotational speed. The annual energy contribu-
tion of each sea state is represented in Fig. 8. It appears Under the hypothesis of random sea waves, an original
that the variation of the rotational speed has a limited methodology has been proposed for linearizing the
influence on the wave energy absorbed by the plant, Ea,i differential equation describing the behaviour of the
and on the turbine available energy, Ep,i, while the turbine REWEC system proposed by Boccotti [18]. The procedure
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P. Filianoti, S.M. Camporeale / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 631–641 641
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