Chemistry of

Carbohydrates

SAQ& VSAQs :
1. What are epimers?
2. What are enantiomers?
3. Anomers- mutarotation
4. Glycosaminoglycan – mucopolysaccharides
5. Bonds present in a) maltose b) sucrose c) lactose
6. Structure of glycogen
7. Optical isomerism
8. Homopolysaccharides
9. Glycosides
10. Classification of carbohydrates
 Chemistry of Lipids

SAQ& VSAQs :
1. Classification of Lipids
2. Composition of surfactant
3. L/S ratio
4. Essential fatty acids
5. Respiratory distress syndrome
6. PUFA
7. Sphingolipids
8. Trans Fatty acids

LAQ:
1. Phospholipids
A) Types
B) Functions
C) Clinical importance
D) Characteristics features
 Chemistry of proteins

LAQ :
• Structural origination of proteins and mention the bonds involved
in forming the different levels of organisation of proteins

SAQ& VSAQs :
• Classification of proteins
• Essential amino acids
• Different classifications of amino acids
• Biological important peptides
• Non protein amino acids
• Characteristics of peptide bond
• Collagen structure
• Isoelectric pH
• Denaturation, agents and it’s characteristics
 Metabolism of
carbohydrates
Laq:
• HMP pathway and it’s significance
• TCA cycle
• Glycolysis
• Glycogen metabolism- glycogenolysis and glycogen synthesis
• Gluconeogenesis
• Regulation of blood sugar levels

Saq & vsaq:

• Rappaport Leubering Shunt pathway and significance of
2,3BPG
• PDH complex
• Lactose intolerance
• Carbohydrate digestion and absorption
• Energetics and inhibitors of glycolysis
• Galactose metabolism
• Fructose metabolism
• Amphibolic cycle of citric acid cycle
• Catabolic cycle of citric acid cycle
• Anaplerotic reactions of citric acid cycle
• Alpha keto glutarate complex
• Name vitamins that are used in TCA cycle
• Glycogen storage disorders- table
• Von gierkis disease
• Mcardles disease
• Cahills cycle
• Coris cycle
• Significance of HMP Shunt pathway
• UDP- glucronate cycle
• Polyol pathway
• Essential pentosuria
• Galactosemia
• Fructosuria and fructosemia
• Futile cycle
• GTT interpretation
• Fate of pyruvate
• Fate of acetyl coa
• Malate/ Aspartate shuttle
• Glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle
• G6PD Deficiency
• Wernicke-korsakoff syndrome
• Blood glucose homeostasis
 METABOLISM OF PROTEINS
LAQ:-
• Metabolism of glycine
• Urea cycle and it’s disorders
• Metabolism of tyrosine and phenylalanine (disorders
related to their metabolism)
• Metabolism of Tryptophan
• Write an essay on digestion and absorption of
proteins
• How is ammonia produced in the body. How is it
detoxified? Give 2 causes & Effects of
Hyperammonemia.

Saq and vsaq:-

• One carbon metabolism
• Transamination and deamination
• Why are high levels of ammonia are toxic ? What it
does to our brain
• Synthesis degradation functions of polyamines
• Hartnup’s disease
• BUN
• Role of SAM
• Gamma glutamyl cycle
• Biological important compounds derived from
a)glycine b) tyrosine c) Tryptophan
• Phenylketonuria
• Albinism
• Alkaptonuria
• Transmethylation reactions
• Carcinoid syndrome
• Metabolism of sulphur containing amino acids
• Cystinuria
• Cystinosis
• Homocystinuria
• Maple syrup urine disease
• Isovaleric acidemia
• GABA Taurine Cadaverine
• Urea cycle disorders
 Lipid metabolism
LAQ:-
• What are lipoproteins; structure, classification, Lipoprotein
metabolism and lipid profile?
• Synthesis of cholesterol and its regulation.
Add a note on hypercholesterolemia; a)causes b) bad and good
cholesterol c) management of hypercholesterolemia d)
cholesterol lowering drugs.
• A)Outline the degradation pathway of cholesterol and
mention products obtained of degradation of cholesterol
B) what is enterohepatic circulation
C) Add a note on cholelithiasis.
D) Role of LCAT in cholesterol transport
• Explain the biosynthesis of palmitic acid ( fatty acid) also
mention the regulation of fattyacid synthesis.
• Describe ketone bodies metabolism (I.e.)
A)Ketogenesis & Ketolysis
B)Ketonemia and ketonuria
C)Regulation of Ketogenesis
D)Diabetic ketoacidosis(DKA).
E)Ketogenic and non ketogenic substances
F)Utilization and excretion of ketone bodies
G)Test for ketone bodies in urine.
• Beta oxidation of fatty acids(palmitic acid); stages and
tissues and energetics . Add a note on carnitine deficiency.
• What are phospholipids, types, functions and Describe
metabolism of phospholipds.

SAQ&VSAQ:-
• Describe alcohol metabolism In our body and write about
biochemical changes in alcoholism.
• What is MEOS.
• What are lipotropic factors and their action.
• What is fatty liver and mention its causes.
• HDL metabolism and reverse cholesterol transport.
• Normal lipid profile with normal biochemical values.
• Synthesis of bile acids.
• Regulation of cholesterol synthesis
• Fatty acid synthase complex.
• Sphingolipodoses with their charecteristic features.
• Metabolism of glycolipids.
• Structure and functions of cholesterol.
• Synthesis of triacylglycerols.
• Refsum’s disease.
• Zellweger syndrome.
• Oxidation of odd chain fatty acids and Methylmalonic
acidemia .
• Jamaican vomiting sickness.
• SIDS.
• Wolman Disease
• Hyperlipoproteinemias. A) type I B) type IIa, IIb C) type III D)
type IV E) type V
• Hypolipoproteinaemias a) familial hypolipoproteinaemia
b)Abetalipoproteinemia c) familial alpha lipoprotein
deficiency.
• Atherosclerosis , causes, realtion between HDL and CHD and
treatment.
• Role of carnitine
• Essential fatty acids and their functions.
• Explain how lipids are digested and absorbed.
 Vitamins
LAQ:
1.Vitamin A

2.Vitamin D

3. Vitamin C

4. Vitamin B12

5. Vitamin B9

SAQ:
1. Vitamin K functions especially in clotting mechanisms
2. Niacin mediated biochemical reactions
3. Walds visual cycle
4. Vit D synthesis and absorption
5. PLP mediated reactions
6. Night blindness
7. Folate trap
8. VitB12 absorption
9. Beriberi
10. Vitamin E functions

VSAQ:
1. Antioxidant vitamins
2. VitD is a hormone, justify?
3. Describe the deficiency of following vitamins?
A)VitC B) VitB1 C)VitB3 D)VitB9
4. Mention the RDA of following vitamins
A)VitA&E B)VitD C) VitB9 & B12 D) VitC & K
5. Pellagra & scurvy
6. Explain why thiamine deficiency is one of the reason for
lactic acidosis?
7. Coenzyme functions of biotin and pantothetic acid?
8. Enumerate the anemia causing vitamins?
9. Vitamin K cycle.
10. Beneficial effects of Beta Carotene.
 Mineral metabolism

• LAQ:-
• ***CALCIUM
a) functions, RDA, sources.
b) absorption and factors effecting absorption
c) factors regulating plasma calcium levels
d) Applied
• ***IRON
a)Functions
b)RDA and sources
c)Absorption, transport and storage
d)Factors affecting iron absorption
e)Disease states
• Write breifly about trace elements and their metabolism in
the body

SAQ&VSAQ:-
• **Mucosal block theory
• **Ca homeostasis
• *Sodium and chlorine biochemical functions
• ***Wilson's disease
• ***Hemosiderosis
• **Osteoporosis
• *Biochemical functions of fluorine and add a note on fluorosis
• **Biochemical functions of selenium and what is selenosis
• *Biochemical functions of zinc and explain deficiency
diseases.
• **Menkes disease
• *Plasma Iodine
• **Iron deficiency anemia
• *Causes for hypo and hypernatriemia
• *Biochemical functions of phosphorus and add a note on
serum phosphate.
• **Rickets
• Importance of magnesium and potassium in body
 Acid base balance

SAQ’S & VSAQ’S:-

• Define a buffer and types of buffer

• Explain in detail:-
A) Respiratory acidosis
B) Respiratory alkalosis
C) Metabolic acidosis
D) Metabolic alkalosis
• Anion gap
• Explain different mechanisms of regulation of blood pH
A) Respiratory mechanism
B) Renal mechanism
• Henderson Hesselbach’s equation
• Disorders of acid base balance
 Water and electrolyte balance
SAQ& VSAQ
• Total body water distribution in young adult.
• **Composition of electrolytes in body fluids.
• Osmolality and osmolarity
• *Regulation of electrolyte balance in our body.
• *Dehydration- causes, charecteristic features
and treatment.
• **Oral rehydration therapy.
• Water intoxication.
• Diuretics and diabetes insipidus.
• **Hyperkalemia v/s hypokalemia
• ** Hypernatriemia v/s hyponatriemia.
 Molecular biology

LAQ’S:-
• ****Describe the process of DNA REPLICATION ( eukaryotes
and prokaryotes both) with a suitable diagram. Add a note on
DNA repair Mechanism.
• Describe steps of transcription with a suitable diagram and
add a note on post transcriptional modifications
• Add a note on protein biosynthesis in our body ( translation)
and write about post translational modifications
• Write about steps and tools involved in recombinant DNA
technology. Mention application of rDNA in daily life

SAQ’S & VSAQ’S :-

• DNA polymerases
• DNA repair
• Inhibitors of
A) Replication
B) Transcription
C) Translation
• Add a note on genetic code
• Add a note on okazaki fragments
• Wobble’s hypothesis
• Mutations – frame shift and point mutations
• Lac operon
• DNA fingerprinting
• PCR
• Protein folding and protein targeting
• Zymogens
• Telomerase and telomere
•
 Chemistry of Nucleotides and nucleic acids

• VSAQ:
• *Mention few Biologically important nucleotides and their
functions
• *Importance of synthetic nucleotide analogs
• ***Structure of DNA
• **Chargaff’s rule
• **Types of RNA
• ***tRNA and it’s importance
• *Tautomeric forms of purines and pyrimidines

Note:- From this chapter only VSAQ are asked.

 Metabolism of Nucleotides

LAQ:-
• **Describe the process of degradation of purine nucleotides
• **Biosynthesis of pyrimidine ribonucleotides.
• ***Biosynthesis of purine ribonucleotides. Inhibitors of
purine synthesis.
• ***Purine salvage pathway.

SAQ&VSAQ:-
• **Orotic aciduria
• **Reye's syndrome.
• Hypouricemia.
• SCID.
• ***Lesch-Nyhan syndrome.
• **Hyperuricemia
• ***Gout.
• **Sources of individual atoms in purine ring.
• **Inhibitors of purine synthesis.
• Hypouricemia.
• Treatment of cancer.
• **Treatment of gout.
• Pseudogout.
 Biochemistry of cancer

SAQ’S:-
• Add a note on oncogenes and write examples of it
• *** What are tumour markers explain briefly with examples
• **Add a note on apoptosis
 Extra cellular matrix

SAQ&VSAQ:-
• Give an overview of tissue proteins and their deficiency
disorders.
• **Structure of collagen and structure of elastin.
• *Sarcomere
• **Prion diseases
• Amyloidosis.
• Give an account of various body fluids and their importance.
• CSF formation and components including CSF functions.
• Ehlers-Danlos syndrome.
• **Osteogenesis imperfecta
• Williams syndrome
• Muscular dystrophies

Note:- This is a new competency topic, try to focus as questions are also asked from
this topic.
 Metabolism of xenobiotics

LAQ'S:-

• Describe how Xenobiotics are metabolised in the body.Give a

detailed account of cytochrome P450 in hydroxylation
reactions.
SAQ’S:-
• Phase 1 reactions
• Phase 2 reactions
• Write a note on cytochrome P450
 Enzymes
LAQ:
• Isoenzymes with examples and their clinical importance in
diagnosis of disease.
• What are enzymes? Classification them and Describe
different types of Enzyme inhibition. Write about Enzyme
patterns in disease.
• Explain effects of different factors on rates of Enzyme
catalysed reactions
SAQ&VSAQ
• Enzyme classification with examples
• Factors effecting Enzyme activity
• Km value and it’s significance
• Active site of an Enzyme
• Mechanism of Enzyme action
• Enzyme inhibition
• Enzyme specificity
• Coenzymes
• Enzyme specificity
• Clinical enzymology
1. Therapeutic uses of enzymes
2. Diagnostic importance of enzymes
3. Cardiac enzymes
4. Liver enzymes
5. Cancer enzymes
• Enzyme poisions
• Allosteric enzymes & feed back mechanism
• Isoenzymes of lactate dehydrogenase, creatinine kinase
• Non functional plasma enzymes
• Suicidal inhibition
• Michaelis menten constant

Line – weaver burk double reciprocal plot

**Note: Enzymes is an easy and very important chapter. So

questions can be asked from any corner of chapter, so go
throughly through the chapter.
 Hormones( Biochemical)

SAQ&VSAQ:-
• ***Mechanism of action of hormones.( group I and group-II)
• Write an account on anterior pituitary hormones.
• **Write in detail about synthesis and biochemical functions
of thyroid hormones.
• ****Classification of hormones.
• **cAmp- the second messenger.
• *Synthesis, biochemical functions, of Adrenal cortex
hormones.
• Biochemical functions of catecholamines.
• **Addisons disease
• **Cushings syndrome
• *Phaeochromocytoma.
• Physiological and biochemical functions of androgens and
estrogens.
• *GIT hormones
• **Hypo and hyperthyroidism.
• ***Thyroid function test
• ***Adrenal function test
• *Goitre
• *Regulation of T3 and T4.
• Placental hormones.
• Oxytocin and ADH.

Note:- Stars specify that those questions are mostly repeated in

University Exams.
As you will be reading hormones in physiology and biochemistry, so
only go through complete physiology of endocrine system that will
cover the biochemistry too. Only focus on biochemical importance of
those hormones and laboratory diagnosis like TFT and AFT etc.. in
biochemistry.
 Integration of metabolism

LAQ:-
• Metabolism of starvation. Test for ketone bodies in urine.

SAQ&VSAQ:-
• Give an overview of integration of Metabolic pathways of
energy metabolism.
• Energy reserves of a normal human being.
 Organ function tests

LAQ'S:-

• Write a note on LIVER FUNCTION TEST (LFT)

• Write a note on RENAL FUNCTION TEST (RFT)
SAQ’S:-
• Add a note on jaundice and differential diagnosis of jaundice
• Van den bergs reaction
• Fouchet test
• Inulin, creatinine, urea clearance tests
• Write a short note on gastric function test
• Thyroid function tests
• Write a note on glucose tolerance test (GTT)
 Plasma proteins & immunology

SAQ&VSAQ:-
• **What are plasma proteins mention their significance and
normal serum values
• *Electrophoresis procedure and Abnormal electrophoretic
patterns.
• **Albumin; functions and significance.
• Clinical significance of alpha 1 antitrypsin.
• ***A/G ratio and it’s significance. Reversal of A/G ratio.
• Significance of haptoglobin.
• *Ceruloplasmin.
• ***Acute phase proteins and CRP importance
• **What are immunoglobulins, classify them and mention
their functions.
• **Multiple myeloma.
• *Bence jones proteins.
• blood clotting factors
• Mention few anticoagulants
• **What are types of immunity, mention cells of immune
system .
• Write breifly about the bodys immune responses for a foreign
body .
• **Monoclonal antibodies
 Haem metabolism and
porphyrias
LAQ :

• Haem metabolism( formation&degradation) and different

types of porphyrias.
• Jaundice? And types of jaundice.
SAQ &VSAQ:
• Congenital hyperbilirubinemia
• Acute intermittent porphyria and it’s symptoms
• Vandenbergs test
• Classification of haemoglobinopathies.
• Sickle cell anemia and it’s corelation with malaria.
• Thalassaemia
• Neonatal jaundice/ physiological jaundice and it’s treatment
• Normal &Abnormal Haemoglobins
• Haem containing substances
• Haem structure
• Oxygen dissociation curve and factors effecting it.
• Haemoglobin derivatives& their clinical importance
A)carboxyhaemoglobin B)met-Hb C)sulfa-Hb D)Nitric
oxidation E) Glycated Hb