INTRODUCTION

TO

CONFLICT AND PEACE

STUDIES

BY

JOSEPH IGNATIUS OBENG

©2015

Copyright © Joseph Ignatius Obeng, 2015

University Of Education, Ghana

All rights reserved. I encourage the use of this material; however, in order to protect the
contents from change, neither the book, nor any part thereof, may be reprinted or used
in any form without written permission from the author, except for brief excerpts used
in magazine reviews, etc '

First Published In 2006; Reprinted In 2008,2010,2012 And 2015

PRINTED IN Ghana by DERISCO COMPANY LIMITED

Tel:+233(0) 244 935 891

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Mr. Seth Peter Frimpong, Senior Lecturer, Department of Social
Studies Education, UEW, and former Head, Centre for African Studies (CAS), for giving
me the initial platform to teach at the Centre. In fact, the opportunity he gave me motivated
me to develop my lecture notes into this textbook.

Special thanks also go to Mr. Adam Mohammed, Lecturer, Department of Social Studies
Education, for his selfless dedication and service towards the writing of this book.

I have immense appreciation for Mr. Richard Dery, Managing Director, DERISCO CO.
LTD, and my Christian friend, for encouraging me to put the finishing touches to the
book.

Many thanks also go to all these wonderful people: Dr. Edmond Akwasi Agyeman and
all the other lecturers and the secretarial staff, CAS, Mr. Cletus Ngaaso and Ms. Florence
Okere- Hanson, Senior Administrative Assistant, Department of Social Studies Education,
UEW.

The answer to writing any good book is by getting the right encouragement and inspiration.
This was provided by my beloved wife, Vida and our children: Kojo, Keziah and Keren.
 PREFACE

Conflicts are not new in human society. From the days of Adam and Eve, through to our
times, traces of conflicts have been seen in all aspects of human life including our homes,
institutions or organisations, communities and nations. It is important to note that most
of the conflicts in Africa are intra-state, even though there have been inter-state conflicts.
The main problem with most African conflicts is their violent nature which results in the
destruction of lives and property. Such conflicts have aggravated the continent's state of
underdevelopment.

This book, which is eleven chapters, addresses the issue of conflicts in Africa. The book
delves into the meaning, types and the levels of conflict, theories of conflict, conflict
analysis, conflicts in organisation, the causes and effects of conflicts in Africa; conflict
prevention, conflict resolution, conflict management, alternative dispute resolution and
peace education.

The book is recommended for university students, researchers, personnel in the security
forces, policy makers, social workers and conflict resolution experts. The benefits of reading
this book, among others, include acquiring the skills in the prevention, management and
the resolution of conflicts

As you read this book, may you learn to live peacefully with all manner of persons, and
also be an instrument of peace in Ghana, in particular, and Africa, in general.

Ignatius Joseph Obeng

Author
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

Acknowledgments /Dedication ....................................................................... iii

Preface ............................................................................................................ iv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 1

The Meaning of Conflict ................................................................................. 1
Types ^Conflict ............................................................................................ 1
Means of Identifying Conflicts....................................................................... 2
Levels of Conflicts ......................................................................................... 2
Nature of Conflicts ........................................................................................ 5
Symptoms of Conflicts .................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER TWO: THEORIES OF CONFLICT.......................................... 8

The Biological Theory................................................................................... 8
The Frustration -Aggression Theory ............................................................. 9
The Physiological Theory.............................................................................. 10
The Economic Theory ................................................................................... 11
The Human Needs Theory ............................................................................ 12
Other Theories of Conflict ............................................................................ 15

CHAPTER THREE: CONFLICT ANALYSIS ............................................ 18

The Meaning of Conflict Analysis .................................................................... 18
The Components of Conflict Analysis .............................................................. 20
Background and Context of Conflict ............................................................... 20
Stages of Conflict ........................................................................................... 21
Perspectives of Conflict................................................................................... 22
Parties to Conflict............................................................................................. 23
Position, Interests, Needs and Fears ................................................................. 24
Methods of Conflict Analysis........................................................................... 29
CHAPTER FOUR: CONFLICTS IN ORAGNISATIONS ............................. 34
Levels of conflict in organisations .................................................................... 34
Types of Conflict in Organisations .................................................................... 35
Forms of Dysfunctional Conflict ....................................................................... 37
Causes of Conflict in Organisations ................................................................. 38
Conflicts in Educational Institutions ................................................................. 42
Power Networks in Conflicts........................................................................... 42
Defence Mechanism in Conflicts ..................................................................... 43
Coping with Difficult people .......................................................................... -.. 46

CHAPTER FIVE: CAUSES OF CONFLICTS IN AFRICA .......................... 49

Introduction .................................................................................................... 49
Conflicts in Organisations ................................................................................ 49
Conflicts in Educational Institutions ................................................................. 49
Conflicts at the Family Level .......................................................................... 49
Marital Conflicts ............................................................................................. 51
Conflicts at the Community Level ..................................................................... 56
Conflicts at the National Level ......................................................................... 58

CHAPTER SIX: EFFECTS OF CONFLICTS ............................................. 66

Introduction ................................................................................................... 66
Effects of Conflicts on Families ....................................................................... 66
Effects of Conflicts on Communities or Nations ................................................ 66
Examples of Violent Conflicts in Africa ........................................................... 61

CHAPTER SEVEN: CONFLICT PREVENTION ........................................ 69

The Meaning of Conflict Prevention .................................................................. 69
The Role of Individual in Conflict Prevention ................................................... 69
Attitudes and Values for Conflict Prevention...................................................... 72

CHAPTER EIGHT: CONFLICT RESOLUTION ....................................... 75

The Meaning of Conflict Resolution ................................................................ 75
Ground Rules for Conflict Resolution Process .................................................. 76
Skills for Resolving Conflicts ........................................................................... 77

CHAPTER NINE: CONFLICT MANAGEMENT......................................... 80

The Meaning of Conflict Management ............................................................... 80
Conflict Management Techniques ..................................................................... 80
Conflicts Management Styles............................................................................ 84

CHAPTER TEN: ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION ...................... 90

The Meaning of Alternative Dispute Resolution................................................. 90
The African Traditional Dispute Resolution ...................................................... 90
The Western Alternative Dispute Resolution ....................................................... 94
Other Methods of Dispute Resolution ............................................................... 105

CHAPTER ELEVEN: PEACE EDUCATION ............................................... 107

The Meaning of Peace...................................................................................... 107
The Meaning of Peace Education...................................................................... 108
Using School Subjects for Teaching Peace Education ...........................................
109
Types of Peace Education ................................................................................. Ill
The Culture of Peace Education ........................................................................ 114
Convention on the Rights of the Child............................................................... 117
The United Nations ......................................................................................... 118
Peace Education Foundation............................................................................. 118
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisations ............... 120
International Peace Research Association.......................................................... 121
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

The Meaning of Conflict

You might have heard or read about the numerous conflicts which have occurred in some
African countries and some parts of Ghana. You might have also experienced conflicts in
your family, school or your community. Can you, therefore, define the term, "conflict"?
The concept "conflict" has been defined in several forms and here are a few of them:
(i) Nelson and Quick (1997) define conflict as any situation in which incompatible
goals, attitudes, emotions or behaviours lead to disagreement or opposition
between two or more parties.
(ii) Conflict is defined as a situation where two or more parties clash over a set of
incompatible demands leading to strained relations.
(iii) Procter (1995) defines conflict as an active disagreement between people with
opposing opinions or principles
. (iv) Conflict is defined as any situation in which there are incompatible goals,
cognitions or emotions within or between individuals or groups which lead to strained
relations or antagonistic interaction.
(v) Mankoe (2002) contends that conflict is a contest of opposing forces or powers;
a
struggle to resist or overcome.
(vi) Conflict may be defined as a struggle or contest between people with opposing
needs, ideas, beliefs, values, or goals (Foundation Coalition, 2003).

From all the definitions, it is clear that conflicts denote disagreements, contradictions or
incompatibility. It is important to note that conflicts are a fact of life and are, therefore,
inevitable. Conflicts are thus, natural and necessaiy in any human institution. This means
that conflicts in themselves are not bad at all, but, the most important thing is how they
are handled. Conflict, like fire or electricity, is a good servant but can be a bad master
depending on how it is handled or managed.

But it is important to note that not all conflicts are bad. Do you know that? You may not
agree but this is very true. There is a type of conflict is called conflict of ideas. It
 INTRODUCTION

is an example of a good conflict. Conflict of ideas is a clash of ideas between two or

more individuals or groups who want their ideas or viewpoints to be accepted. Also,
called functional conflict, conflict of ideas is a kind of conflict in which people freely
express their views on different issues affecting nations, organisations, communities and
themselves. Conflict of ideas is thus a competition of ideas which often leads to
innovation and progress. That is, conflict of ideas promotes development. This happens
when the different ideas and positions held by different people are put together for the
best decisions to be taken. Conflict of ideas may also be referred to as consensus building.
Can you give examples of such conflicts? They include staff meetings, board meetings,
parliamentary debates, etc.

Have you also heard about conflict of interest? I know you are familiar with this term
but, it is not like conflict of ideas. This means that conflict of interest is destructive. It is
a conflict between an individual's personal interest and his or her public duty whether or
not money is involved. It can also be defined as a situation in which an official's private
interest benefits from his or her public actions or duty. Can you give examples of conflict
of interest? If a District Chief Executive, Minister of State, Headmaster/Headmistress or
any public official, for example, awards a contract to his or her company or a relative's
company, this is termed as conflict of interest. Do you know why? The reason is that
most people are not honest and so if they are left on their own to award contracts to their
companies or to that of their relatives or friends, they are likely to increase the value of
the project to promote their interest as against the interest of the state. There are a lot of
examples that you can give to explain conflict of interest. I hope you can easily do that.

Levels of Conflict
There are five levels of conflict and they are as follows:
• Intra-personal conflict
• Inter-personal conflict
• Inter-group conflict
• Intra-group conflict
• Intra-organisational (see page 34)
 INTRODUCTION

(i) Intra-personal conflict: When conflict occurs within an individual, it is called

intra-personal conflict. There are several types of intra-personal conflict and they are
inter-role, intra-role, and person-role conflicts. A role is a set of expectations placed
on an individual by others. It is thus, the responsibilities expected of a person who
holds a certain position. The person occupying the focal role is the role incumbent,
and the individuals who place expectations on the person are role senders.

Inter-role conflict occurs when a person experiences conflict among the multiple
roles in his or her life. One inter-role conflict that an employee may experience is
work or home conflict, in which his or her role as worker may clashe with his or her
role as a spouse or parent. For example, when a child is sick, the parent who is also
an employee often must leave work to care for the child, and this creates conflict for
the individual concerned.

Intra-role conflict is conflict within a single role. It often arises when a person
receives conflicting messages from role senders about how to perform a certain
role. Suppose a manager receives an advice from his or her Head of Department
that he or she needs to socialise less with the non-management employees. He is
also told by his project manager that he or she needs to be a better team member.
This situation is an example of intra-role conflict. Person-role conflict also occurs
when an individual is expected to perform a role that clashes with his or her values.

Intra-personal conflict, or conflict within an individual which relates to social roles,

can be managed with careful self analysis and diagnosis of the situation. Two
actions in particular can help prevent or resolve intra-personal conflicts. First, when
seeking a new job, applicants should find out as much as possible about the values
of the organisation. Many person role-conflicts centre on differences between the
orgnisation's values and the individuals values. It has been established that when
there is a good relationship between the values of the individual and the
organisation, the individual is more satisfied and committed and is less likely to
leave the organisation. Second, to manage intra-role conflicts, role analysis is a
good tool. In role analysis, the individual asks the various role senders what they
 INTRODUCTION

expect from him or her. The outcomes are closer work roles and the reduction of
conflict and ambiguity.

(ii) Inter-personal conflict: Conflict between two or more people is referred to as

inter-personal conflict. Many individual differences including personalities,
attitudes, values and perceptions lead to conflicts between people such as friends,
couples and leaders. Inter-personal conflict involves two or more individuals who
perceive themselves as being in opposition to each other over preferred outcomes
and attitudes, values or behaviours. For example, a headmaster advises his senior
housemaster to work hard to instill discipline among students, but turns around to
accuse the senior housemaster of being too strict on students. When the students
see the headmaster as sympathetic towards them, they may show disrespect to the
senior housemaster. The headmaster's behaviour may generate conflict between
him and the senior housemaster.

Many inter-personal conflicts are based on some type of role conflict or role
ambiguity. A role is the cluster of tasks that others expect a person to perform
in doing a job. Role conflict occurs when a focal person perceives incompatible
messages and pressures from the role sender. The focal person then responds with
coping behaviours that serve as inputs to the role sender's experience. In the above
example, the senior housemaster is the focal person while the headmaster is the role
sender. The senior housemaster might respond to the headmaster's behaviour by
relaxing his or her strictness on student discipline or might complain to or attack the
headmaster about his or her behaviour and pronouncements on discipline.

(iii) Inter-group conflict: When conflict occurs between groups or teams in the same
organisation, it is known as inter-group conflict. In the school setting, an
inter-group conflict may be between the teaching staff and students. Conflicts
between groups can have predictable effects within each group, such as increased
group cohesiveness, increased focus on tasks, and increased loyalty to the group.
Competition between groups must be managed carefully so that it does not escalate
into dysfunctional conflict. Research has shown that when groups compete for a

goal that only one group can achieve, negative consequences like territoriality,
aggression, and prejudice toward the other group can result.
 Mankoe (2002) contends that inter-group conflict is the opposition and clashes that
arise between two or more groups. It often occurs in labour union-management
relations. Such conflicts are, sometimes, highly intense and costly to the groups
involved. Under extreme conditions of competition and conflict, the groups develop
attitudes and relationships toward each other that are characterised by distrust,
rigidity, a focus only on self-interests, a failure to listen, etc. For example, in the
school situation, conflict often arises between school authorities as one group, and
students as another. A conflict can arise where the staff as a group may prescribe a
type of punishment to a student or a number of students. If the student body views the
punishment as too severe, then out of solidarity with their colleagues, the students
may resort to group action to compel the authorities to review the punishment.

(iv) Intra-group conflict: This refers to clashes among some or all of a group's
members, which often affect the group's processes and effectiveness. For example,
the staff of a school may be divided on the type of punishment to be given to student
who has broken the school's rules and regulation. A few may support the use of
corporal punishment while others may propose other forms. If they are unable to
reach agreement or consensus on the issue, it will generate into conflict.

The Nature of Conflicts

All conflicts are divided into violent and non-violent.

Violent conflicts: These are conflicts that lead to loss of lives and property. Such conflicts
involve the use of arms, cutlasses, machetes, axes and other dangerous weapons. People
are usually attacked physically, creating panic and insecurity in the area. Examples of
violent conflicts include the Dagbon conflict, Nanumba-Konkomba war, Liberian war,
etc.

Non-Violent conflicts: These are conflicts that are characterised by peaceful

demonstrations amidst singing, drumming and dancing, verbal exchanges, withdrawing
from one another, etc. In actual sense, non-violent conflicts are not as serious as the
violent ones. But it is important to note that if non-violent conflicts are not handled well,
they can become violent or turn into violent conflicts.

Means of Identifying Conflicts

Conflicts can be identified through the following means:
(i) Observation
Through observation, one may perceive visible changes in an existing relationship.
For example, one may observe a change in reception which is usually accorded him
or her. Certain actions which are unwelcome may also be seen or noticed.

(ii) Hearing
One will also be able to determine if there is a conflict by getting to hear what the
other person or people are saying by oneself or through informants.

(iii) Feeling
One can sense or feel the conflict through how one is treated by the individual or a
group of persons.

In general, one's awareness of conflict will involve using one's intuition as well as
one's rational knowledge.

Symptoms of Conflict
Symptoms are the signs of conflict and can be expressed in many forms. According to
the Manchester Open Learning (1992), the symptoms of conflict include the following:
(i) Furious argument
(ii) A fight (exchange of blows)
(iii) A cold look/cold reception
(iv) An returned greeting
(v) Work that is grudgingly done
(vi) A "them" and "us" vocabulary
 (vii) Avoidance of social contact (withdrawal)

The symptoms may also include the following:

(i) Unhealthy competition
(ii) I Breakdown in communication/communication gap
(iii) Anger
(iv) Aggressive behaviour
(v) Litigation
(vi) Assault (both verbal and physical)
(vii) War
(viii) Bloodshed
(ix) Taking entrenched positions
 CHAPTER TWO
THEORIES OF CONFLICT

Biological Theories
The view that humankind is evil by nature has a long tradition. The thinking is that
since our ancestors were instinctively violent beings, and since we evolved from them,
we too must bear destructive impulses in our genetic makeup. In their assessment of
human nature, classical theorists like Thomas Hobbes, St Augustine, Malthus, and Freud
expressed the belief that, human beings are driven by a natural instinct to self-preservation.
Because of this tendency, Hobbes described life in the 'state of nature* as "solitary, poor,
nasty, brutish and short". In the same way, Saint Augustine, (1948) and Neibuhr (1953),
and some theologians referred to the linkage between violent behaviour and original sin
in humanity. To Neibuhr, humans are driven by a natural quest "will-to-live'7
"will-to-power" to speak power, personal security and survival at the expense of others
around them.

The biological theories have given rise to what may be referred to as the innate theory
of conflict which contends that conflict is innate in all social interactions, and among all
animals, including human beings. The theory is broad in coverage, incorporating scholars
with biological backgrounds, such as human physiology, ethology, socio-biological (the
use of biological theory to explain social and human behaviour), psychology
(frustration-aggression theory by Dollard et al.), etc. It argues that humans are animals,
although higher species of animals, and would fight naturally over things they cherish.

Others who subscribe to the innate theory are the theologians and religious people, who
see an inner flaw in humankind by way of sin that brings forth bitterness, violence and
conflict. The whole purpose of religion is to regulate this sinful nature in the relationship
between men and men on the one hand, and men and God on the other hand.

In other words, it is believed that conflict is inherent in man, and this can be explained
from man's inner properties and attributes, and hormonal composition. That aggressive
instinct will be provoked when man is threatened and challenged, etc.
 THEORIES OF CONFLICT

In his attempt to understand the high level of aggression and destruction that occurred
during World War 1, Sigmund Freud (a key founding figure of Psychology) looked to
human nature for answers. He described the destructive tendencies in human beings as
a product of a 'dialectical struggle' between the instinct associated with life and survival
(Eros) and the instinct associated with death (Thanatos) and suggested that societies had
to learn to control the expression of both the life and death instinct. In this view, both
instincts are always seeking release and it is the one that wins the contest of domination
that is released. Thus, aggression against others is released whenever the Eros overcomes
the Thanatos and as he puts it, war and conflict is a necessary periodic release that helps
men preserve themselves by diverting their destructive tendencies to others.

Sentiments like those expressed above probably inform the thinking of many people
who argue that failure to express anger results in heart diseases, stress, and high blood
pressure. Zinberg and Fellman (1967) went as far as providing a justification for periodic
military confrontations in suggesting that war serves to discharge the aggressive instinct
and that 'a mature society....... must eventually accept violence as an essential part of
human nature, essentially not because it is good or bad, but because occurrence of conflict
is shared by many theories of conflict'. As we can see, the realists share similar principles
with the biological, physiological and theological theories, and vice versa.

The Frustration- Aggression Theory

The Frustration-Aggression theory which John Dollard and his research associates
initially developed in 1939 and has been expanded and modified by scholars like Leonard
Berkowitz (1962) and Aubrey Yates (1962) appears to be the most common explanation
for violent behaviour stemming from inability to fulfill needs. Theorists who rely on
this explanation use the psychological theories of motivation and behaviour, as well as
frustration and aggression (Anifowose, 1982:6). In an attempt to explain aggression,
scholars point to the difference between what people feel they want or deserve to what
they actually get-the "want-get-ratio" (Feierabends, 1969:256-7) and difference between
"expected need satisfaction" and "actual need satisfaction" (Davies, 1962:6). Where
expectation does not meet attainment, the tendency is for people to confront those they
hold responsible for frustrating their ambitions. This is the central argument that
Ted
Robert Gurr's relative deprivation thesis addressed in saying, "the greater the discrepancy,
however marginal, between what is sought and what seem attainable, the greater will be
the chances that anger and violence will result" (1970:24).

The main explanation that the frustration-aggression theory provides is that aggression
is not just undertaken as a natural reaction or instinct as realists and biological assume,
but that it is the outcome of frustration and that in a situation where the legitimate desires
of an individual is denied either directly or by the indirect consequences of the way the
society is structured, the feeling of disappointment may lead such a person to express his
anger through violence that will be directed at those he holds responsible or people who
are directly or indirectly related to them.

In situations where feelings of frustration become widespread among the population and
the feeling is that people are getting less than they deserve, the most advisable thing that
political leaders can do is to find out what the expectations of such individuals and groups
are and to seek ways of negotiating with them. Most times, however, those in a position
of authority believe that giving in to public demands or entering into negotiations is a
sign of weakness. This is not the case and sometimes, the fact that an official of the state
or community leader is showing some concern is enough to make people believe that
something is being done.

A good example of the way in which frustration leads to aggression can be seen in the
ongoing cries in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria. After waiting and peacefully agitating
for what the people of the region considered a fair share of the oil wealth that is exploited
from their land, youths now take the law into their own hands by vandalising oil pipelines,
kidnapping oil workers for fat ransoms and generally, creating problems for those they
believe are responsible for their predicaments.

Physiological Theories
Theorists of this school share the biological and hormonal origins of aggression and conflict
in individuals with realists, theologians and others, but add by providing the conditions
under which this happens. It may thus, look tautological to include them as a separate
category, except that we do it here for emphasis only. According to them, even though
humans have the capacity to be aggressive, this capacity remains idle until stimulated
by necessity or encouraged by success. Scott (1958) notes that, the expression has a lot
to do with learning. In essence, the physiological sources of aggressive behaviour are a
function of several factors including human nature and the environment. As he pointed
out, "we must not forget that in any real situation, behaviour will be the result of factors
from all levels" (p.2).

Other physiologists like MacLean (1978) and Lorenz (1966) have sought to understand
how the human brain reacts when people are under stress and threat. He notes that
it is possible for a person to experience conflict between what he is feeling and what
he is thinking. This then determines whether they act on such feelings strongly about
something or not and whether they act on such feelings or decide to ignore the feeling.
For this reason, when people are under stress, and under certain conditions, their reaction
can conform or differ from what others expect. In essence, humans are naturally capable
of being aggressive but do not display violent behaviour as an instinct. When violence
occurs, there is the possibility that it is being manipulated by a combination of factors
within and outside the individual's control.

Economic Theories
There is a tendency among economists to provide an economic explanation for the
existence and endurance of conflict. This is largely because people in conflict are assumed
to be fighting over, not about, something that is material. The question then becomes:
"Is the conflict a result of greed (intention to * corner' something) or of grievance (anger
arising over feelings of injustice)". For instance, Collier (2003) points out that some
people (commonly referred to as 'conflict entrepreneurs') actually benefit from chaos:
while the overwhelming majority of the population are affected by the negative impacts
of conflict; the leaders of armed formations that are actually perpetrating the violence
often profit from the chaos: (and) that while the prospect of pecuniary gains is seldom
the principal incentive for rebellion, it can become for some insurgent groups, a preferred
state of affairs.
Bridal and Malone (2000) agree that social conflicts are generated by many factors,
some of which are deep-seated. For them, across the ages, conflicts have come to be
seen as having a "functional utility" and are embedded in economic disparities. War,
the crisis stage of internal conflicts, has sometimes become a vast private and
profit-making enterprise. They argue further that though, to historians and social
scientists, the importance of economic factors to the understanding of conflicts will
always be a contentious issue, the need to explore this linkage, however, is not contested.
Furthermore, they contend that even though issues in conflict may later be packaged as
resulting from ideological, racial or even religious (value) difference; these represent at
the most basic level, a contest for control over economic assets, resources or systems.

Human Needs Theory

The position of human needs theory is similar to that of Frustration-Aggression and
Relative Deprivation Theory. Its main assumption is that all humans have basic human
needs which they seek to fulfill, and that the denial and frustration of these needs by other
groups or individuals could affect them immediately or later, thereby leading to conflict
(Rosati et al. 1990). 'Basic human needs' in this sense comprise physical, physiological,
social and spiritual needs. In essence, to provide access to one (e.g. food) and deny or
hinder access to another (e.g. freedom of worship) will amount to denial and could make
people to resort to violence in an effort to protest these needs in an effort to protest these
needs.

Needs theorists over time have identified some of these needs the deprivation of which
cause conflicts. Maslow in his Motivation and Personality identified physiological needs,
safety needs, belongingness and love, esteem and self actualisation. Burton (1979)
lists response, stimulation, security, recognition, distributive justice, meaning, need to
appear rational and develop rationality, need for sense of control and the need for role
defence (Burton, 1979). He refers to some needs as basic, such as food, shelter, sex
and reproduction, etc. Edward Azar names some basic needs like security, distributive
identity, social recognition of identity and effective participation in the processes that
shape such identities (Azar, 1994).
Burton identifies a link between frustration which forces humans into acts of aggression
and the need on the part of such individuals to satisfy their basic needs. According to
Burton, individuals cannot be taught to accept practices that destroy their identity and other
goals that are attached to their needs and because of this, they are forced to react against
the factors, groups and institutions that they see as being responsible for threatening such
needs.

Human needs for survival, protection, affection, understanding, participation, creativity,

and identity are shared by all people, are irrepressible, and according to Burton, have
components (needs for recognition, identity, security, autonomy and bonding with others)
that are not easy to give up. No matter how much a political or social system tries
to frustrate or suppress these needs, it will either fail or cause far more damage in the
long run. Like Gurr's thesis on relative deprivation, Max-Neef (1991) believes that
the tension between deprivation and potential are main issues addressed by the human
needs theory because when important needs are not sufficiently satisfied, economic and
political problems will continue to grow. The absence of the economic opportunities,
hyper-inflation, and penury are manifestations of economic imbalance; while political
imbalance leads to fear, xenophobia (intense fear or dislike of foreign people, their
customs and culture), crime and violence, forced migration, voluntary or forced exile and
political marginalisation. All these constitute the root causes of bitter conflicts.

Even though needs scholars identify a wide range of human needs, some of which they
consider to basic human needs, they agreed on the fact that the frustration of these needs
hampers the actualisation of the potentials of groups and individuals, subsequently leading
to conflict. Secondly, there is near consensus among them that to resolve a conflict
situation, or to even prevent it from occurring, the needs have to be met with appropriate
satisfiers, those things that were denied them in the first instance.

Systematic Theories
Systematic theories provide a socio-structural explanation for the emergence of violent
social conflicts. The position of this theory is that, reason(s) for any social conflict lie in
the social context within which it occurs. As Johnson (1966:12-13) noted in the case of
political violence, "any analytical penetration of the behaviour characterised as 'purposive
political violence' most utilise as its tool, a conception of the social context in which it
occurs". This paradigm turns our focus to social factors and the effects of large-scale
(usually sudden) changes in social, political and economic processes that would usually
guide against inability.

Systemic factors that lead to changes in peoples' material comfort include environmental
degradation that reduces access to sources of livelihood, uncontrolled population growth,
especially, in urban centres, resource scarcity and its allocation through lopsided political
processes and competition, the negative effects of colonial and Cold War legacies,
breakdown of cherished values and traditions that play crucial social control functions,
widespread poverty in the midst of plenty, the domination and marginalisation of minority groups
by those in the majority, and ethnicity. These are all examples of systematic causes of
conflict.

Systemic sources of conflict are found in every aspect of life and affect large numbers of
people even though their influence on the emergence and intensity of conflicts are not always
so visible to people. Because systemic factors bear directly on the less privileged, preventive
strategies that are meant to support social and political stability, initiate people-friendly
economic and political reforms, and state policies the genuinely seek to prevent or reduce
conflicts between individuals and groups by seriously addressing the underlying issues often
yield positive results in the long run because the people will 'see' and feel the impact of such
actions as soon as they begin to yield fruit.

Systemic theories also seek to explain the relationship between modernisation and political
disorder and see movements between different periods of economic and political history as
containing large amounts of 'pull factors', tension and crisis that create conditions of internal
conflict and instability. Lucian Pye for instance, identifies identity crisis, legitimacy crisis,
penetration crisis, participation crisis, integration crisis, and distribution crisis as six key
issues within modernisation projects that generate conflicts. The inabilities to manage the
challenges that result from these produce the immediate factors that lead to negative
developments within the system
In trying to cope with the different challenges and crises of modernisation, most
governments that find it difficult to gain the legitimacy needed to attract support from
the people usually resort to unconditional means and force rather than processes that are
in line with the rule of law, in an effort to suppress the legitimate demands of the people,
prevent opposition and civil society groups from criticising policies that they do not agree
with, and generally attempt to dictate the terms on which peace will be attained.

Other Theories of Conflict

Marc Howard Ross (2001) identifies six theories of conflict. They are discussed below:
(i) The community relations theory
It assumes that conflict is caused by ongoing polarisation, mistrust and hostility
between different groups within a community.

(ii) The human needs theory

It assumes that deep-rooted conflict is caused by unmet or frustrated human basic
needs such as physical, psychological and social. The most cited needs include
security, identity, recognition, participation and autonomy.

(iii) The identity theory

It assumes that conflict is caused by feelings of threatened identity, often rooted in
unresolved past loss and suffering.

(iv) The principled negotiation theory

This assumes that conflict is caused by incompatible positions which are taken by
different groups or people.

(v) The inter-cultural miscommunication theory

It assumes that conflict is caused by incompatibilities between different cultural
communication styles.

(vi) The conflict transformation theory

It assumes that conflict is caused by real problems of inequality and injustice in
society.
The Marxist Theory of Conflict
Karl Marx was born in Germany in 1818 and completed his doctorate in 1841 after which
he worked as a newspaper editor. So relentless was his social criticism that he was driven
from Germany to live in Paris, and from there to England where he died in 1883. Marx
studied how societies have changed throughout history, noting that they often evolved
gradually, although they sometimes evolve revolutionary. Marx observed that change
is partly prompted by technological advance. But, he strongly believed that the conflict
between economic classes is the major engine of change.

Marx undertook an analysis into the capitalist economic system. His analysis centred
on the destructive aspects of capitalism especially, how it promotes class conflicts. The
so-called Industrial Revolution which was taking place in Britain had created two major
classes, namely the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. Marx regarded the proletariat as the
forces of production. The proletariat was also called the oppressed, have-nots, masses,
poor, lower class people, down-trodden and the propertyless class.

He also referred to the bourgeoisie as the owners of factors of production. They were
also called the dominant class, haves and the rich. Factors of production also called
productive property or means of production refer to natural resources necessary to
produce the essentials of life, factories and the machinery that transform raw materials
into finished goods.

Marx used the term "class conflict" and sometimes "class struggle" to refer to the
antagonism between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat over the distribution of wealth
and power in society. According to Marx, under the capitalist system the propertyless
majority, who owned only their labour power had no choice but to rely on those who
owned property to employ them as wage workers often with only sufficient income to
keep themselves and their families alive.

Marx observed that a basic contradiction in this system would become more and more
apparent to the people as capitalism developed and expanded. The contradiction in Marx
view was that the mass of workers, the majority of the population, gained little benefit
from the great wealth they themselves produced. In other words, those who generated the
riches of the society through their labour and sweat received only a small portion as their
reward with the bulk going to the bourgeoisie. One thing that worried Marx was the use of
various institutions, especially, religion, to justify their position of power and exploitation.
For the oppressed, religion provided some comfort, but of a dangerous kind. According to
Marx, religion was the "flowers on the chains" that bound this group in servitude. It prevented
the masses from seeing that the social system was responsible for their condition. Marx,
indeed, felt great compassion for those who needed religion to reduce their suffering. He
defined religion as "the sigh of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world and
the soulless condition. It is the opium of the masses". Marx was of the view that, the only
solution to the suffering of the proletariat was to overthrow the capitalist and their systems and
provide a more humane and egalitarian productive system. He called this system socialism.
He described socialism as a "dictatorship of the proletariat which would come about through
elections, mass protests, demonstrations and strikes in the socialist system, the state would
abolish private ownership of property. There would, therefore, be no distinction between
owners and non-owners of productive resources. The state would ensure that the wealth
created by the economy was distributed equitably to the workers themselves.

Marx also identified communism as the second and final stage of the revolution where the state
as a political force would become unnecessary and hence, the state would die away or would
no more exist. However, according to Marx, some individuals would still be required to
remain as administrators of productive resources in various sectors of society. Communism
would therefore eliminate class distinction and class conflict.
 CHAPTER THREE
CONFLICT ANALYSIS

The Meaning of Conflict Analysis

Analysis is the detailed study of any situation using specific frameworks, paradigms
and methods; or the study of a problem, which aims to bring about a patterned and
systematic understanding of certain issues under focus. Simon Fisher et al (2000)
describe conflict analysis as those activities that are undertaken by any persons doing
anything, either directly or indirectly, to know as much as possible about what is going
on in a given conflict. An analysis is key to opening up the problem being studied, and
should help towards providing more clarity to both professional and lay persons about
what is happening in that particular conflict. The assumption is that, without a proper
understanding of the conflict, it will be quite difficult to come out with any solutions to it.
In other words, conflict management will be in jeopardy if we are unable to carefully and
correctly analyse the conflicts we deal with.

In nearly every field of human endeavour, experts can be distinguished on the basis of
their ability to carry out analysis. This is true for medical sciences as it is for political
science, sociology, gender studies, mass communication, and of course, conflict studies,
etc. Medical scientists do diagnosis of medical situations to determine the appropriate
treatment that will bring about healing. Conflict analysis similarly creates the opportunity
situations. In the process, systematic information is made available to the conflict analyst.
Such information would ordinarily be unavailable without embarking on conflict analysis.

In any given conflict, conflict analysis will help to identify the various components of the
conflict. These may include the background to the conflict, or the historical context, time
lines, perspectives of the parties, the parties to the conflict, the positions, interests and
needs of the parties, the causes of the conflict, the short term and long term alternatives
available for the transformation of the conflict, etc. We shall discuss these in detail
later. In addition, explanations should be done within existing or emerging theoretical
frameworks.
Conflicts analysis is done in different ways. Some conflict workers will embark on case
studies, which entail detailed study of a particular conflict. A case study is a specific
rather than a general research that is subjected to the rigour, methodology and procedure
of conflict research. Such a study will bring out the different peculiar properties of the
conflict, all primary and secondary parties, the needs and other interests of the parties, and
suggest methods of intervention, among others. The logic of case studies is that without a
proper grasping and analysis of the conflict situation, intervention and other attempts at
peace building and conflict transformation could be a fatal mistake. In Ghana, for
instance, there are a number of case studies which have been conducted into communal
conflicts such as the Dagbon conflict, Mamprusi and Kusasi as well as the Alavanyo and
Nkonya conflict. These have provided the basis for various forms of intervention.

In addition to case studies, fact-finding is another method of gathering information about

conflict, and of analysing such information. Fact-findings are less thorough and could be
done over a shorter period of time than case study researches. They are meant to give
quick information to interveners, to clarify areas of doubt, and to help them gain some
understanding about what is happening in the conflict, the parties to the conflict, and who
exactly to deal with in a bid to de-escalate and transform the conflict.

Analysing meetings are yet another method of conflict analysis. Many non-governmental
organisations and other conflict interveners use conflict analysis workshops to analyse a
conflict, just before intervention. Often, analysis workshops are used to validate case
study researches in conflict fact-finding reports, and to also decide on whether or not
there is need for intervention, and to identify the appropriate entry points for intervention.
Such workshops are used to select which parties to work with, assess potential risks and
dangers, and stimulate future attempts to transform conflicts.

In all, conflict analysis could take a variety of forms. The underlying pre-occupation of
every analysis is to empower either the conflict analyst or the intervener with the right
and adequate information, as well as tools to intervene in the conflict. Conflict analysis
does not simply explain the conflict, but it explains the conflict with a view to
transforming or resolving it. Since conflicts are about individuals, groups, and societies,
 CONFLICT ANALYSIS

the goal is to positively transform their relationships by bringing about a change in their
attitudes, perceptions and behaviours, thereby achieving sustainable peace.

The Components of Conflict Analysis

Every conflict situation has a number of contexts and properties. It is the duty of the
analyst to bring out those components. We begin by looking at three closely related
properties of conflict analysis, namely the context of the conflict, stages of the conflict,
and timelines.

Background and Context of the Conflict

Conflict analysis begins by creating and describing the background to any conflict
situation. This is based on the assumption that every conflict has a specific context,
history, and background, The parties and the issues are emerging from somewhere, and
from given historical, cultural, political and social contexts. The understanding of this
background, it is believed, is critical to understanding the conflict itself. Each African
country, for instance, has a history predating colonialism, and up to the colonial period.
These may be rooted in patterns of migration, settlement, citizenship, nationalism and
communal sentiment, etc. People define who they are on the basis of history as well as
shared culture and values. Sometimes, these histories themselves, and the culture and
values emanating from them come into very sharp conflict with those of others and create
the basis for conflict.

In describing the context to any conflict, there are three related dimensions. The first
is the distant past, which may span back to centuries or decades, as the case may be.
The second may be the immediate past context, which shows the deterioration in the
relationship among parties. If the analysis is of violent conflict, then the immediate
events, including the trigger that sparked the violence, will be captured as well. The
inclusion of current events makes up the third dimension. Thus, the objective in bringing
in the historical narrative and background is not for the mere sake of history in itself, but
because such history will assist the understanding of the current events in the conflict. A
conflict context as part of the conflict is not necessarily talking about the causes of the
conflict, but the background and framework within which the causes have emerged and
matured.
Stages of Conflict
Closely related to the conflict background are the stages of the conflict. Each conflict has
its dynamics, characterised by different stages and phases of change and transformation.
This is I because, as Lederach points out, conflict is not a static phenomenon, but is
expressive, dynamic and dialectical (Lederach, 1997). Simon Fisher et al of (2000)
identify five stages of conflict, as follows:

(i) The first is the pre-conflict stage. It is a period when goals between parties are
incompatible, which could lead to open conflict. At this stage, the conflict is
not well known because parties try to hide it from public view, although one or
both parties may be aware of the potential for confrontation. There are may be
tensions in relationships between the parties and the desire to avoid contact with
one another at this stage. In addition to the above, communication between the
two is undermined.

(ii) The second stage is the stage of confrontation, at which point the conflict becomes
open or manifest. This is characterised by occasional fighting, low levels of
violence, and search for allies by parties, mobilisation of resources, strained
relations and polarisation.

(iii) The third stage is the stage of crisis, which represents the peak of the conflict. In
violent conflict, this is the stage of war and intense fighting, leading to killings,
injuries, large scale population displacements, and the use of small arms and light
weapons, etc.

(iv) The fourth is believed to be the outcome stage. There is an assumption that
all conflicts will pass through this stage, one way or the other. Either one side
wins and another loses, or a ceasefire may be declared; one may surrender, or
the government or other third party intervening forces stronger than the warring
parties intervene to impose a solution and stop the fighting. The critical issue at
this stage is that the violence is decreased, which allows room for some discussion
to commence, or alternative means of settling the conflict.
 (v) The fifth is the post-conflict stage. At this stage, violence has either ended or
significantly reduced, and the parties have gone past the crisis stage. This is the
stage to address the underlying causes of the conflict, those incompatible goals
which created the conflict in the first instance, such as the needs and fears of the
parties. If they are not tackled at this stage, the conflict cycle may be re-enacted
and a return to the pre-conflict stage, with consequent re-eruption of violence, is
a possibility. These conflict stages are also referred to by other names, such as
conflict process or "conflict progression". All of them constitute useful points of
conflict analysis.

The stages of conflict can be used along with timelines to analyse conflict. A timeline
is a simple tool that presents a chronology of a conflict situation, tracing events back to
their most distant significant point of history, and including major events along the time
continuum that affect the conflict. These include efforts put in to transform the conflict,
which might not have succeeded. Thus, in analysing conflict, the background to the
conflict, the stages of the conflict and timelines relate very closely, and greatly enhance
an understanding of the conflict within appropriate historical and social contexts.

Perspectives of Conflict
A conflict perspective is a particular interpretation and understanding of a conflict,
usually by parties to the conflict, but also sometimes by independent observers, of what
is happening in that conflict, and from the perspective of the parties. Perspectives are
normally standpoints, beliefs, values and views that the parties to a conflict and other
people hold about conflict. Often, perspectives are competing and conflictive, principally
because they spring from the interests and positions of patties. Most will also emanate
from deep historical narrations, by the parties, of their conflict situations and perceived
reality. Some communities believe themselves to be warriors from history. Such images
are brought into their present relationships which they then define competitively and
with a view to winning to justify that past. More often than not, claims are rooted in
history, which seems to place one group against the other, with consequent rejection by
others, some perspectives may spring from the needs of parties as well. In most cases, the
perspectives of parties in a conflict differ, but a careful analyst can find areas of agreement
as well in these perspectives. Such areas of agreement could constitute useful common
grounds that could assist the process of conflict transformation.

Parties to Conflict
Conflict analysis also attempts to identify and ascertain the parties to the conflict. Parties
are individuals, groups and entities who participate in the conflict either directly or
indirectly, based on the feeling that they have interests to pursue, something at stake, or
because they believe that their interests, positions and needs are being threatened in one
way or the other. Indirect parties may also be helping allies and friends achieve their own
interest, to which they may have long-term secondary interest.
There are two main categories of parties in any given conflict situation. The first are the
ones that may be called the "primary parties". These are considered to be the most visible
parties in a conflict, those who are commonly known. For instance, the primary parties
to the Dagbon conflict are the Andanis and Abudus, those to the conflict in Rwanda were
the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic identities, while the Bawku conflict is between the Mamprusi
and the Kusasi.

The second category of parties is referred to as "shadows". These are indirect or secondary
parties who are not very visible in the conflict. Their involvement is usually by proxy
rather than directly, and from a distance. Shadows complicate conflict situations mostly
because 'it is difficult to identify them and their roles in any given conflict. For instance,
there was much talk about the Libyan Support for Charles Taylor's National Patriotic
Front of Liberia (NPFL) in Liberia, and the support of Guinea for the Liberians United for
Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD). On the other hand the Houphet Boigny regime
in Ivory Coast had its score to settle with Charles Taylor, and lent support to another,
rebel group. Similarly, Taylor supported the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) in Sierra
Leone. In nearly all social conflicts, there are shadow parties. It is necessary for conflict
analysts to capture these parties so that plan for conflict transformation will include such
parties. Failing to do so will leave a major gap that that could lead to the derailing of a
peace plan.
Positions, Interests, Needs and Fears
In most conflicts, the different parties will be pursuing either one or a combination of the
above factors, whether consciously or unconsciously. It is helpful for conflict analysts to
identify and highlight the positions, interests, needs and fears of the parties, especially if
there is a desire to go beyond an analysis, to seek any form of intervention aimed at the
transformation of the conflict. Each should be identified with the parties to show where
the conflict hurts the most.

The positions of parties are seen as those tough and uncompromising stands that parties
to a conflict take and assume. These sharply differ from those of other parties. Positions
are what parties say that they want, and these are wants indeed, and not needs. A position
is based on the fears of a party, its understanding of the conflict, and on how best 'parties
believe they are protecting their interests. It is a protective and defensive stand. Positions
are resorted to most easily because parties usually do not want to expose themselves by
sharing their fears and interests, especially with strangers and "enemies". It is common
to hear parties talking about their "resolutions", "positions", "stands", and maintaining
that they will never compromise. Sometimes, parties may issue threats, conditions or
ultimatums to authorities to meet their demands or face an uprising. More often than not,
these are positional stands that do not, as such, reflect what they need.

Beyond positions, there are interests. These are values pursued by individuals and groups
in conflict, which may represent immediate and distant benefits or gains accruable to such
parties. Interests, unlike positions, are what parties may really want, but again, not what
they really need. Interests may come in the forms of favours, concession, material gain,
etc. In conflict situations, parties seldom make known their interests. Often, the interests
may not accrue to the entire group, but to individuals within the group or sections of the
group.

In the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, for instance, there is conflict between the local
ethnic communities inhabiting the area, and the Federal Government of Nigeria over the
ownership of proceeds from the sale of oil. The communities argue that the oil found in
the land belongs to them, and they should own the proceeds and pay tax and royalties to
government. This is tagged "resource control". While this may be seen as a position of
the communities, interests are also prevalent in that argument. Individuals, groups and
communities foresee the opportunity to make huge incomes from "resource control" and
may actually be looking for increased revenues from oil, to which they may benefit either
personally, or as communities. Indeed, the crux of the matter is that the communities are
complaining about the neglect of their people by the oil corporations and the Nigerian
government amidst wealth that is carted away from the area.

Beyond the interests, are what may be termed, the needs and fears of the parties? Needs
and fears often go closely together. Needs are what parties must have, but needs also
happen to be the least visible, and the least discussed and talked about by conflict parties.
They are usually discovered and identified through careful analysis of conflict and sessions
of dialogue between the parties, usually in a facilitated problem-solving environment.
Sometimes, parties may identify their needs, but are unwilling to talk about them, and
would rather talk about their positions. However, the conflict can only be resolved, or
transformed, when the analysis reaches the point where the needs and fears are identified
and addressed. Using the example of the Niger Delta communities above, their real
needs may be sustainable development, environmental protection and security, jobs,
recognition, and other things which have not been provided by different and successive
governments in Nigeria. The argument for resource control, therefore, becomes a means
of highlighting and reaching those needs.

Fears are the situations and conditions which make parties restless and anxious, and
which create uncertainty and threat perceptions in them. Individuals and groups become
defensive against the things that threaten their values, identity, security, and any privileges
and advantages they may enjoy. In most communal conflicts in Africa, the fear of the
unknown, or the fear of one community by another, have heightened tension, suspicion
and violence. For instance, among the Dagbon people in the Northern part of Ghana, the
protracted communal violence in the area has been deepened by mutual fear of domination
and eventual "take-over" of the Dagbon stool or chieftaincy by either the Abudu or
the Andani. In Liberia, there is a sense in which the "native" Liberians had a fear of
losing control of the country to the Americo-Liberians who had dominated political and
economic affairs in that nation up until the coup that brought Master-Sergeant Samuel
Doe to power in 1980.

Learn Lessons from Failures and Successes

Conflict analysis also serves as a learning process to analysts and interveners to learn from
past mistakes. It is common to delve into why past efforts at conflict management were
not quite successful, and to identify where the mistakes were, with a view to improving
on areas of weakness. This is against the assumption that before a conflict escalates and
turns violent, there would probably have been some effort to manage it. Analysis will
evaluate such policies for their strengths and weaknesses.

Gender
The mere mention of gender elicits controversy among many peace and conflict
professionals. It is very common to find many research groups and NGOs conducting
training sessions without any reference to gender. This is because of the common
stereotype that gender is about women and should be found only at the domestic arena
as opposed to the public arena. Others see gender as a patronising theme even among
womanhood; others don't understand what gender is, and how it contributes to a debate
about achieving peace. Yet, many conflicts in West Africa such as those in Liberia,
Sierra Leone, Guinea, Ivory Coast, etc., raise crucial gender questions that have not been
answered. Indeed, there is need for more research and analysis of the gender dimensions
of conflicts in West Africa in particular, and Africa in general.

Gender has been conceptually described in the OXFAM Gender Training Manual in the
following way:
People are born female or male, but learn to be girls and boys who grow
into women and men. They are taught what the appropriate behaviour and
attitudes, roles and activities are for them, and how they should relate to
other people. This learned behaviour is what makes up gender identity
and determines gender roles.

Gender is about socially and culturally defined sex roles, attitudes and values which
communities and societies ascribe as appropriate for one sex, and not for the other.
Such ascribed roles bestow power, prestige, privileges and other advantages unequally,
and create conflict at several levels. Miller (200.1:86) views gender as sexual division
of power", adding that such an understanding is key to unveiling many great debates
about gender issues. Miller adds that gender is different from sex, as sex is biologically
determined, while gender is socially constructed. Miller agrees with the definitions of
Dex (1985) and Reddock (1994) that:
Gender is about men and women, and asks what is happening to men and women, rather
than the traditional narrow assumption that once what is happening to men is known, it
can be simply generalised to also include women. Gender is interested in differentials in
the impact of a conflict, development, peace initiative, etc, among men and women.

Conflict management and peace building are activities and processes that aim to impact
on the relations between individuals and groups. To the extent that they deal with social
relations, the inclusion of gender perspectives in conflict analysis strengthens the analysis
and the search for transformation and resolution. It helps us to project our analysis of
conflict to lower levels, to include what is happening at the family level as violence
against women in the home front can no longer be taken as inconsequential to the analysis
of conflict. A gender perspective will insist that what happens at the domestic arena is
also political and not private as traditional views would like to assume.

Men and women are affected and impacted differently in conflict; men and women are
targeted sometimes for different reasons; men and women often play different roles
in violent conflicts; and men and women die different kinds of death in war. In fact
violence and war may be perceived as male terrain, and having little to do with women.
It is often assumed that men are responsible for the decision to go to war, fight these
wars, and generate its victims who are mostly women and children, and thereafter sit at
the round tables to make peace on behalf of everybody including the women who were
the victims of their decisions in the first place. On the other hand comes the view that,
women have sometimes been known to be as capable of unleashing violence as men,
once they are socialised into violent roles (Skjelsbaek and Smith, 2001). Sometimes, the
culturally constructed images of masculinity and feminity affect a conflict situation and
its resolution and transformation. Most significantly, a gender sensitive conflict analysis
gives women and the voiceless groups, a voice, because it listens to, and analyses the
views and perspectives of women, children and weak groups.

Having said all that, it should be added that there is still hesitation among many,
especially in the African context, about the relevance of gender to conflict analysis and
conflict transformation. The question is: does attention to gender, and women's issues,
as such, address and help to answer the critical conflict and peace research questions?
Should gender not rather be seen as "other issues" such as development, human rights,
refugee problems, etc, which even though important, are tributary rather than mainstream
to conflict analysis? Some critics opine that 'looking for women' may add to, but not
significantly alter the conclusions and theoretical insights of conflict research. In fact,
many peace building efforts in West Africa such as those in Liberia arid Sierra Leone
and within the Mano River region have been affected by the intervention of women, and
from asking what is happening to women. At a time when the Liberian war lords were
reluctant to make peace, the women's protest forced them back to the negotiating table.
Thus, the centrality of gender to conflict analysis and peace building can no longer be
taken for granted. In Africa particularly, the exclusion of gender from conflict analysis
and from the search for solutions to war and conflict represents a further departure and
distancing from the answers to the problem.

Conflict Theory
We had earlier identified the role of theory in conflict analysis. Like in any specialised
field, theory creates constructs and frameworks for explaining what is happening.
Understanding conflict theories helps analysts to situate their narration or conflict within
some existing theory of conflict. Identity conflicts will find expression in identity theory,
psychological theories or something similar. Conflicts over political control and power
relations may be better explained within the realist power theory of conflict, etc. However,
the use of theory may be common to only scholars and not those who wish to approach
conflict casually. Different people have different attitudes towards theory. Some like it
and some don't. The crux of the matter is that conflict analysis is rooted in theory, and
when theory is removed, the soul has also been severed.
In conclusion, conflict analysis looks out for areas where dialogue, communication, and
other forms of non-violent and peaceful transformation could be encouraged and promoted
among parties. This happens in the course of fact-finding, research, and interpretation
of the perspectives, positions, interests and needs of the parties. In looking at the areas
of both agreement and disagreement between parties, a careful analyst is able to make
recommendations, or identify areas of further work that may enhance a peace process,
This could be in phases, but a good entry point that tries to avoid mistakes of the past and
build on the strong points of the past is an essential foundation to start from.

Methods of Conflict Analysis

In addition to the above properties of conflict analysis described, above, which are no
means exhaustive; there are also different tools of conflict analysis. The tools are graphical
presentations of a conflict situation in a way that brings out the parties, the causes of the
conflict and the nature of relationship between parties, etc. Some of the many
methods
used to analyse conflicts are the following:
(i) Mapping: This involves the use of particular conventions that describe
what
is happening in a given conflict. They range from the parties, both primary and
secondary, and their relative spheres of influence and power, that is, whether some
parties are more influential than others or if they are of equal strength and whether
the parties are connected and have alliances or not. Mapping also highlights the
topic and issues in the conflict, as well as things other than people that make an
impact on the conflict. It includes the nature of the relationship between parties,
such as whether relations are close, fairly close, intermittent, cordial, discordant
and conflictive.
 (ii) The Onion Doughnut Method: This method is used to show that conflict has
many layers, and what appears on the surface is only a small element of the
conflict. Most conflicts, like an onion, have many layers, and the conflict analyst
is expected to unravel these layers to get to the innermost part of the conflict where
the needs and fears of the parties lie. The onion method is illustrated below:

The onion method illustrates the positions of parties in the outer part of the onion, the
interests in the middle layer, and the needs and fears at the centre of the onion. Positions,
interests, needs and fears had earlier been explained in this chapter while dealing with
the properties of conflict analysis. Suffice it to add, however, that when conflicts escalate,
the needs of parties, from the point of view of needs analysts like Lederer et al (1980),
Gaining and Wirak (1976). Burton (1990), Azar (1990), etc. will need to be met with
appropriate satisfiers for the conflict to be transformed. These needs include identity,
security, access to political processes, recognition, among others.

(iii) The Attitude, Behaviour and Context (ABC) Method: Mitchell (1988) talks
of conflicts having three inter-related components of conflict situation, conflict
behaviour and conflict attitudes. This is illustrated in the form of a triangle, with
conflict situation at the top, conflict behaviour to the left, and conflict attitudes
to the right. While conflict situation is about the goals of parties, mostly the
realisation by them that such goals are incompatible, conflict attitude has to do
with the perceptions or parties. When parties are frustrated, a negative attitude of,
for instance, frustration or competition is reinforced.
 CONFLICT ANALYSIS CHAPTER 3

Attitudes

Behaviour Context

Conflict behaviour is the specific actions of parties directed against other parties, to
stop them from achieving their goals. The ABC method could also be used by conflict
analysts to describe the attitudes, behaviour and causes of conflicts. In this case, the
attitudes of conflict parties' translate into their behaviour, and these cause the conflict.
If these attitudes are negative, the accompanying behaviour will be negative, leading to
a possible confrontational conflict situation. All three reinforce each other and conflict.
This strand of ABC analysis is helpful for conflict transformation and resolution, where
the concern should be focused on removing the underlying cause of the conflict which
will in turn lead to more positive attitudes and behaviours from conflict parties. It is more
difficult to attempt to resolve a conflict from appealing to parties to change their attitudes
and behaviours, both of which appear to exist at a more superficial level. In all, negative
attitudes engender negative behaviours, and these create and sustain conflict situations.

(iv) The Conflict Tree: This method is used to analyse intra-group conflicts in
particular, and is transplanted into conflict analysis from development and
community work. The conflict tree is a graphic tool that uses the image of a
tree to present key conflict issues, and analyses conflict through identifying the
root causes of the conflict the core problem, the effects and consequences of the
conflict, and the most important issues to be tackled to transform the conflict
(Fisher et al, 2000). The sources of the conflict are found at the root of the tree,
while the manifestations are at the leaves and branches. It makes it fairly easier
for a group to agree on the core problem in the conflict.
 (v) The Pyramid/Island Method: This method of conflict analysis is used to separate
underlying causes of conflict, usually not visible, from the positions and interests
of parties. It uses the image of two islands protruding from the sea, in the form
of a pyramid. The islands are united under the sea, but as they project above sea
level, they look separate, and the separation expands further as they get higher.
At the top of the islands is what may be termed as the 'positions' of parties and
these are parallel to each other. Next below are the interests, which get closer,
but are still apart. Beneath the sea are the needs and fears of the parties, and it is
at this point that the common grounds may be found, since the parties have much
in common that unites them at that point. The pyramid method is shown below:

THERE IS A DIAGRAM ABOUT THE PYRAMID METHOD SO CONTACT

YOUR SIGHTED COLLEAGUES FOR EXPLANATION ( FROM THE RESOURCE
CENTRE)

As we mentioned in the beginning of this section, there are many methods of conflict
analysis. What we have done here is not an exhaustive discussion of these methods,
but an attempt to pick a few of them to create an appreciation of the utility of these
methods in the analysis and potential transformation of conflict situations. This exercise
also highlights the focal place of these methods in the analysis of conflict, especially in
a problem-solving atmosphere where conflict parties are involved. It helps parties to
work with, and through, their own problems with a view to finding out better methods of
resolving conflict.

Conflict analysis has now come to occupy an important place in the interpretation and
transformation of conflict. It is a skill that all conflict workers need to acquire. It is a
systematic way or dissecting conflict in a way that is helpful to the conflict worker and the
parties alike. The science of conflict analysis, like any other area of conflict management,

is not static. We expect that other properties of conflict management, and newer methods of
conflict analysis, will continue to be invented by conflict practitioners. What we have at the
moment is not by any means an exclusive or terminal stage. Different cultural and field
experiences will lead to newer methods of analysing conflict in the future. What cannot be
explained, in spite of any future changes that may come about, is the need for, and importance
of, conflict analysis to the entire conflict management and transformation sector.
 CHAPTER FOUR
CONFLICTS IN ORGANISATIONS

Levels of conflict in organisations

Four levels of intra-organisational conflict have been identified and they are explained
below:
a) Vertical Conflict: This is a type of conflict which involves clashes
between levels in an organisation. It is commonly called
superior-subordinate conflict. Such conflict often occurs when
superiors attempt to control subordinates too rigidly and the
subordinates resist. Subordinates may resist because they believe that
those controls infringe too much on the discretion needed to do their jobs.
Vertical conflicts can also arise because of inadequate communication,
goal conflicts or lack of consensus building over the use of resources,
deadlines or performance results.

b) Horizontal Conflict: This refers to clashes between groups of employees

at the same hierarchical level in an organisation. Horizontal conflict
occurs when each department in a school or colleague strives only for
its own goals disregarding the effects of the on other departments. For
example, a school or college may have limited spaces for use as offices
for staff. One department may desire many more offices for its staff at
the expense of other departments, because it believes its subject is more
important than others. Contrasting attitudes of employees in different
departments may also lead to horizontal conflict.

c) Line-Staff Conflict: Line-staff conflict refers to clashes over authority

relationships. Most organisations have line and staff departments. The
line department represents the highest office in an organisation while
staff departments are the subordinate or lower positions or offices which
exist in an organisation. Staff departments are created to assist the line
department to facilitate the operations of organisations. In a senior high
 school, for example, the line-staff includes the headmaster/headmistress,
assistant headmaster (academic) assistant headmaster/headmistress
(administration), heads of department and classroom teachers. Each sub-
head is responsible for some processes that form part of the school's total
function. Unfortunately, some line authorities may feel that some staff
departments are imposing on their areas of authority. For example, the
assistant headmaster (academic) may feel that one head of department is
interfering with his or her areas of legitimate authority. For example, a
head of department may try to impose time table changes on the school
which the assistant headmaster may not have approved of. This may lead
to clashes.

d) Role conflict: A role is a cluster of activities that individuals holding

various positions are expected to perform. Role conflicts can be caused
by several factors such as too much work or activities to perform, less
activities or work, role ambiguity, scarcity of resources, etc.

Types of Conflict in Organisations

Nelson and Quick (1997) posit that, there are essentially two types of conflict in
organisations: namely functional and dysfunctional conflict. To them, not all conflicts are
bad. In fact, some types of conflict encourage new solutions to problems and, therefore,
enhance creativity in organisations. In this case, managers or school heads will want to
encourage functional conflict. Thus, managers should stimulate functional conflict and
prevent or resolve dysfunctional conflict. This is the key to conflict management. However,
the difficulty lies in trying to tell the difference between functional and dysfunctional
conflicts. The consequences of conflicts can be positive or negative.

Functional conflict is a healthy, constructive disagreement between two or more people

which can produce new ideas, learning and growth among individuals. When individuals
engage in constructive conflict, they develop a better awareness of themselves and others.
In addition, functional conflict can improve working relationships, because when two
parties work through their disagreements, they feel they have accomplished something
new altogether. By releasing tensions and solving problems in working together, morale
is improved. Functional conflict can lead to innovation and positive change for an
organisation. This is because it tends to encourage creativity among individuals and,
consequently, translate into increased productivity. A key for recognising functional
conflict is that, it is often cognitive in origin, that is, it arises from someone challenging
old policies or thinking of new ways to approach issues.

Dysfunctional conflict is an unhealthy, destructive disagreement between two or more

people. Its danger is that it takes people's focus on the conflict itself and the parties
involved. Excessive conflict drains energy that could be used more productively.
A key for recognising a dysfunctional conflict is that its origin is often emotional or
behavioural. Disagreements that involve personalised anger and resentment directed at
specific individuals rather than specific ideas are dysfunctional. Individuals involved
in dysfunctional conflict tend to act before they think, and they often rely on threats,
deception and verbal abuse to communicate. In dysfunctional conflict, the losses to both
parties may exceed any potential gain from the conflict.

Diagnosing conflict as good or bad is not easy. The head of an organisation must look at
the issues, the context of the conflict, and the parties involved. The following questions
can be used to diagnose the nature of the conflict in an organisation:
(i) Are the parties approaching the conflict from a hostile standpoint?
(ii) Is the outcome of the conflict likely to be a negative one for the organisation?
(iii) Do the potential losses of the parties exceed any potential gains?
(iv) Is energy being diverted from goal accomplishment?
If majority of the answers to these questions are yes, then the conflict is probably
dysfunctional. Once the head of an organisation has diagnosed the type of conflict, he
or she can either work to resolve it if it is dysfunctional or stimulate it if it is functional.

One occasion in which the head of an organisation should work to stimulate conflict
is when they suspect their group is suffering from groupthink. When a group fails to
consider alternative solutions and becomes stagnant in its thinking, it might benefit from
healthy disagreements. Teams exhibiting symptoms of groupthink should be encouraged
 CONFLICTS IN ORGANISATIONS

to consider creative problem solving and should appoint a devil's advocate to point out
opposing perspectives. These actions can help stimulate constructive conflict in a group.

Forms of Dysfunctional Conflict

Dysfunctional conflict as opined by Hellriegel et al (1990), cited in Mankoe (2002) are
of four basic categories and they are as follows:
(i) Goal conflict: This is a conflict in which the desired end or preferred outcomes
appear to be incompatible. For example, headmasters or headmistresses of
secondary schools believe that increase in school fees will assist them to provide
quality services to students, therefore, parents should agree to pay more. The
Ghana Education Services (GES) also believes that it has a duty to protect poor
parents from paying fees they cannot afford, thus the GES approves of fees that it
thinks parents can afford to pay. This causes goal conflict.

(ii) Cognitive conflict: It is a conflict in which ideas or thoughts are perceived as

incompatible. For example, the Minister of Education has a duty to intervene
between university authorities and students on a new grading system which
students view as unacceptable. The thought that will grapple many people is how
the Minister will resolve the impasse between the university authorities and the
students on the new grading system. How does the Minister request the university
authorities to reverse the grade system which they see as impracticable? This
issue produces a cognitive conflict.

(iii) Affective conflict: Affective conflict is a conflict in which feelings or emotions are
incompatible, that is, people become angry with one another. For example, on the
new grading system, student felt the university authorities are inconsiderate by
unilaterally introducing a new grading system which does not favour them and are
consequently angry. The university authorities on the other hand, may be angry at
students for daring to question their authority.

(iv) Procedural conflict: This is a conflict in which the parties differ on the process to
use for resolving a problem. For example, a misunderstanding that arose between
 Polytechnic authorities and students led to the closure of the Polytechnics. The
students were sent home and for months, polytechnics remained closed. The
Minister of Education's procedure for resolving the conflict was for students to
return to school while a solution was found to the impasse. Polytechnic students,
however, demanded solution to their problem before they would agree to return
to school.

Causes of Conflict in Organisations

There are number of causes of conflicts in organisations. Notable among them are
discussed below:
(i) Task Interdependence: Two types of task interdependence are, particularly,
prone to conflict. One is sequential interdependence in which one individual or
work unit is heavily dependent on another. For example, in a boarding school,
pantry men generally are more reliant on cooks than the reverse because the
former must depend on cooks to furnish good meals in a timely manner to both
staff and students.

Again, line and staff conflicts often arise because staff members frequently
are dependent upon the line to implement their ideas. The second form of task
interdependence is reciprocal interdependence in which individuals or units are
mutually interdependent. For instance, the school bursar depends on the school
matron and her purchasing staff to provide specifications food items to be
purchased for a term which include their prices so that the actual amount of cash
is released for that purpose.

(ii) Use of Scarce Resources: Possibilities for conflict expand when there are limited
resources such as office space, equipment, teaching and learning materials,
classrooms, laboratories, operating funds, pay allocations, etc. Indeed, anytime
various parties are to share resources, there is potential for conflict. This potential
is enhanced when the shared resources become scare. One resource often shared
by school units or departments can lead to misunderstanding in one way or the
other and, therefore, the rise of conflict. For example, the school head as well as
 departmental heads and individual teachers and even students depend upon the
secretarial staff for paper work. It is not uncommon for a secretary to support
several units, taking into consideration the work load involved. Each of these units i
believes that its work is the most important. This puts pressure on the secretariat i
| staff and could lead to potential conflicts in prioritising and scheduling work in
the school (Quick & Nelson, 1997).

(iii) Goal Incompatibility/Differences: Out of necessity, members in an organisation

frequently pursue goals that are somewhat different from one another, setting the
stage for potential conflicts. For example, a headmaster who practises strong
autocratic leadership may see himself in conflict with his teachers and students
who believe in democratic principles. Again, when two parties in an organisation i
must work together but cannot agree on how to do so, the cause of the conflict
is goal incompatibility or divergence. For instance, the Headmaster of a Junior
Secondary School and the District Director or Circuit Supervisor have different
procedures as to how mainstreaming issues are to be settled. Often this type of
conflict occurs because individuals or groups do not have knowledge of another
one's objectives.

(iv) Authority Relationship: The nature of traditional boss-employee relationship

brings to mind a vision of a hierarchy or of a boss who is superior to the employee.
For many employees, this relationship is not a comfortable one, because another
individual has the right to tell them what to do. Some people resent authority more
than others, and obviously, this creates conflicts. In addition, some bosses are
more autocratic than others, and this compounds the potential for conflict in the
relationship. As oragnisations move toward the team approach and empowerment,
there should be less potential for conflict from authority relationships.

(v) Communication Failures: Breakdown in communication due to distortions or lack

of communication often leads to conflict in the school. Communication barriers
such as physical separation and language can create distortions in messages, and
these can lead to conflicts. Another communication barrier is value judgment, in
 which a listener assigns a worth to a message before it is received. For example,
suppose a team member who is a chronic complainer enters the headmasters or
headmistress office, the headmaster or mistress is likely to devalue the message
before it is even delivered. Conflict can then emerge. Many other communication
barriers can lead to conflict.

(vi) Personality Trait: Individuals do not leave their personality characteristics at

the doorstep when they enter the workplace. Personality conflicts are realities in
organisations. To expect that you will be liked by all your co-workers may be a
naive expectation, as would be the expectation that they will all dislike you. The
personality trait that many people find difficult to deal with is abrasiveness. An
abrasive person is one who ignores the interpersonal aspects of work and the
feelings of colleagues in the school. Abrasive individuals are often
achievement-oriented and hardworking, but their perfectionist, critical style often
leaves others feelings unimportant. This style creates stress and strain for those
around the abrasive person.

Again, differences in personality, experience, temperament, and values make

frequent conflicts likely. For example, a hardworking headmaster may find it
difficult to cope with or tolerate a sluggish and absentee teacher in the administrative
and the teaching and learning processes. In addition, the workforce in the school
is composed of individuals with varying levels of skills and abilities. Diversity
in skills and abilities may be positive for the school, but it also holds potential
for conflicts, especially when jobs are interdependent. Experienced, competent
teachers may find it difficult to work alongside new and unskilled recruits. Teachers
and other workers in the school can become resentful when their new school
head knows a lot about managing people but is unfamiliar with the peculiar and
practical administrative processes involved in their day to day work procedures.

(vii) Values and Ethics: Differences in values and ethics canbe sources of disagreements
in the school. For example, older teachers value school loyalty and probably would
not take sick leave until they are ill. However, young teachers value mobility, and
 therefore, cherish the concept of "mental health days" or calling in sick to get
away from work (Nelson & Quick 1997). This may not be true for all teachers and
workers, but it illustrates that differences in values and ethics can lead to conflict.

(viii) I Perceptions: Differences in perception can also lead to conflict. One area in
which perceptions can differ is the perception of what motivates employees.
If educational authorities and workers do not have a shared perception of what
motivates people in the workplace, the reward system can create conflicts.
Educational authorities usually provide what they think workers want rather than
what workers really want.

(ix) Emotions: The moods of others can be a source of conflict in the school. Problems
at home often spill over into the work arena, and the related moods can be hard
for others to deal.

(x) Conditions that influence behaviour: According to Mankoe (2002), when rules
and procedures (written and unwritten), become dysfunctional such that they
lead to rigid, repetitious behaviour that do not allow for exceptions (i.e. highly
bureaucratic), they can cause or exacerbate conflicts.

For instance, when a head teacher of a junior secondary school ordered for certain
forms from the District Book Depot, he found later that the forms were not what
he requested for. He then approached the Depot Manager simply to replace them
with what he actually needed which were, in fact, in stock. The Depot Manager
requested the head teacher to contract the Circuit Supervisor who would see the
Head of the Inspectorate and then the District Director to simply change the forms.
Much time was lost in this kind of bureaucratic process causing conflict between
the headteacher and other line managers.

(xi) Culture: The culture of an organisation such as a school consists of shared beliefs,
values, and assumptions within the school. When two or more different cultures
develop in a school, the clash in beliefs, values and assumptions may develop.
 For example, in an established school, old teachers may have strong beliefs in
maintaining traditional practices in staff and student discipline, relation with the
community and its strong links with the founding fathers. New and young teachers
may, however, be interested in the new syllabus, new computer programmes and
the link with the outside world through the internet. These are clearly two different
types of cultures and they are not handled with care, the two groups of teachers
are most likely to clash.

Conflicts in Educational Institutions

Conflicts in our educational institutions are caused by the following:
(i) The collection of illegal or unapproved fees by school authorities
(ii) The provision of poor meals to students, especially in the boarding house
(iii) Poor conduct of examinations or leakage of examination questions to friends
or
opposite sex by teachers
(iv) Poor supply of essential services such as water and electricity
(v) Poor leadership style e.g. the autocratic leadership style easily created
conflicts
(vi) Sex-related issues or irresponsible sexual behaviour by both students and
staff (vii) Poor organisation of sports competitions e.g. Inter-house or inter-school
sports
Competitions
(viii) Poor communication or communication gap between school management
and staff/students
(ix) Inhuman treatment or maltreatment of students by prefects, teachers and
school
authorities

Power Networks in Conflicts

According to Mastenbroek (1997) cited in Nelson and Quick (1997), individuals in
organisations are organised in three basic types of power networks. Based on these power
relationships, certain kinds of conflict tend to emerge. The first relationship is equal versus
equal, in which there is a horizontal balance of power among the parties involved in a
conflict. An.exampleof this type of relationship would be a conflict between individuals
from two different departments in the school. The behavioural tendency is toward sub
optimising, that is, the focus is on a win-lose approach to problems, and each party tries
to maximise its power at the expense of the other party. Interventions like improving co-
ordination between the parties and working towards common interest can help manage
these conflicts.

The second power network is high versus low, or a powerful versus a less powerful
relationship. Conflicts that emerge here take the basic form of the powerful individuals
trying to control others, with the less powerful people trying to become more autonomous.
Organisations typically respond to these conflicts by tightening the rules. However, the
more successful ways of managing these conflicts are to try a different style of relationship
such as coaching and counselling style, or to change the structure to more decentralised
one.

The third power network is high versus, middle versus and low versus. This power network
illustrates the classic conflicts felt by middle managers. Two particular conflicts are
evident for middle managers: role conflict in which conflicting expectations are placed on
the manager from bosses and employees, and role ambiguity in which the expectations of
the boss are unclear. Improved communication among all parties can reduce role conflict
and ambiguity. In addition, middle managers can benefit from education in education
ways to influence others.

Knowing the typical kinds of conflict that arise in various kinds of relationship in an
organisation, can help the school head to diagnose conflicts and devise appropriate ways
to manage them.

Defence Mechanisms in Conflict

When individuals are involved in conflict with one another, frustration often results.
Conflicts can often arise within the context of a performance appraisal session. Most
people do not react well to negative feedback. In a study; when employees were given
criticisms about their work, over 50 percent of their responses were defensive (Nelson &
Quick 1997).

When individuals are frustrated, as they often are in interpersonal conflict, they respond
by exhibiting defence mechanisms. Defence mechanisms are common reactions to the
frustration that accompanies conflicts.

Mankoe (2002) opines that withdrawal becomes part of an individual's personality if he or

she continually uses withdrawal to deal with frustration. This method of dealing with
frustration is no longer a simple withdrawal, but a defence mechanism. The use of defence
mechanism helps the individual to temporarily reduce his or her tension level and its feelings
of anxiety. Defence mechanism involves a degree of true relationships between the
individual and external reality. And although defence mechanisms provide some relief from
tension and anxiety, they do not satisfy underlying needs. The use of defence mechanism
to deal with conflict is common since problems of conflict and frustration are everyday
occurrences. Everybody uses them at one time or another to cope with barriers that arise in
trying to achieve goals.

Aggressive mechanisms are aimed at attacking the source of the conflict. Some of these are
fixation, displacement, and negativism. In fixation, an individual fixates on the conflict, or
keeps up a dysfunctional behaviour that obviously will not solve the conflict. An example of
fixation occurred in a university, where a Faculty member became embroiled in a battle with the
Dean because the Faculty member felt he had not received a large enough salary increase. He
persisted in writing angry letters to the Dean, whose hands were tied because of a low budget
allocation to the Faculty.

Displacement means directing anger toward someone who is not the source of the conflict.
For example, a headmaster may respond harshly to a teacher after a telephone confrontation
with an angry parent.

Another aggressive defence mechanism is negativism, which is active or passive

resistance. Negativism is illustrated by a teacher who, when appointed to a committee on
which she did not want to serve, made negative comments throughout the meeting.

Compromise mechanisms are used by individuals to make the best of a conflict situation. Three
compromise mechanisms are compensation, identification and rationalisation. Compensation
occurs when an individual tries to make up for an inadequacy by putting
increased energy into another activity. Compensation can also be seen when a person makes
up for a bad relationship at home by spending more time at the office.

Identification occurs when one individual patterns his or her behaviour after another person. It
involves assuming the values, attitudes, and behaviours of someone else. By doing so, one
can share in the success of another person. The achievements of a successful person can become
satisfaction for the individual frustrated by failure. For instance, an academically weak student
can identify himself or herself with a teacher deemed to be intelligent and hardworking. A
not so successful teacher can identify with an effective headmaster or headmistress or a
District Director of Education.

Rationalisation is trying to justify one's behaviour by constructing bogus reasons for it. A
teacher may rationalise his or her unethical beheviour such as habitual lateness to school
because "everyone does it".

Rationalisation is a process of justifying behaviours and feelings that are undesirable or

inconsistent by providing explanations that make them acceptable. It involves developing a
'good' reason rather than dealing with the real reason for behaviour. It also involves
distorting the effects of emotions and motivational factors to enable the individual to
maintain his or her self-esteem and avoid frustration. Rationalisation occurs when
individuals experience personal failure or violate moral principles. For instance, a teacher
who often absents himself or herself from school may justify his or her absence by saying "I
was overworked yesterday and must renew my energy so that I can teach better tomorrow". A
student who fails an examination may say, "I failed the examination because the questions
were difficult".

Defence mechanisms in conflict are many and varied. Knowledge of these defence
mechanisms exhibited by individuals in an organisation can be extremely beneficial to the
manager. By understanding the way in which people typically react to interpersonal conflict,
managers can be prepared for employees' reactions and help them uncover their feelings about
a conflict.
Coping with Difficult People
Many inter-personal conflicts arise when one person finds another person's behaviour
uncomfortable, irritating, or bothersome in one way or another. Nelson and Quick (1997)
have identified seven basic types of difficult people that may be encountered at the
workplace and these are explained below:
(i) Hostile-aggressive: They bully other people by bombarding them with cutting
remarks, or throwing a tantrum when things do not go their way. Their focus is on
attacking the other party in a conflict. Openly emotional, they use these displays
to create discomfort or surprise in their adversaries. Underlying their behaviour is
a strong sense of internal rules about the way things ought to be. A key to dealing
with hostile-aggressive is to recognise the behaviour and not to be drawn into it
yourself.

(ii) Complainers: Complainers gripe or strongly complain constantly but never take
action about what they complain about, usually because they feel powerless or
they do not want to take responsibility. You may want to hear complainers out and
let them know you understand their feelings, but do not get drawn into pitying
them but rather use a problem solving stance. For example, you might ask the
complainer, "What do you want the outcome of our meeting to be? What action
needs to be taken?" This focuses the complainer on solutions, not complaints.

(iii) Clams: Clams are silent and unresponsive when asked for opinions. They react to
conflicts by closing up and refusing to discuss problems. The challenge in coping
with clams is getting them to open up and talk. Open-ended questions are
invaluable, as is patience in allowing them their silence for a reasonable time. If a
co-worker is avoiding you and has refused to talk to you. "Are you angry with
me?" may not be a good question. "Why are you avoiding me?" may be better. If
no response is forthcoming, you might try direct action. "Since you won't discuss,
I'm going to assume that there's nothing wrong and that both of us are going for
the meeting".
 (iv) j Superagreeables: They are often charming individuals who are sincere and
helpful to your face, but they fail to do what they promise to do when you leave. For
example, a Senior Housemaster may listen attentively to the problems you ! !
report to him on students' behaviour, and dutifully writes the problem down, and
assumes you that they will be taken care of. You realise later that, none of the
problems are resolved. Superagreeables are people who are often conflict avoiders and
make unrealistic promises to avoid a confrontation. The way out is that, be prepared
to compromise on a solution, make sure it is workable. Also, if you get a humorous
response from a superagreeable, look for the hidden meaning of it.

(v) Negativists: Negativists respond to any attempts to solve a problem with pessimism.
They are dangerous, because their negativism is contagious, and may lose your
optimism about solving the problem in interacting with them. A problem-solving
mode is appropriate in this case; let the negativist bring up alternative solutions.
Play the devil's advocate by bringing up the negative aspects yourself. You may
also want to ask, "What is the worst that might happen?" When the negativists are
convinced that they can handle even the worth case scenario, they may feel more
in control.

(vi) Know-it-alls: They display superior attitudes, wanting you to know that they know
everything there is to know about. If they really know what they are talking about,
they are bulldozers. Bulldozers overrun individuals with their blustery style, and
they are most aggravating because they are always right. To cope with bulldozers,
you need to be prepared. They will respect you if you have done your homework.
To deal with them, state your position as your perception of the situation. It is also
important to allow the bulldozer to save his/her face when deflated.

(vii) Indecisive Stallers: These people put off decisions until they have no choice, or
they fail to come to a decision at all. Stallers often are genuinely concerned about
others and are afraid that no matter what they decide, they will alienate or fail to
please someone. The key in coping with Stallers is to uncover the reasons for their
hesitation. As a school head, you must take responsibility to ensure that the staller
follows through. If Stallers are too disruptive, you may want to remove them from the
decision situation.

In coping with difficult people, it is important to identify the reasons you perceive to be
behind their difficult behaviours. Bramson's framework which has been analysed
above will help you accomplish this. In addition, you should also examined your
reaction to these difficult people's behaviours in order not to worsing matters.
 CHAPTER 5
CAUSES OF CONFLICTS IN AFRICA

CHAPTER FIVE CAUSES OF

CONFLICTS IN AFRICA

Introduction
There are several causes of conflicts in Africa. This chapter, therefore, concentrated on
the causes of conflicts in families, communities and nations in Africa.

Causes of Conflicts at the Family Level

It has already been said that conflicts are inevitable. This is so because people have
different views about what is good or bad. Conflicts at the family level occur because of
such differences. Have you ever experienced a conflict in your family? The causes of
conflicts at the family level include the following:
(i) Placing personal interest above others: In the family, if there are certain
members who always want to place their interest above the others, it means such
people would want to satisfy their needs without thinking about the welfare of
others. When this happens, those whose interests are disregarded may react
causing conflicts.

(ii) Shirking of responsibilities: Every member of the family has certain

responsibilities to perform for the benefit of all the members. What will happen
if some members fail to perform their responsibilities? Certainly, it will affect
the progress of the family. If some members of the family refuse to perform their
responsibilities, others will not take kindly to it. Indeed, they may oppose to such
a practice leading to conflicts.

(iii) Lack of, inadequate or mismanagement of resources: Do you know the

importance of resources to the family? Surely, resources keep the family going.
Examples of resources include food, money, labour, accommodation, television
sets, fridges, chairs, etc. In fact, families are maintained with resources. If a
certain family does not have enough resources, the members will not be able
to cope with life. Sometimes, the lack of these resources may create conflicts
especially if certain members are blamed for being the cause of the problem.
 Also, mismanagement of resources by any of the couples may generate conflict
especially if it impacts negatively on the family.

(iv) Intolerance: Intolerance refers to the practice of not accepting opinions, beliefs,
customs, etc. that are different from ours. Some family members are intolerant
because they reject own ideas on other members of the family. This is likely to
cause conflicts because those whose ideas or opinions are rejected may react
violently.

(v) Suspicion: This is feeling one has about someone that he or she has done something
wrong. Do you know that some members are wrongfully accused or falsely
suspected? When this happens, those who are wrongfully suspected of
committing some form of crime may attack those who suspected them and this
may create conflicts.

(vi) Disagreement between parents: It is a normal practice for parents to disagree on a

number of issues including how the family income is spent, the kind of school
that children are to attend, the type of punishment to be given to wayward
children, etc. if such disagreements are not handled with care, conflicts may occur.

(vii) Child delinquency or disobedience: Delinquency means bad behaviour especially

by young people. Can you give examples of delinquent behaviours? They
include fighting, stealing, disrespectfiilness towards the elderly, bullying,
smoking, engaging in pre-marital sex, etc. When children misconduct themselves;
they have to be corrected through punishment. Sometimes, parents may disagree
on the type of punishment to be given to the wayward child. In certain cases,
delinquent children may resist or challenge their parents for punishing them.
Both may lead to conflicts.
-

(viii) Discrimination by parents: If parents do not treat all their children fairly but,
discriminate against some of them, this will surely cause conflicts in the family.
This is because those who are discriminated against will never see eye to eye with
their parents or will not be on good terms with their siblings who are favoured or treated
well by their parents.

Marital Conflicts
One peculiar conflict which has become pervasive in all societies, in general, and Ghana,
in particular, is marital conflicts.

The Causes of Marital Conflicts

The Causes of marital conflicts are many and some have been discussed below:
1. Financial problems
One of the challenges that confront couples is lack or inadequate finance. This may
arise out of joblessness on the part of any of the couple or both for a certain period
of time. It may also come about due to the low wages or salaries that couples
receive from their places of work. Financial problem may also be caused by poor
financial management practices by one or both couple. When a couple is faced
with financial problems it makes it difficult for the basic needs of the family to be
provided leading to low standard of living of members. Usually during this period,
the man as the breadwinner of the family may be blamed leading to conflict and
other undesirable effects on the family.

2. Sexual problems
One of the things which make a happy marriage is the satisfaction of sexual desires
by the couple. Usually most couples have differences over how to manage their
sex life. That is, they are not compatible with their sex life. In some cases, they
may disagree on when to have sex. The number of times to have sex and the sex
positions to employ whenever they meet for sex. All the above have serious effects
on the marriage.

3. Childlessness
In the Ghanaian society, child bearing is considered very important in marriage
and childlessness is perceived as shameful and sometimes, a curse. It is the desire
of every couple, therefore, to have children and when couples find it difficult to
 procreate, it leads to frustration. This may affect the love between the couples and
the peace they are enjoying in the marriage. In certain cases, the couple may blame
one another for their childlessness and this may lead to conflict.

4. Lack of consensus on certain issues

Disagreements on certain vital issues between couples are also considered as one of
the challenges in marriage. Couples may disagree on a number of issues, including
the number of children to have, sex of children, the type of school children are
to attend and many more. It is a normal practice for a couple to disagree but if
such disagreements are not handled with care the couple will not be able to live
peacefully.

5. Poor communication
Effective or good communication in marriage promotes friendship between the
couple and thus enhances their relationship. It also makes them understand one
another and this leads to peace and harmony between them. The absence of good
communication can lead to mistrust, misunderstanding and conflicts all the time.
Certainly, these are not good for any marriage.

6. Unfaithfulness
The practice of having sex outside marriage is called unfaithfulness in marriage or
infidelity. Unfaithfulness is thus the practice of cheating on one's partner and when
it is detected it leads to loss of trust and confidence in the culprit or the partner
who cheated. If it is not handled well, it will lead to conflict.

7. Maltreatment
Maltreatment in the form of verbal or physical abuse can lead to conflict. This is
because when a partner is maltreated he or she has no sense of security at home
and would, therefore, find it difficult to live with the other partner. He or she would
definitely leave the martial home.
8. Drunkenness
Couples who are drunk all the time do not promote good marriages. Such people do
not have good judgment to be able to contribute meaningfully to discussions aimed at
solving certain family problems. In public, they become objects of mockery and may
easily do certain things to disgrace the other. If they share the same bed, then the smell
of alcohol will also make the other very uncomfortable. The above will surely compel
one to get out of the marriage.

9. Interference from family members and friends

In Ghana, marriage is not an individual affair. From time to time, family members,
including parents, brothers and sisters as well as friends play various roles in the
affairs of couples. In some cases, their contributions in the form of suggestions and
pieces of advice create problems for the couple leading to conflict.

10. Incompatibility
Incompatibility means being different from each other thereby making it difficult
to live or work happily together. In situations where couples are incompatible, they
spend most of their time arguing and fighting instead of supporting one another in
their day to day activities. Indeed, incompatibility has been found to be one of the
main causes of marital conflicts.

11. Lack or inadequate pre-marital and post-marital counselling

Counselling is very important in every marriage. In pre- marital counselling,
would-be couples are provided with some information that would help them manage
the challenges of marriage. They are also assisted to understand their roles
expected of them as husbands and wives. Pre-marital counselling is also provided
to equip couples with information on home management, sex-related issues and
many more. In addition, after marriage, couples must still go for counselling, that is,
post-marital counselling to upgrade their knowledge on various issues to promote
their marriage. If the couple is not provided with the needed counselling, they will
not be able to effectively manage the challenges as they will face and this may lead
to conflict.
12. Early Marriage or Immaturity
Marriage, as an institution, is for matured people and so if individuals marry when
they are not, matured, they are likely not to succeed. This is because if couples are not
matured, they find it difficult to handle certain marital issues. This means that boys
and girls cannot cope with marital life. Even adults who do not show signs of maturity
cannot properly handle marital issues. When individuals are not matured socially,
psychologically, emotionally and economically, they will find it difficult to cope with
marital life. If they marry, their lack of understanding of certain important issues will
create conflicts regularly.

Ways of Minimising Marital Conflicts'

Marital conflicts can be minimised through the following ways:
1. The need for regular communication
Couples must regularly and constantly communicate with one another to sustain
the marriages. They must be free to share their feelings and problems and must also
be prepared to give any suggestions they have to promote the marriage. Regular
communication between a couple will help minimise tensions, mistrust and
misunderstanding.

2. Respect for one another

Couples should desist from acts which would easily create conflicts in the marriages.
Such acts include verbal and physical attack. They should also learn to say "please"
and "thank you" when any occasion calls for it.

3. The need to keep matters about their marriages to themselves

Couples must, as much as possible, reduce unnecessary interferences from family
members and friends. This can be done by refraining from discussing or sharing very
important issues about their marriages with them.

4. The need for transparency

Couples must be transparent in dealing with one another. That is, they must not hide
anything from their partners. They should, for example, avoid undertaking projects
 without the knowledge of the other since that person will not take kindly to it if he or
she becomes aware of it.

5. The need for counselling

Couples must go for post-marital counselling to address their problems. Husbands
and wives should make it their duty to see a professional counsellor to update their
knowledge on issues which can improve their marriage. In addition, they must attend
marriage seminars and workshops, and also listen to good marriage programmes on
radio and television stations to sustain their marriages. Above all, they must read
good-marriage books for more information on how to promote successful marriages.

6. Doing things together

Couples must do things together. Such things include bathing, eating and praying
together. In addition, they must attend programmes such as wedding, funeral rites and
church service together. Such a practice would help build a strong bond between them
and make their marriage successful. They must also develop the culture of sharing to
show that they care for one another.

7. The need for fun-making

Couples must have fun to improve their marriages. At home, they must learn to
create jokes and laugh a lot. They can also visit places of interest such as waterfalls
and botanical gardens. They can also attend social programmes such as film shows,
concert shows and many of such programmes together. In addition, they must have
regular sex to cement their love.

8. The need to work hard to earn a lot of money

Couples must desire to work hard to make a lot of money by engaging in several
income generating activities. This is because families are maintained with money and
usually, the lack of it creates a lot of problems. So couples must endeavour to work
hard to earn a lot of money in order for them to adequately provide their needs and
that of their children as well as the needs of other dependents.
9. Couples must promote healthy lifestyles.
Couples must promote healthy lifestyles by ensuring personal hygiene and
environmental cleanliness. They must also engage in regular exercises and must also
be conscious of what they eat. In addition they must go for regular check-up

Causes of Conflict at the Community Level

Just as conflicts occur in families, they also occur in communities. Some of the causes of
conflicts at the communities include the following:
(i) Disagreement over the choice of leaders: In Ghana, the choice or selection of
leaders such as chiefs and District Chief Executives (DCEs) has been a source of
conflicts in various communities. It is also common in Ghana for Kingmakers to
choose people who do not qualify to occupy certain stools or skins because they
are not members of the royal families. Also certain people who are appointed
as DCEs are opposed by some people for various reasons. When such leaders
are chosen, usually, two camps emerge. These are those who support their
appointments and those opposed to them. Sometimes, the two groups may clash
leading to loss of lives and property.

(ii) Disagreement over the location or citing of public property: In Ghana, the
location of public facilities such as markets, libraries, clinics and schools creates
conflicts. The conflict may be created if two or more communities may want
the same facility but it can be cited in only one of them. Also, the selection of a
district capital among several communities may result in a conflict. In both cases,
conflicts are bound to happen if the inhabitants of certain communities think that
they have not been treated well.

(iii) Looking down on minority groups: A minority group is one whose members
because of their physical or cultural characteristics are disadvantaged and subjected
to unequal treatment by the dominant group and hence, regard themselves as
objects of collective disorganisation. Whenever minority groups believe that
their problems have been overlooked by those who take decisions, they may react
violently or draw public attention to their plight. Sometimes, their actions create
conflict situation.
(iv) Unlawful claims of land: In Ghana, most lands do not have valid documents
covering them by their owners. This is because such lands have not been
registered. In some cases, even registered ones are falsely claimed by certain
people. One of the major sources of conflict in Ghana is ownership of land. The
Nkonya-Alavanyo conflict is a dispute over land ownership. Also, some chiefs
engage in multiple sale of land to buyers. These buyers who have the right to
enter the land engage landguards to protect it and this usually results in clashes
among the buyers and their hired landguards. All these generate conflicts in our
communities.

(v) Greed. Greed is one source of conflict in the society. Greedy people have intense
desire for wealth, power or any other thing. They do not get satisfied with what
they already have, so they always crave for more when others have nothing at all.
At the dining hall, some students may take more food than they are entitled to.
They may even take some of the food to the dormitory when other students have
not eaten. Such a situation can cause conflict between students who took more
food and those who did not get anything to eat. Due to greed, some land owners
may sell the same plots of land to multiple buyers. Such dubious land deals can
result in conflicts among the buyers.

(vi) Injustice. Whenever a group of people have reason to believe that the existing
arrangement for the sharing of national resources is unfair to them, they may
protest. The protest may sometimes turn violent leading to the destruction of lives
and property. It is, indeed, natural for people to protest when they see that some
people live in affluence while others live in poverty. When these conditions
prevail, those who think that they have been unjustly treated may seek justice
through violent confrontation with the established order.

(vii) Discrimination. Another source of potential conflict within the society is

discrimination. Sometimes in public appointments, award of contracts and
employment, some people feel that they are discriminated against by the
government. These are usually the minority groups whose members may
 not be a part of the ruling elite. Again, in Ghana and other African countries,
while the ruling party has access to the state owned media, opposition parties
find it extremely difficult to put their messages across. Aggrieved communities
and opposition parties sometimes express their frustration against such open
discrimination against them through violent protests.

(viii) Bad relationship. In the home, community or nation, good relationships must
exist among citizens. Such good relationships promote peace and harmony
among people at different levels of society. This is, however, not what usually
happens in the Ghanaian society. Suspicion and lack of mutual respect sometimes
characterise the relationships between the ruling party and opposition parties.
These bad relationships result in conflict and tension that disturb the peace of the
country.

(ix) Intolerance. Some conflicts occur because certain people are unable to tolerate the
views of others. In Ghana, there is a high level of intolerance among supporters
of some political parties and football teams. Supporters of political parties,
sometimes, clash because they are not able to tolerate criticisms against the
parties they support. Such clashes sometimes lead to injuries and loss of lives.
Intolerance among party supporters which usually create conflicts does not only
occur between members of rival parties, but they sometimes occur among
supporters of the same political party such as the National Democratic Congress
(NDC) and the New Patrotic Party (NPP).

Other sources of conflict in our communities include political activities, sporting activities,
religious differences, marital and school-based conflicts or conflicts in our educational
institutions.

Causes of Conflicts at the National/International Level

There are numerous causes of conflicts at the national or international level. They include
the following:
1. Disagreements over land or boundaries/claims over natural resources:
The
free movements across national boundaries stopped after the colonisation of African
countries by the Europeans. Having fought for their independence, boundaries
now define the limits of lands where countries have direct physical contact with
their neighbours, and facilitate the planning of defence strategies. Boundaries also
determine a country's location to determine its citizens or aliens. In spite of various
security measures to protect countries' boundaries, some countries continue to claim
ownership of other country's land or natural resources leading to conflicts. This is
because most boundaries in Africa have not been properly demarcated, creating
disagreements and conflicts over lands and natural resources. Examples are Nigeria
and Cameroon over the Bakassi Peninsula, Eritrea and Ethiopia, Ghana and Togo, etc.

2. Military take-overs: Sometimes, the military blames politicians for mismanaging

the economy. They also accuse them of human rights abuses and corruption, and also
see the lifestyles of politicians as a waste of resources. They, therefore, resort to the
use of force to remove such governments to save such countries from experiencing
further economic problems. Sometimes, the coup makers clash with the government
forces leading to violent conflicts.

3. Exclusion of some ethnic groups from the governance of certain countries: In

Africa, it is alleged that members from certain ethnic groups have managed to occupy
the major leadership positions of some countries over a long period of time without
considering the interests of other ethnic groups. All the top positions are taken over
by the ruling ethnic group to the neglect of others. What is more, the resources of the
state are used to develop the areas occupied by the ethnic group while the rest suffer
from poor social amenities, unemployment, a high level of poverty, etc. Ussually,
members from the neglected ethnic groups become fed up and resort to the use of
force to reverse the existing arrangement, and this generate conflict. An example is
the conflicts in Rwanda in which the Hutu, who form the majority became fed up with
the rule of the Tutsi, the minority, and took up arms to reverse the order.
4. Unlawful constitutional amendment: Unlawful constitutional amendment has also
been causing conflicts in Africa. In Africa, certain Presidents refuse to step down after
their tenure of office. Usually, such leaders command absolute majority in Parliament
and, therefore, hide behind their majority members and amend the Constitution to
enable them extend their rule. This has usually been met with strong opposition from
the other parties. In the process, some have challenged the President leading to
clashes. Examples of such practice have been recorded in Zimbabwe and Togo and
Burundi.

5. Poor conduct of democratic elections: Some Africans leaders do not organise

transparent, free and fair elections. Usually, they team up with the electoral
commissions and bloat the voters' register with additional names and fill the ballot
boxes with thumb-printed ballot papers in favour of the ruling leader on election days.
Other malpractices include the use of the security services to make other contestants
submit to their malpractices as well as the use of state resources such as vehicles,
money, etc, to improve their chances of winning while the opposition parties just
struggle to survive. In some cases, members of the opposition parties have resorted
to violent conflicts to address their grievances.

6. Abuse of press freedom: One of the benefits of democracy is press freedom. But, it
must be stated that some journalists lack the required skills and experiences to
promote their chosen careers. In Africa, some journalists are either bribed or they
hide behind certain political parties to attack certain personalities or groups of people.
In the process, communities and even nations have been torn apart. Examples of
countries which have experienced conflicts of this nature are Rwanda and Nigeria.

7. Imposition of religious doctrines: Some of the conflicts in Africa are caused by

religious differences or the imposition of religions on certain people. For example, in
certain Arab countries such as Algeria, Islamic fundamentalists are bent on imposing
Islam on the people and make it an Islamic state. Also, in some states in northern
Nigeria, where Islam is the dominant religion, the Islamic leaders have imposed the
Sharia Law on all the people, including Christians. In both cases, the Christians have
 reacted strongly against the use of the Sharia Law to rule them by the Moslems. These
have led to violent clashes between Moslems and Christians, causing loss of lives and
property. There is also the militant Islamic group, the al- Shabab, perpetrating
religious conflict in Somalia and Kenya (Kisiangani, 2011). To add to the above is the
resolve of the Boko Haram militants to create an Islamic state in Northern Nigerian
and this has led to indiscriminate abductions, killings and the destruction of property
in the Region. There is also religious conflict between Christians and Moslems in the
Central African Republic leading to mass killings and the displacement of the
Moslem population, as well as the Lord's Resistance Army which is also bent on
implementing Christian principles especially the "Ten Commandments" in Uganda
[Kisiangani, 2011). This has also triggered another form of religious conflict.

Examples of Violent Conflicts in Africa The

Cote d'lvoire Conflict
Cote d'lvoire was once a peaceful country under one-party government of President
Houphouet Biogny from 1960-1993. The country began to experience economic hardships
in the 1980s and so pro-democracy movements were formed. Alassane Ouattara, a former
worker of the IMF was brought down to assist in reforming the country's economy. He
associated himself with Konare Bedie who became the leader of the country after the
death of Houphouet Boigny.

General Guei overthrew Bedie's government in 1999 and was forced to hold a general
election because of mass opposition and protests to his action. However, Ouattara was
disqualified from contesting the presidential elections because he was alleged to come
from Burkina Faso. He, therefore, refused to serve as the Prime Minister. General Guei
claimed to have won the election but as a result of mass protests from the people, he was
forced to concede defeat making Gbagbo to become the President. General Guei then
attempted to overthrow Gbagbo but was killed by government forces. Fearing that he
would be killed, Ouattara sought refuge in the French Embassy. Some people have
described the Ivorian conflict as between Muslims in the north and Christians occupying
the south.
Cote d'lvoire continued to experience significant decline and growing social tensions
after 1999 and these tensions reached their peak in 2002, when civil war briefly broke
out across the country. The civil war led to the partition of the country with the "rebel"
anti-government forces controlling over half of the country to the north while the south
(including the principal city, Abidjan remained a government stronghold). French troops
and UN Operation Cote d'lvoire (UNOCI) commanded a narrow belt across the centre of
the country. Numerous peace agreements were signed and reneged and the elections, first
promised in 2005, finally, took place in Nov/Dec 2010, having been postponed six times.
However, far from establishing the foundations for a more viable peace settlement, the
elections re-opened ill-healed wounds and the threat of renewed civil war was at its peak.

During the 2010 presidential elections, Ouattara competed against Gbabgo and Bedie.
No candidate gained an outright victory in the first round and Bedie, with fewest votes,
was eliminated leaving Gbagbo and Ouattara to go for a second round in which Outtara
was declared the winner by the Electoral Commission and foreign observers. Gbagbo,
however, refused to vacate the seat, claiming massive electoral fraud in the north,
and influenced the overturning of the result by the Constitutional Council which now
proclaimed Gbagbo as the winner with 51% of the total votes cast.

France, committed in its opposition against Gbagbo even before the election process
began, led the calls for Gbagbo to stand down with the UN, US, ECOWAS and many states
across Africa doing same. However, Gbagbo refused to vacate the seat. Consequently,
the anti-government forces (pro-Ouattara forces) backed by the French troops
over-empowered Gbagbo and arrested him, and Ouattara then became the President of
Cote d'lvoire.

Effects of the Conflict

(i) Socially, there were human rights abuses and humanitarian crisis culminating
in about 3000 people being killed, 300,000 displaced and 200,000 became
refugees.

(ii) At the educational front, some 800,000 children could not attend school
between December 2010 and May 2011, due to insecurity. The absence from
 school for such long periods increased the risks of child labour, exploitation
and recruitment of children into armed groups; for example, an estimated
5000 children were recruited by force to join armed groups.

(iii)The crisis worsened the health and medical situation and about 50 percent
health workers abandoned their duty posts leading to epidemics such as
measles, yellow fever and cholera.

(iv)There was a serious effect on household food security. Subsistence domestic

stocks had to be sold, seeds were destroyed and there were no secured
i environment for farming. The sanctions imposed on the country also
aggravated the situation. Indeed, prices of basic food items increased from
10 percent to 30 percent in the first quarter of 2011. In all, nutrition levels of
households suffered with severe adverse consequently.

(v) Economic and financial systems slowed down to a point where certain sectors
such as cocoa and coffee exports became paralysed leading to massive lay-
offs.

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo)

Patrice Lumumba became the first Head of State of the DR Congo but was overthrown
by Mobutu who received a lot of support from United States of America. Mobutu was
overthrown by Laurent Kabila in 1997. Kabila was also killed and was succeeded by
his son, Joseph Kabila in 2001. The DR Congo War which started in 2008 has been
described as the world's serious or deadliest conflict since World War n.

It is estimated that about 5.4 million people died in this conflict. But the vast majority
died from non-violent causes such as malaria, diarrhoea, pneumonia and malnutrition, all
of which are preventable in normal circumstances but came about because of the conflict.
About 47% of the deaths were children. In addition, two million people were internally
displaced and more than one million of the displaced received no assistance.

Sierra Leone
One of the causes of the Sierra Leonean war was the unfair distribution of the revenue
from the sale of the country's diamonds. Although endowed with abundant natural
resources, the country was ranked as the poorest in the world in 1998.

The conflict began in 1985 when Major-General Momoh became the President of Sierra
Leone in 1985. He was opposed by students including Foday Sankoh, Abu Kanu and
Rashid Moansaray. Their tough opposition to the government forced Momoh to expel
most of them from the country. Some of them, fled to Ghana for their university education
while others went to Libya. After sometime, most of them returned to Sierra Leone to
start the conflict. The Revolutionary United Front (RUF), led by Foday Sankoh was
formed and started recruiting children. The RUF launched its first campaign in March
1991. Its members used torture and physical mutilation against the civilians. Machetes
and axes were used by the RUF to sever arms, legs, lips and ears. These continued until
it gained control of the diamond mines.

On 29th April, 1992, a group of young military officers led by Captain Valetine Strasser
staged a military coup and caused Momoh to go into exile. Captain Strasser then formed
the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC). Within one month, the NPRC had
driven the RUF fighters back to the borders of Sierra Leone. The war was officially
declared over on 18th January, 2002.

The Effects of the War

(i) Tens of thousands people died.
(ii) More than 2 million people were displaced.
(iii) The country's development was halted for about 11 years.
(iv) About 100,000 refugees fled to neighbouring countries such as Ghana and
Guinea. (v) An amputee camp was created to house abut 20,000 amputees.
(vi) There was an outbreak of diseases because of the mass killing of people and
leaving the carcass in the open.

In addition to what have been described above, there have been violent conflicts in Liberia,
Angola, and the Dafur Region in Sudan, Rwanda, Kenya and Somalia.
 CAUSES OF CONFLICTS IN AFRICA

In Ghana, violent conflicts have been experienced in Dagbon, Bawku and between
Nanumba and Konkomba as well as between the people of Nkonya nd Alavanyo. In
addition, violent conflicts were registered at various places during parliamentary and
presidential elections. Other violent conflicts are religious in nature. For example, in
1994 and 1998, there were clashes between the traditional religious authorities of the Ga
Traditional State and Christian churches over drumming rights during the celebration of
the Homowo Festival.
 CHAPTER SIX EFFECTS
OF CONFLICTS

Effects of Conflicts on Families

Conflicts affect the family in several ways. Some of them include the following:
(i) Broken homes: Violent conflicts between husbands and wives lead to broken
homes. That is, couples may live apart resulting from divorce or separation.
Broken homes usually affect children upbringing especially, their education.
(ii) Child delinquency: It has already been said that conflict in the family may lead
to broken homes. When this happens, the children may not be taken care of very
well. The children will therefore enjoy a lot of freedom to engage in bad behaviours
such as smoking, stealing and sex, thus affecting their future development.
(iii) Members of the family cannot plan together: Planning involves two or more
people. Since conflicts create disunity, it makes it difficult for members to plan
together. This will retard the progress of the members of the family.
(iv) Loss of lives
(v) Loss or destruction of property
(vi) Mental and psychological problems
(vii) Legal tussle (litigation between couples)
(viii) Economic problems
(ix) Conflicts between couples make them become bad role models for their
children

Effects of Conflicts on Communities or Nations

Communities and nations also suffer from conflicts. They include the following: (i)
People are displaced: Some of the people become refugees whilst others are
displaced internally and live in tents under undesirable conditions. Refugees are
people who run away from their countries to other countries for their safety. Violent
conflicts normally force people to abandon their countries and seek refuge in other
countries. In Ghana, refugee camps can be found at Klikor in the Volta Region and
Budumburam in the Central Region. New refugee camps have been created in the
Western Region as a result of the Ivorian conflict.
 EFFECTS OF CONFLICTS

(ii) Brain drain or loss of professionals: Conflicts areas suffer from the movement
of professional such as doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers and nurses. Do you
know why they move out? Yes, they migrate for their safety. Apart from those
who move out, others also do not receive postings to such a place. In Ghana, the
Dagbon conflict forced a lot of professionals to desert the Northern Region. Also,
the conflict in Liberia forced a lot of Liberian professionals to move to Ghana.

(iii) Loss of lives and property: Violent conflicts lead to loss of lives and property.
Some people lose their lives because they are attacked and killed by their
opponents. For example, in the Dagbon conflict, the King, Ya-Na and 40 other
people were killed. Also, in the Sierra Leonean war, over 50,000 were killed.
Again, about 500,000 Tutsi were killed by the Hutu in the Rwandan war, while
thousands of the Hutu were killed by their own ethnic brothers for opposing the
killings. Others also die out of starvation and diseases. Also, valuable properties
are also destroyed. They include houses, vehicles, farms, etc.

(iv) Conflicts create insecurity: The uncontrolled use of arms and other dangerous
weapons in attacking opponents creates insecurity among people. They are forced
to leave their homes and hide in churches, mosques, embassies, etc for their
safety. People are, therefore, unable to move about freely to engage in economic
activities to make a living.

(v) Destruction of agricultural lands: In most of the violent conflicts such as the
ones experienced in Sierra Leone and Rwanda, the parties used landmines and
other forms of dangerous explosives to destroy one another. This caused large
areas of farmlands to be abandoned. Also, large areas of land were used for the
resettlement of displaced persons. These led to the destruction of farmlands
causing severe food shortages.

(vi) Environmental degradation: This is caused by the pollution of water bodies

through the dumping of dead bodies in water sources. Also, the use of bombs and
other sophisticated weapons causes air pollution. All these affect the health of the
people.
 (vii) Abuse of women and children: In most of the conflicts in Africa, women and
children are abused. A lot of children are recruited as soldiers at the expense of
their education and personal development. Such children are taught to steal, kill,
rape and use hard drugs. Girls are raped regularly and sometimes in turns without
any mercy. In the same vein, women are raped and those who resist are either
killed or have certain parts of their bodies, especially, their limbs cut off.

(viii) Destruction of infrastructure: The infrastructure of most countries has been

destroyed. In such countries, bridges, roads, electricity and water supply systems,
rail lines, etc, have been destroyed putting a lot of burden on such countries to re-
build their infrastructure.

(ix) Conflicts affect the social and economic life of the people: In the first place,
conflicts restrict the movement of people. This is done to avoid any possible attack
from the opposing parties. A lot of people are also cut off from their relatives and
love ones. That is, socially, family members and friends are separated. Also, a lot
of people are unable to go about their business or economic activities. Schools
are also closed down, thereby, affecting the academic programmes of educational
institutions and school children.

(x) Countries involved in violent conflicts lose international

recognition:
Countries involved in violent conflicts are sometimes suspended from international
organisations and also denied all forms of assistance from the international
community. In addition, such countries also do not attract foreign investors.

(xi) The government spends a lot of money to maintain peace and order in conflict
areas. Such funds could have been used to provide several development projects
to improve the lives of the people.
 CHAPTER SEVEN
CONFLICT PREVENTION

The Meaning of Conflict Prevention

You have already learnt about the effects of violent conflicts on families, communities
and nations. Well, you will agree with me that violent conflicts are not good anywhere in
the world. There is, therefore, the need to employ all available means to prevent conflicts
from occurring. Conflict prevention is the process of identifying signals of conflicts and
encouraging people to work out their difference to avoid violent clashes

The Roles of Individuals in Conflict Prevention

Everybody has a duty to perform to ensure that there is peace in our families, communities
and the entire country. The roles of individuals in conflict prevention are discussed below:

The Role of Parents in Conflict Prevention

Parents should do their best to come out with measures to promote peace in the family.
The role of parents include the following:
(i) i They should not discriminate against any of their children. That is, they must
give equal treatment to all their children. If they did, those children who are
discriminated against would be on bad terms with their parents and extend also
this bad feeling towards their own siblings leading to conflicts.

(ii) There must be effective communication between parents and their children. For
example, they must arrange meetings with their children periodically to find out
about their problems and then take steps to address them.

(iii) They must show love to their children.

(iv) They must respect the views of their children.

(v) They must desist from over - protecting their children. That is, they must be bold
to bring their recalcitrant children to order.
 CONFLICT PREVENTION

(vi) They should show concern about their children's general welfare by
providing their physical and emotional needs.

(vii) They must be fair and firm with their children. Parents must keep to their
words.

(viii) Parents must learn to vary the approaches or the methods they adopt to
upbring their children that suit the stages of their life cycle from infancy to
adulthood.

(ix) They should encourage their adolescent children to make certain decisions
on their own to make the adolescent feel respected and recognised.

(x) Parents must lead positive lifestyles. That is, they must do the right
thing to enable their children respect them.

(xi) Parents should focus on their children's strengths and assist them to improve
on them instead of emphasising the weaknesses all the time.

(xii) Parents must seek guidance and counselling to persistent parent - child
conflicts.

The Role of Children in Conflict Prevention

The role of children in conflict prevention include the following:
(i) Children must co-operate with their parents or they must obey them to ensure
the
smooth running of their homes. For example, they must endeavour to perform
various tasks assigned them by their parents.

(ii) They should show gratitude to their parents for the numerous provisions
they receive from them.

(iii) Children should be polite and courteous to their parents and other people.

(iv) Children should learn to use resources judiciously.

(v) They should perform tasks or roles assigned them by their parents.
The Role of Leaders in Conflict Prevention
The role of leaders in conflict prevention includes the following:
(i) They must be approachable, that is, they must open the channels of
communication.
(ii) They must hold regular meetings to inform their followers about the state of
affairs.
(iii) They must be firm and fair.
(iv) They must consult their subordinates on important matters before decisions are
taken.
(v) They must address the grievances of their subordinates.

The Role of the Government in Conflict Prevention

The role of the government includes the following:
(i) The government must be neutral and discharge its duty according to the laws of the
land.
(ii) It should strengthen institutions of state and allow them to work without any
unnecessary interference.
(iii) It must ensure fair distribution of national resources to all areas of the country.
(iv) It must ensure that appointments and promotion of people to occupy public positions
are based on meritocracy i.e. on people's qualifications, skills and experiences and not on
any other considerations such as one's ethnic, religious or political party affiliation. It
should, therefore, minimise nepotism or favouritism to the barest minimum.
(v) It should engage prominent or respectable persons in society to talk to the people on
the need to live in peace.

CONFLICT PREVENTION
(vi) It must avoid witch hunting of political opponents.
(vii) It must be accountable to the people.
(viii) It must promote transparency in all its dealings.
(ix) It must resource the security services to retrieve arms from the people
periodically.
(x) It must promote political tolerance.
Attitudes and values needed to prevent conflicts in the community
Nobody wants to live in a community where there are violent conflicts. Individuals,
therefore, need to put up certain attitudes and develop certain values to prevent conflicts
in our communities. They include:
(i) Respect for one another: We must learn to respect all manner of people irrespective of
their ethnic groups, religions, political parties, etc, that they belong to. We must therefore
avoid making comments about people that seem to suggest that such people are less
important.
(ii) Tolerance: As human beings, other people may express views that may be different
from ours. We need to respect the views of such people. Hence, we must be patient and
allow others to express the opinions they have about the issues we are discussing without
fighting them. We must, therefore, endeavour to employ consensus building to overcome
our differences to promote peace in our society. Do you know that by being tolerant, we
may even learn more about certain things to enrich our knowledge?
(iii) Forgiveness: When people offend us and show regret for their actions, we should be
able to forgive them. As human beings we are not perfect because we also offend others.
We must, therefore, learn to forgive people as we also expect others to forgive us if we
offend them. It is equally important for offenders to note that human beings are generally
fallible. Consequently, it is important for them to show remorse if they offend their
fellow human beings to attract forgiveness.
 (iv) Love: Whether we are in the home, school, market, etc:, we should not create the
impression for other people to see that we hate them. As we show love to people,
we carry the burden of helping one another. This will create a harmonious society
and prevent conflicts from occurring.

(v) Honesty: Honest people are always truthful and sincere. They also hate cheating.
Whenever people are cheated, they become angry and use violence to address
their grievances. We must, therefore, be honest in all our dealings with other
people to prevent conflicts. We must also learn to tell the truth all the time. We
must know that truth cannot be hidden forever. When the people we are dealing
with come to know the truth about what we hide from them, they may get angry
which can end up in conflict. To avoid conflicts, therefore, we must to be honest
all the time.

(vi) Fairness: To prevent conflicts, we must be fair to everybody. In the family, parents
must learn to apply the same punishment for the same offence to all their
children. The same thing must be done by teachers and heads of institutions as
well as others in leadership positions. Failure to do that will cause disaffection
among some of the students or children. Finally, the government must treat all
persons equally irrespective of where they come from and the political parties they
belong to. If some people have any cause to think that the government applies the
law unfairly, they may protest and this can disturb the peace of the country.

(vii) Maintaining good relationships: To ensure peace in our communities or nation,

there is the need to maintain good relationships. As members of the society, we
cannot all be friends but, at least, we can allow our common interests, hopes and
aspirations to unite us. Again, we may be members of different political parties or
ethnic groups, but what defines all of us is our common humanity. It is for this
reason that we should not develop deep hatred against people, who are not part of
the group we belong to. It should be possible to work with people from different
political parties or ethnic groups in the interest of peace and harmony. Government
must be able to maintain good working relationships with the opposition party to
promote peace and development.
(viii) Positive Thinking: The mind is a very powerful organ of the human being. The
renewal of a person's mind is the only guarantee for the transformation of his
or her physical being. As a country, we must develop positive thinking. In other
words, we must be optimistic about life and always hope for the best to happen
to our country. We should avoid cynicism and pessimism and rather learn to
encourage ourselves. If we develop a positive mind, we will be able to promote
peace and development in our country.
 CHAPTER EIGHT
CONFLICT RESOLUTION

The Meaning of Conflict Resolution

Conflict resolution is the process of attempting to resolve a conflict. It usually involves
two or more groups with opposing views regarding specific issues and another group or
individual who is considered to be neutral in their opinion on the subject and who
employs various measures to resolve the conflict.

Successful conflict resolution occurs by listening to and providing opportunities for each
of the parties to present their side of the conflict and assisting them to address their interests
so that they are each satisfied with the outcome. People in conflict need opportunities for
resolution if there is to be personal growth or social development. Conflict resolution
practitioners have the task of assisting the parties in moving from crisis through conflict
management to a mutually satisfactory resolution of the matters at issues between them.
Conflict resolution deals with the underlying causes of conflicts. It seeks to satisfy the
interest or values of the conflicting parties through mutually agreed standards of fairness
and justice.

Conflict resolution, properly understood, entails the use of collaborative problem-solving

in a situation where a neutral party helps two or more disputing parties to engage in
conciliation, facilitation and / or mediation. The resolution contributes to the elimination
of the sources of conflict. It is analytical process that tries to get to the root of the problem.
It aims not merely to resolve the immediate conflict but also to provide insights into the
generic nature of the problem thereby contributing to the elimination of the sources and
the prevention of other instances in which the conflict might return

Conflict resolution is substantive and enduring not flowery or cosmetic. Conflicts cannot
be said to have been truly resolved in the absence of a careful analysis of the underlying
issues that generated the conflicts in the first place. There can be no resolution unless the
political realities and basic human needs of the parties are recognised and addressed; no
amount of coaxing or coercion will produce real societal stability. As Burton (1979) puts
it, "deep rooted conflicts are an indication, not only that something is wrong in a society,
but also that the conflicts will continue unless the needs are met".

The political upheavals in Eastern Europe and Africa and the collapse of totalitarian and
despotic regimes in these parts of the world are the inevitable result of the thwarted
human needs. Conflicts Resolution then is about meeting basic human needs in order to
avert conflicts and ensure lasting peace.

Ground Rules for Conflict Resolution Process

In order to effectively resolve conflicts, participants must abide by a well defined set of
ground rules. The ground rules include the following:
(i) Conflicts should always be resolved at a neutral site. The perception of a
"home court advantage" will always be a deterrent to resolving conflict.

(ii) Ideally, participation in conflict resolution process is voluntary. Sometimes,

however, in order to move forward, concerned parties must work to resolve
differences even when they have no initial interest in doing so. The best way
to achieve voluntary participation is to clearly define the benefits of reaching
an agreement versus not doing so.

(iii) Allow adequate time for each party to prepare for the conflict resolution
process. Don't let individuals feel they are playing on an uneven field because
they didn't have time to gather their thoughts and / or materials.

(iv) Allow adequate time for the conflict resolution session. A resolution may not
be achieved in one sitting.

(v) Set the tone for the conflict resolution session. Layout the ground rules for the
session. Who will speak and when? When will questions be asked? Don't allow
for interruptions if one party is speaking. Ensure there will be no retaliation
for any comments made.
 CONFLICT RESOLUTION CHAPTER 8

(vi) Always remember, we are talking about problems, not persons.

(vii) Allow all parties to state their concerns. Then work to define underlying
interests and begin to look for common ground.

(viii) The speaker must speak to be understood. Who is your audience? What is
the best way to convey your position/ interest to them?

(ix) Always speak about yourself, not about them. For example, "I feel
frustrated" versus "You are so disorganised I can't work with you."

(x) Speak for a purpose- know what you want to communicate before you
start speaking. Use your preparation time to gather your thoughts.

(xi) Ask questions, clarifying anything you feel might still be ambiguous
regarding their point of view.

Skills for Resolving Conflicts

You are already aware that conflicts cannot be avoided. What is needed is for those who
resolve conflicts to possess certain skills to be able to resolve or manage conflicts
effectively when they occur. Those who assist in resolving conflicts are called mediators.
The skills needed to resolve conflicts include:
(i) Good listening skills: In resolving conflicts, mediators must demonstrate good
listening skills. Having good listening skills will help them to follow and
understand clearly what each of the parties has to say. This will also enable
the mediator to provide the needed assistance to the disputants for the
effective resolution of conflicts. The mediator must, first of all, listen
attentively or listen with rapt attention. Mediators must also demonstrate
good listening skills by showing interest in what each party has to say. They
must do this by keeping eye contact with those in conflict as they speak.
They should also nod their heads to show that they are following what is
being said. Occasionally, the mediator should ask the speaker to repeat a
 CONFLICT RESOLUTION

statement or ask him or her to throw more light on a point made earlier. That
is, they should ask follow-up questions to clarify issues which have already
been stated.

(ii) Mediators must also learn to restate what someone or a party has already said.
That is, saying exactly what one has said. This serves as a mirror for the
person. That is, repeating what someone has said with the same words and
tone allows the person to hear himself or herself this will make parties to
refrain from telling lies.

(iii) Another important skill needed for resolving conflicts is for the mediator to
learn to paraphrase. To paraphrase is to state in your own words what
another person has said. When paraphrasing, it is important to focus on the
speaker and begin with any of the following phrases:
(a) "Did I hear you say .............. ?"

(b) "So you ................. "

(c) "You feel ................ "

The paraphrased statement should contain the feelings, event and the
reason for the feeling. For example, "So you are angry because John
referred to you as Mr. Know it all".

(iv) Mediators must also re-frame statements made by parties as they present their
side of the matter. To reframe is to take what the speaker has said and restate
it in a constructive manner without shifting from the point he or she wants
to make. Often times, when people are angry, they say things negatively
although the points they make are very important. Your role as a mediator
is to look for the constructive or the important element of the statement and
restate it positively. Remember, as the mediator, you are the only one who
is emotionally free from the burden of the conflict and must, therefore, put
things well in order to always cool down tempers. For example, when a
speaker or a party says "you always steal from my office", you, the mediator
 CONFLICT RESOLUTION CHAPTER 8

must change the word, "steal" to "take things". The statement then becomes
"you always take things from his office".

(v) Fairness to all sides: Mediators should be fair to all persons involved in a
conflict or they should not take sides with any of them. That is, they should
give the same treatment to those involved in conflict. This will ensure that
both sides co-operate with the mediator in resolving the conflict. If any of
the parties find out that he or she is not being treated fairly, it will be difficult
for him or her to co-operate with the mediator.

(vi) Give appropriate responses: If mediators do not give appropriate

responses, it will make the parties become angry and this may affect the
resolution process.

(vii) Encourage people to say what they feel and what hurt them: As people
are given the chance to say what hurt them, they become somehow relieved.
This is very good for effective conflict resolution. In addition, when people
say what hurt them, the mediators are assisted to have a very good idea
about the extent to which any of the conflict parties has been hurt. This will
enable the mediator to determine the appropriate compensation to be paid
to the people.
 CHAPTER CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
9

CHAPTER NINE CONFLICT

MANAGEMENT

The Meaning of Conflict Management

Conflict management is the process of reducing the negative and destructive capacity of
conflicts through a number of measures by working with and through the parties involved
in the conflict. Conflict management thus seeks to deal with conflicts in order to avoid
violence among conflicting parties.

Conflict Management Techniques

There are several ways of managing conflicts at the workplace. However, these varied
means of managing conflict can be categorised into two main groups' namely ineffective
and effective techniques.
(a) Ineffective Techniques
Under these, we have the following:
(i) Non-action or procrastination: This is doing nothing about the conflict with
the hope that the conflict will disappear by itself. Generally, this is not a
good technique because most conflicts do not go away, and the individuals
involved in the conflict react with frustration.

(ii) Secrecy: This is trying to keep a conflict out of view of most people. An
example is a school's policy on admissions. In some schools, discussion of
the school's protocol admissions is met with sharp reprimand from the
school head. In some cases, teachers who dare discuss protocol admissions
are threatened with open release by headmasters/mistresses. When this is
the case, teachers and other stakeholders of the school suspect that the
school head has something to hide.

(iii) Administrative orbiting: This is delaying action on a conflict by buying

time, usually by telling the individuals involved in the conflict that the
problem is being worked out or resolved or that the boss is still thinking
 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

about the issue. Like non-action, this technique leads to frustration and
resentment. (iv) Due Process non-action: It is a procedure set up to address
conflict that is so costly, time-consuming, or personally risky that no one will use
it. A good example is certain organisations' sexual harassment policies. To file a
sexual harassment complaint, detailed paperwork is required; the accuser must go
through a laid down procedure, and the accuser risks being branded as a trouble
maker. Thus, the organisation has a procedure for handling complaints (due
process), but no one uses it (non-action).

(v) Character assassination: This is an attempt to label or discredit an opponent.

One party in the conflict goes about spreading falsehood about the name,
character, integrity, reputation, etc, of the other party with the intent of
blackmailing him or her; to make him or her lose public respect. However,
character assassination can backfire and make the individual who uses it
appear dishonest and cruel.

(vi) Coercion: This means bullying, banging the table, and 'knocking heads
together'. Different people will react in different ways to this, but in no
case will conflict be resolved. It is the classic example of treating symptoms
rather than causes. If it achieves anything at all, it will be simply to brush
the conflict under the carpet and create a false sense of harmony. It may
encourage more insidious and destructive methods of waging the conflict.

(vii) Pleading: It is a softer form of coercion, with only slighter less poor results.
Again, this is a way of treating symptoms only. A manager will simply
appeal to the 'antagonists' better nature to stop making life unpleasant for
each other and their colleagues. They may or may not agree, but either way
it simply drives the conflict 'underground'. It also demonstrates managerial
weakness which will eventually backfire.

(viii) Arbitration: This is awarding 'the cake' to one or the other of the warring
 parties or dividing it as you see fit. This is a dangerous response at any time
but even more so once a conflict has become destructive. Sometimes, but
rarely, there will be a right and wrong side in an argument, but before that
kind of decision is made, you will need to be very sure of your facts and
employ your best communication skills, particularly when informing the
loser. Most of the time, there will be right and wrong on both sides, and
in those cases, an arbitrary decision, based either on prejudice or on chance
alone (for the sake of a quiet life) is not only fraught with danger but is also
unimaginative and a waste of an opportunity to seek mutual gain.

(ix) Buying-off: This entails ending a conflict by giving in to one or both

parties on some other matter. For example, you could 'solve' bitter rivalry
between two colleagues by giving new status-enhancing responsibilities;
or 'solve' an argument over work space or priorities by spending money
on unnecessary but highly-prized equipment which they have asked for at
sometime or other. This is a dangerous downward spiral to get yourself on.
It wins no respect and quickly degenerates into a form of blackmail with
the demands increasing in size as time goes on.

(b) Effective Techniques

There are effective conflict management techniques. These include appealing to
superordinate goals, expanding resources, changing personnel, changing structure,
and confronting and negotiating.
(i) Superordinate goal: This is an organisational goal that is more important to
both parties in a conflict than their individual or group goals. Superordinate
goals cannot be achieved by an individual or by one group alone. The
achievement of these goals requires co-operation by both parties.

One effective technique for resolving conflict is to appeal to a superordinate

goal that is to focus the parties on a larger issue on which they both agree.
This helps them realise their similarities rather than their differences. For
example, in a conflict between two teachers over the use of textbooks
 and other teaching and learning resources, the headmaster can appeal to
the conflicting teachers on the need for high academic performance by all
students of the school and the need for all teachers and school administrators
to focus attention on it. This is because both teachers in conflict would
agree that high academic performance by all students is a goal worthy of
pursuit and that this goal cannot be achieved unless there is agreement and
co-operation among teachers in the school.

(ii) Expanding resources: One conflict management technique is so simple

that it may be overlooked. If the source of the conflict is scarce resources,
providing more resources may be a solution. However, the head of the
school working with tight budgets may not have the luxury of obtaining
additional resources. Nevertheless, it is a technique to be considered
in conflict management. For example, if there is a conflict between two
teachers over scarcity and distribution of chalk, the purchase of more chalk
would resolve the conflict.
(iii) Changing personnel: Sometimes a conflict is prolonged and severe, and
efforts at resolving it fail. In such cases, it may be appropriate to change
personnel. Transferring or firing an individual may be the best solution, but
only after due process.

(iv) Changing structure: Another way to resolve a conflict is to change the

structure of the organisation. One way of accomplishing this is to create
an integrator role. An integrator is a liaison between groups with very
different interests. In severe conflicts, it may be best that the integrator be a
neutral third party. Creating the integrator role is a way of opening dialogue
1
between groups that have difficulty communicating.

Using cross-functional teams is another way of changing the organisation's

structure to manage conflict. For example, in discussing discipline in
the school, many departments have to contribute to the solution, and this
1
causes delays resulting from difficulties in co-ordinating the ideas of the
 various departments. Using a cross-functional team made up of members
from different departments improves co-ordination and this reduces delays
by allowing many activities to be performed at the same time rather than
sequentially. The team approach allows members from different departments
to work together and this reduces the potential for conflict.

(v) Confronting and negotiating: Some conflict requires confrontation and

negotiation between the parties. These strategies require skills on the part
of the negotiator and careful planning before engaging in negotiations.
The process of negotiating involves an open discussion of problems and '
solutions, and the outcome is often an exchange in which both parties work
towards a mutually beneficial solution. Negotiation is a joint process of
finding a mutually acceptable solution to a complex conflict. Negotiating is
a useful strategy under the following conditions:
(a) There are two or more parties. Negotiation is primarily an inter-
personal or intergroup process.
(b) There is a conflict of interest between the parties such that what
one party wants is not what the other party wants.
(c) The parties are willing to negotiate because they believe they can
use their influence to obtain a better outcome than by simply taking
the side of the other party.
(d) They prefer to work together than to fight openly, give in, break off
contact, or take the dispute to a higher authority.

Conflict Management Styles

Conflict management means identifying the appropriate strategies to resolve conflicts.
If the occurrence of conflict is an everyday issue, then its resolution should be a daily
affair. Managing conflict is thus a common activity in organisations. Effective conflict
management involves more than specific techniques. The ability to understand and
correctly diagnose conflict is the first step to managing it.

Conflict management consists of diagnostic processes, interpersonal styles, negotiating

strategies and structural interventions that are designed to avoid unnecessary conflicts,
reduce or resolve excessive conflicts, or even increases insufficient conflict. One way of
classifying styles of conflict management is to examine the styles' assertiveness, that is,
the extent to which you want your goals met, and cooperativeness, that is, the extent to
which you want to see the other party's concerns met. Managers have at their disposal a
variety of conflict management styles or modes. None of this mode is wrong but there are
right and wrong times to use each. The Thomas Kilmann conflict modes which are widely
used to manage conflicts are as follows:
(i) Avoiding
(ii) Accommodating
(iii) Competing
(iv) Compromising
(v) Collaborating

1. Avoiding
Avoiding is a style low on both assertiveness and co-operativeness. It is a deliberate
decision to take no action on a conflict or to stay out of a conflict situation. Many times
some people avoid conflicts out of fear of engaging in conflicts or because they do not
have confidence in their conflicts management skills. In certain situations, it may be
appropriate to avoid a conflict. For example, when the parties are angry and need time to
cool down, it may be best to use avoidance. However, there is a potential danger in using
an avoiding style too often. It is referred to as a lose-lose situation. Avoiding style may
be desirable under the following conditions:
(i) When the issue is minor or only of passing importance and thus not worth
the
individual's time or energy to confront the conflict.
(ii) When there is not enough information available to the individual to
effectively
deal with the conflict at that time.
(iii) When the individual's power is so low relative to the other person's that
there is little chance for causing change.
(iv) When other individuals can more effectively resolve the conflict. The
person who adopts the avoiding style justifies his stand with the following
statements:
(a) I usually don't take positions that will create controversy.
(b) I shy away from topics that are sources of disputes with my friends.
(c) If there are rules that apply, I cite those, and if there are none, I leave the other
person to make his or her own decision. The avoiding skills include the ability to
withdraw, ability to leave things unresolved and the ability to sidestep issues.

2. Accommodating
Accommodating is a style in which you are concerned that the other party's goals be met
but relatively unconcerned with getting your own way is called accommodating. It is a
lose-win situation. It is co-operative but unassertive, that is, it is low assertiveness and
high cooperation. Appropriate situations for accommodating include times when you
find you are wrong, when you want to let the other party have his or her way in order
to remind the individual that he or she owes you similar treatment later, or when the
relationship is important. Over reliance on accommodating has its shortcomings. For
examples, if heads of organisations constantly sacrifice their positions or feelings and
allow those of their subordinates to take precedence, they may lose the respect to manage
the organisations successfully. In addition, managers may become frustrated because
their own needs are never met, and they may also lose self-esteem. Accommodators
justify their style with the following statements:
(i) If it makes other people happy, I am all for it.
(ii) I like to smooth over disagreements by making them appear less important.
(iii)I ease conflict by suggesting that our differences are trivial and then show goodwill
by blending my ideas into those of the other person.

The accommodation skills include forgetting your desires, selflessness, ability to yield
and obeying order.

3. Collaborating
Collaborating is a win-win style that is high on both assertiveness and co-operativeness.
Working towards collaborating involves an open and thorough discussion of the conflict
and arriving at a solution that is satisfactory to both parties. Collaboration has been
described as "putting an idea on top of an idea on top of an idea... in order to achieve
the best solution to the conflict". The best solution is defined as a creative solution to the
conflict that would not have been generated by a single individual. With such a positive
outcome for collaboration, some people profess that the collaboration mode is always
the best conflict mode to use. However, collaborating takes a great deal of time and
energy. Therefore, the collaborating mode should be used when the conflict warrants the
time and energy. For example, if your team is establishing initial parameters for how to
work effectively together, then using the collaborating mode could be quite useful. On
the other hand, if your team is in conflict about where to go for lunch today, the time
and energy necessary to collaboratively resolve the conflict is probably not beneficial.
Situations where collaboration may be effective include times when both parties need
to be committed to a final solution or when a combination of different perspectives can
be formed into a solution. The style represents a desire to maximise joint outcomes.
Collaborators tend to have the following characteristics:
(i) They see conflict as natural, helpful, and even lead to a more creative solution
if handled properly.
(ii) They show trust and candour with others.
(iii) They recognise that when conflict is resolved to the satisfaction of all,
commitment to the solution is likely.

Collaborators justify their style with the following statements:

(iv) I stress that nothing we decide is cast in stone and suggest that we
find a
position that we can both trust.
(v) I tell the other person any ideas, actively seek out the other person's ideas,
and
search for a mutually beneficial solution.
(vi) I like to suggest new solutions that build on a variety of expressed
viewpoints.

Collaboration skills include active listening, identifying concerns, non-threatening

confrontation and analysing inputs

4. Competing
Competing is a style that is very assertive and unco-operative or low cooperation. You
want to satisfy your own interests and are willing to do so at the expense of the other party.
In an emergency or in situations where you know you are right, it may be appropriate
to put your feet down. However, relying solely on competing strategies is dangerous.
Managers who do so may become reluctant to admit when they are wrong and may find
themselves surrounded by people who are afraid to disagree with them.

Competing style, which Mankoe (2002) calls it forcing style, is a win-lose approach to
conflict management. Times when the competing mode is appropriate are when quick
action needs to be taken, when unpopular decisions need to be made, which vital issues
must be handled, or when one is protecting self-interests. Those who use this style
may threaten or actually use emotion, dismissal, negative performance evaluations, or
punishments to gain compliance from their subordinates. Over reliance on forcing style
by a manager lessens the employee's work motivation because their interests are not
considered. Statements that reflect a forcing style include:
(i) I like to put it plainly: Like it or not, what I say goes (ii) I
insist that my position be accepted during a disagreement (iii) I
usually hold on to my position to a problem after the controversy starts.

The competing skills include arguing or debating, standing your ground, using rank or
influence, opinions and feelings and stating your position clearly.

5. Compromising
The comprising style is intermediate in both assertiveness and co-operativeness, because
each party must give up something to reach a solution to the conflict. Compromises are
often made in the final hours of union-management negotiations, when time is of the
essence. Compromise is also an effective backup style when efforts towards collaboration
are not successful. The main benefit of compromising is the quick way of dealing with a
conflict. It does not maximise satisfaction, but only a partial satisfaction for each party.
It is, therefore, a win-win situation.
Statements that justify the compromising style include the following:
(i) I want to know how and what others feel and then explain how I also
feel. It is often necessary to settle on some middle ground.
 (ii) After failing in getting my way, I find it necessary to seek a fair
combination
of gains and loses for both of us.
(iii) I give into others if they are willing to meet me
halfway. (iv) Half a loaf is better than nothing. Let split the
difference.

Compromising style in conflict management may have its flaws such as the following:

(i) Managers may be encouraging compromise on stated issues, rather than

on the real ones.
(ii) Premature compromise often prevents full diagnosis of the real issues.
(iii) It is easier to accept an initial position presented than to search for
alternatives that are more acceptable to all the parties.
(iv) Compromise may be inappropriate to all or part of the situation. Research
on the five styles of conflict management indicates that although most managers
favour a particular style, they have the capacity to change styles as the situation demands.
 ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION

CHAPTER TEN ALTERNATIVE

DISPUTE RESOLUTION

The Meaning of Alternative Dispute Resolution

The idea of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) is about the search for, and application
of, "non-conventional" peaceful methods of settling disputes and resolving conflict
situations using the least expensive methods, and in ways that satisfy the parties, as well
as ways that preserve relationships after a settlement might have been reached. ADR is
specially meant to serve as an alternative to the official conventional means of settling
disputes, mainly through litigation and the courts, but with preference for non-violence.

The conflict resolution and transformation spectrum consist of a range of options

employable for non-violent management of conflicts. These can be classified into two,
namely the voluntary processes and the involuntary processes. The voluntary processes
are those in which parties have some control over the outcome. They include fact finding,
in-depth research and case studies, facilitation, negotiation, conciliation, mediation and
brokerage. The involuntary processes, on the other hand, are more often than not, outside
the control of the parties to the conflict. Even though they may be non-violent, the third
parties who broker the process may sometimes hand down outcomes, which the parties
have to accept either in principle or in law. These options include arbitration, adjudication
and law enforcement (otherwise called crisis management) using the coercive apparatus
of state.

The African Traditional Dispute Resolution

Africa is represented by a diversity of cultural and religious practices. This diversity affects
the approaches to dispute and conflict resolution in the tradition setting. Generally, the
approach would tend to differ from the Western alternative dispute resolution in several
respects. Even then, in Africa itself, the approach may also differ from one culture to
another. The universal religions of Christianity and Islam have also impacted on the
approaches used in Africa in the same ways they have impacted on the culture of the
people. In Islamic societies, for instance, the religion comprehensively prescribes the
ways conflicts involving believers are to be resolved. In that case, pre-Islamic methods of
dispute resolution would be significantly eroded as typified by the situation in the Hausa
community of northern Nigeria.

The approaches also differ as one move from one level of conflict to another. There are
variations in conflicts involving property, land, family, marriage, communities, as well as
those between Muslim parties on the one hand, and then Muslim and non-Muslim parties
on the other. In some African societies, the universal religions have nearly completely
displaced the traditional methods of dispute resolution. In others, the principles of Islam
and Christianity have affected parts of the tradition, redefined and reshaped others, and
left some intact.

Broadly speaking, we may identify two categories of social formation in Africa. The first
are those characterised by centralised authority and state systems, headed by paramount
kings and chiefs, most of them dating back to centuries or decades before the inception
of colonial rule in Africa. Such authoritarian state systems existed in different parts of
Africa such as the emirates of Northern Nigeria, ancient Yoruba kingdom, ancient Asante
kingdom of Ghana, ancient Benin kingdom of Nigeria and the kingdoms of East, Central
and Southern Africa, etc. In other parts of Africa, there are paramount traditional leaders
known as chiefs or by some other names, as well as sub-chiefs. It is also possible to have
conglomerates of ethnic groups.

In this first category of political and social formation, because of the powers conferred
in the king, or the paramount traditional political leader, the dispute resolution system is
rigid. It takes the form of judicial arbitration. There is little negotiation and mediation
as understood in the Western sense. Here, there is the absence of a centralised authority,
and decisions are taken at family, clan and age grade levels. Councils of elders usually
made up of the most elderly and senior members of the community may also exist to
decide individual and community disputes. In this setting, dispute resolution is informal
with an air of democratisation in the process and outcome. The community feels and
owns the process. Dispute resolution is seen closely as a system of justice, to which the
community, rather than individual leaders, is at the centre. The second category of
state system in pre-colonial Africa may be classified as the
segmented system, otherwise called the 'egalitarian' political system. Some elements of
the process are described below:

The Setting
The setting for dispute resolutions in the segmented system would normally be a neutral
ground such as the village square, or an open hut where boundary dispute between
individuals, families, clans or villages is the issue, the boundary in contention could be
the venue of the meeting. In some instances, there could be deep spiritual dimensions,
and therefore, the need to invoke ancestral spirits to buttress the links Africans maintain
with their ancestors. The venue for the resolution of conflicts could also be village or
community adjudication centres such as the village square, market square, etc. Those that
have religious and spiritual dimensions, and which require ancestral intervention may
be conducted at a traditional community shrine. The choice of the venue highlights the
fact that the community is placed and considered above any individual or the social unit.
Simply put, African ADR attaches more premium to community interest than individual
needs and interest.

Gender
Typically, women are kept out of African shrines. Participants at African ADR would
normally, but depending on the sensitivities and peculiarities of each community, be adult
males. Decisions taken, however, are meant to include, and affect, women and children
also. In most cases the best awards and decisions favour adult males.

Process
The African ADR process would normally begin with general preparation. This involves
consultations, invitations sent to the appropriate persons, the gathering of materials for
rituals such as sacrificial animals, local brew for libation and for others to consume
thereafter, selection of a date that does not clash with events like market days or farming,
etc. the assemblage of the right caliber of participants is followed by a call for silence,
which either the town crier, or an elderly member of the community would make. Silence
is a representation of the sanctity and dignity of the people, the community, leadership
and the process itself. If the society is a religious one, as most African societies are at
the moment, there is invocation of pledges or reference to ancestors and ancestral spirits,
the pouring of libration, sacrifice of a live animal, etc. Among the Akan in Ghana, for
example, the river god of Antoa Nyama could be invoked to bring calamity on guilty
persons who want to lie or interfere with the process, or on enemies that may invoke the
wrath of the gods against the community as the case may be, and should that be necessary.

Christianity, Islam and modernisation are beginning to affect these processes, and it is
typical now to have either Christian or Muslim prayers, or both, said at the beginning of
such sessions. In some countries like Ghana, it is a combination of the Christian, Muslim
and African Traditional Religion prayers. Suffice it to add, however, that the saying of
prayers of the universal religions may imply that the resolution may be conducted using
their tenets. In yet some other settings, there is toasting of local wine, or the breaking of
kola by the most elderly persons. The Igbo society of Nigeria is a key example where
the breaking of kola, among other rites, conducted by the very senior members of the
community symbolises the commencement of any event.

Icebreakers and introductory sessions are also part of the African ADR process. These
would normally comprise of wise sayings, words of wisdom from elders and ancestors,
reference to the ancestors' good deeds, and proverbs. For instance, it is said, "the words
of our elders are words of wisdom. The wise man (and woman?) hears and gets wiser".
This helps to create links between the present and the past. Disputants may thereafter
swear to oaths and state their cases to the hearing of the elders. Other members of the
community present also listen to the stating of the cases by disputants.

At the end of the hearing or listening to the disputants, the elders have the duty to give their
verdict. They sometimes receive input from other members of the community present.
Whether or not such input is received, and the extent of the input, will depend on the
degree of masculinity in the community, and how gerontocratic the community polity is.
i;
The focus is to pass a verdict that promotes community solidarity, but with emphasis on
non-violence. At the end of the process, there could be other activities that follow. If the
event is at a shrine, the sacrificial lamb or chicken (black or white) will either be cooked
or roasted, and eaten by the most senior men. Similarly, the men will drink the wine or
local alcohol that accompanies the process and such drink will be brewed by women. The
peace deal is then assumed to be completed and sealed.

It is not in all cases that guilt must be established. In certain family disputes, third party
interveners anxious to find solutions to a situation may be required to look for solutions
without blaming either party. The aim will be to reconcile parties having swept most of
the issues in the conflict under the carpet.

Openness
The African ADR is conducted in the open also, as a means of ensuring that subsequent
generations in the community learn the process and value systems of ADR. In other
words, it is a socialisation process for the younger generations. This is why younger
persons do more of listening and observing of the seniors than participate or contribute.
Indeed, young people are typically not to be heard.

It can be seen that the African ADR differs significantly from the Western ADR, because
it combines negotiation, arbitration, adjudication and other methods put together. It also
does not have other elements of Western ADR such as confidentiality, the right and
freedom to disagree with the mediators, flexibility, emphasis on a win-win outcome,
gender sensitivity, trained and professional mediators, assurance of neutrality on the part
of mediators, tackling emotional issues, signing of agreements. Instead, the African ADR
is in many cases, open to every male member of the community. Some communities may
tolerate the presence of female members. Its focus is the community rather than
individual disputants, employing spiritual and community powers and traditions, gender
specific orientation, elders playing a critical role, and a verdict passed on who is wrong and
who is right, is that of the deciding authority and not by the parties themselves, etc. This
means that traditional African ADR is scarcely an individual's job. It is predominantly a
community responsibility. Even in structured societies, the chief presides over
problem-solving along with others that support him. A leader may only facilitate the
process, but it is most typically a group responsibility.
The Western Alternative Dispute Resolution
In the Western sense, like in the African sense, conflict management seeks to promote
the use of non-violent approaches to conflict. These processes for conflict management
are not by any means peculiar to the Western culture, but are also shared by other
cultures globally based on our shared humanity. Thus, Africans apply a combination
of the traditional and Western ADR methods. It is only for emphasis and the details in
application of the methods that variations will be found, but the principles may tend to be
universal. We shall now consider the elements of the collaborative process for conflict
management. (i) Grassroots Community-Based Activities
In many African settings, proactive activities help to de-escalate potential conflict,
and to keep conflicts from becoming manifest. Long help traditions and cultures
which are rich, promote the human spirit, community life, togetherness and clustering j
of groups, including their neighbours, in such ways that conflict is downplayed.
For instance, in Ghana, initiation rites and puberty festivities for young people,
marriage ceremonies, the sharing and community markets, weddings, death and the
accompanying mourning rites, are all community-based. It is rare to find out any of
these are left to individuals, to families or even clans. The whole community is
involved. These activities and occurrences create social bonding in ways that prevent
dysfunctional conflicts. The problem faced with this factor's contribution to conflict
prevention is that it is often taken for granted and hardly documented as a
contributor to peace. However, when community solidarity is lost to violent conflict,
as was the case in the conflict between the Abudu and Andani or between the
Mamprusi and the Kusasi, all in Northern Ghana, for instance, the importance of
such community virtues begins to get recognised.

(ii) Good Governance

Good governance is a controversial concept, especially to the governing elite in
Africa, which is reluctantly to be held accountable. Yet, it is at the heart of the
process of conflict prevention. Indeed, conflict prevention through proactive
measures has been known to be the best method of resolving conflicts.
 Good governance may be defined as the running of the affairs of government
in positive and progressive manners beneficial to the governed, and which
delivers the public goods. It is a relative term to which there is no consensus,
but most will agree that, it is characterised by democratisation, maintenance of
law and order, accountability and transparency, responsiveness on the part of
government, due process, the rule of law, competence, separation and
devolution of powers, a free press and a free virile civil society arena,
competition for power and the existence of a credible opposition, the respect
for minority rights among other human rights, etc. Good governance helps to
defuse tensions and remove problems as they evolve. Decision makers take
the rights decisions as and when they are due. In so doing, the rulers gain the
support of the citizenry. In many African countries, conflicts are state and
government-generated, as a result of the insensitivity and incompetence of the
regimes on the continent. One of the consequences of such public actions is
that they easily lead to the escalation of major cries because the wrong
decisions were taken, or not taken at all. Democracy, as opposed to
dictatorship, is an ideal setting for the practice of good governance. Sadly in
many African states, democracy is mistaken for elective governments,
multi-party politics and longevity of regimes. There are many dictatorial
democracies in Africa. Such regimes do not promote and practise good
governance. These are the conflict generators of the African continent.

(iii) Communication
This in this context is the process of sharing and exchanging information
between individuals, groups, and potential parties in a conflict situation. It is
also the process of interacting and relating with others, meaning that parties to
a conflict situation still talk. The exchange and sharing of information can
help to remove doubt, suspicion and contribute to the process of confidence
building. These are essential ingredients of peace building. Communication
relates to the presence and sharing of accurate information about a conflict
situation, being able to talk about feelings and concerns of parties, speaking
about what parties would like to change, and discussing the nature and type of
conflict, touching on the positions, interests, needs and fears of parties. Poor
communication or the absence of communication about
 ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION

these and other subjects, or a misinterpretation of the needs and feelings of one
i another by conflict parties, can easily lead to the escalation of conflict. The role
of communication in conflict prevention and crisis management stems from the
fact that most conflicts have to do with perceptions, assumptions, stereotypes and
attitudes, which have been developed by conflict parties vis-a-vis others.

Communication assumed increased significance following the Cuban Missile Crisis

iin 1962. The Cuban Missile Crisis was a major confrontation during the Cold War
between the United States and the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR),
over the issue of Soviet-supplied missile installations in Cuba. It was considered
by many as the closet the world has approached to nuclear war. The crisis began
when the United States discovered that Cuba had secretly installed Soviet missiles
able to carry nuclear weapons. These missiles were capable of hitting targets across
most of the United States. The discovery led to a tense standoff over several days as
the United States imposed a naval blockade of Cuba and demanded that the USSR
remove the missiles. At the end of the crisis, the two nuclear powers decided to
keep communication channels open, clarify intermediaries (Schelling, 1963). It was
also decided to open the "hotline", a direct communication line between Moscow
and Washington. It brought to the fore, the fact that the absence of information over
the intentions, movements and plans of both countries created deep anxiety capable
of creating a major explosion.

Even though the Cuban Missile Crisis did not invent the use of communication in
conflict and crisis management; it helped to popularise it at the international level.
Communication has come to represent a key strategy of conflict management,
such as collaboration, negotiation and dialogue; as well as third party interventions
like mediation, conciliation, arbitration, and adjudication, is largely dependent on
effective communication. What third-party interveners do is to bring about an
enhanced process of "controlled communication" (Burton, 1965) between parties
in iany given conflict. This keeps the parties seeing each other, interacting with
each other and taking to each other about their problem, with a view to generating
workable solutions to the issues in the conflict. Once communication is lost, parties
 ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION

risk getting into deeper crisis that cannot be easily resolved. Thus, communication
is invaluable for conflict prevention in the first instance, and then for conflict
resolution.

(iv) Collaboration
The collaboration process is one in which parties work together on their own to
resolve problems through constructive dialogue or other activities like joint projects,
sharing of community schools and health centres, markets, bridges and culverts, as
well as other utilities, etc. Collaboration helps to build trust, confidence and mutual
respect. It works on the basis of conflict parties, either potential or actual, working
together on a number of identified common themes and issues, or projects, which
intensify communication and activities between them. It takes place at various
levels, from the inter-personal to the group, community, national, regional to the
international or universal levels. The assumption is that those who collaborate, and
those who do things together, are likely to build more friendship and mutual respect
among themselves than those who do not. This approach is one of the base methods
of maintaining friendly relations, and is least costly. It is expected that those
collaborating are, most of the time, enjoying the relationship, and that cooperation
in one area can lead to collaboration in other areas. This could ultimately create a
chain of collaborative activities that support peace building. Like communication,
collaboration does not involve a third-party, and so is within the reach and control
of the participating parties.

(v) Negotiation
Fisher et al (2000:115) define negotiation as "....a structured process of dialogue
between conflicting parties about issues in which their opinions differ". Miall,
Ramsbotham and Woodhouse (1999:21) define negotiation as "the process whereby
the parties within the conflict seek to settle or resolve their conflicts". The University
for Peace sees negotiation as: "communication, usually governed by pre-established
procedures, between representatives of parties involved in a conflict or dispute"
(Miller, 2003:25). Thus, negotiation is a direct process of dialogue and discussion
taking place between at least, two parties who are faced with a conflict situation or
a dispute. Both parties come to the realisation that they have a problem, and both
 ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION

are aware that by talking to each other, they can find a solution to the problem. The
benefits of compromised solution, it is believed, outweigh the losses arising from
refusal to negotiate. The goal of negotiation, according to Jeong (2000:168), is "... to
reach agreement through joint decision making between parties".

From the definitions of negotiation offered, it can be seen that communication is

critical to the process. Thus, it can take place only when there is communication
between parties. At later stages of conflict where conflict might have escalated and
communication is threatened, or has stopped, negotiation becomes harder. Negotiation
typically takes place during the early stages of conflict when there is communication
between parties is existent and good, or at the de-escalation point when communication
has been restored.

There are two types of negotiation; the first is positional negotiation, while the second
is collaborative negotiation. Positional negotiation is based on the aggressive pursuit of
interest by parties, and is typically adversarial and competitive. Parties make demands
that are inconsiderate of the interests and needs of others, and this makes it difficult for
these interests to be met. Parties also perceive themselves to be in competition. The
desire will then be to win, instead of working towards a mutually beneficial outcome.
Thus, the demands of one party can be met only to the detriment of the other. Parties tend
to stubbornly adhere to their positions, and one side seems to dominate the negotiation.
Positional negotiations break down easily.

Collaborative or constructive negotiation, on the other hand, is a process where parties

try to educate each other about their needs and concerns, and both search for the best ways
to solve their problems in ways that the interests and fears of both or all parties are met.
The process is collaborative in principle and the emphasis is on mutual understanding
and feeling, all aimed at building a sustainable relationship. In practice, it may not be as
simple as the models presented, because to the extent that negotiation is about the
interest of parties, it can be more complex than this. It is also a cheap assumption to
believe that all parties that come to negotiation are as such, interested in reaching a
solution. Negotiation seems to have universal
 ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION

application as a principle of conflict management based on dialogue. People in all

societies and cultures across the worlds talk and negotiate their interests. There are,
however, cultural peculiarities in terms of the setting, preparatory stage, the actual
interaction phase, and the follow up. In the African context, for instance, there are
cultural values that may hinder negotiation. These could include factors like age
difference, the perceptions of the wider community, the psychological impact of the
outcomes from negotiation, relationship and the subject matter. Negotiation is a key
approach to the peaceful resolution of disputes and conflicts that may arise among
parties. It is also within the reach and control of parties, like communication and
collaboration, because there are no third parties involved.

(vi) Conciliation
Conciliation is a close to mediation. It is a third party activity, which covers
intermediary efforts aimed at persuading the parties to a conflict to work towards a
peaceful solution. Conciliation involves facilitation. The University for Peace sees
conciliation in the following way:
The voluntary referral of a conflict to a neutral external party (in the
form of an unofficial commission) which either suggests a non-binding
settlement or conduct explorations to facilitate more structures or
techniques of conflict resolution. The latter can include confidential
discussions with the disputants or assistance during a pre-negotiation
phase (Miller, 2003: 6-7). The conciliator communicates separately with
parties and provides the assistance needed from a neutral third party. A
key aim of conciliation is to reduce tensions between parties in a conflict
situation. Conciliation provides the vital background through several
complex activities, which in turn supports higher profile events like
mediation.

(vii) Mediation
Mediation has been presented by the United Nations University for peace as: "the
voluntary, informal, non-binding process undertaken by an external party that
fosters the settlement of differences or demands between directly invested parties"
 ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION

(Miller, 2003:23). Miall, Ramsbotham and Woodhouse (1999:22) see mediation as "the
intervention of a third party; it is a voluntary process in which the parties retain control over
the outcome (pure mediation), although it may include positive and negative
inducements (mediation with muscle)."

Thus, mediation is assistance by a third party where the parties to a conflict admit that
they have a problem which they are both committed to solving, but in which the
mediator manages a negotiation process, but does not impose a solution on the parties. It
is a voluntary process. Mediation is a common skill that many people have, but which
they hardly realise they do. When two friends have a disagreement, for instance and the
line of communication is broken, a common friend could be a mediator in the
relationship. This can move on to higher levels of relationship at the group,
community and international levels. The objective of mediation is to help parties to a
conflict, within an environment of controlled communication, to reach solutions to
their problems. Mediation involves dialogue, but it is different because of the presence
of a third party. At the stage of dialogue, parties may still be in position to maintain
communication on their own, by themselves.

The role of the mediator is to create the enabling environment for the parties to carry out
dialogue sessions leading to the resolution of a pending conflict. Generally, the mediator
works on communication between parties, by working on common themes and drawing
attention to neglected points and is a confidant to the parties, as well as a reconcilor. The
mediator helps parties to identify and arrive at common grounds with a view to
overcoming their fears and satisfying their real needs. The mediator needs to enjoy the
confidence of the parties to the conflict. In addition, there is need to be objective,
neutral, balanced, supportive, non-judgmental and astute in questioning; and to try to
dive the parties towards win-win as opposed to win-lose outcomes.

Mediation is a popular process in the Western context of conflict management. It is

quite productive and helpful in settling conflicts that would have otherwise escalated
easily. In the African sense, however, some of the principal characteristics
 ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION

of mediation are absent; Africans do more of arbitration (discussed below) in

traditional setting than mediation. Yet, mediation is gaining increasing significance
in Africa as a result of the funding of African NGO's by Western donor funds and
other Western NGOs.

Basic Principles Governing Mediation

The basic principles on mediation include the following:
(v) The mediator should be acceptable to both parties to ensure maximum co-
operation from them.
(vi) The mediator should ensure that the conflict parties communicate again, that
is, he or she must ensure that the communicating link is restored.
(vii) Mediators must be involved with all parties. For example, mediators must
visit and listen to all sides of the conflict. That is, visiting those who are
accused and those who have suffered. It can also take the form of attending
social programmes such as funeral rites organised by all sides.
(viii) The mediator must be neutral, that is, must not take sides with any of the
parties.
(ix) He or she must respect both parties.
(x) Mediators must guide and control the mediation process but must avoid
trying to direct the content of the discussion.
(xi) Options for resolving the conflict must come from the parties themselves.
(xii) It is important that greater care is exercised by the mediator not to say or do
anything that would lead to the loss of interest in the resolution process by
both or any of the parties.

(viii) Arbitration
This is another type of third party intervention that is a step higher than mediation
in the conflict management process. The parties to a conflict, who decide to use
arbitration, even though they choose a non-violent method of settling their disputes
lose more control over their situation than those who select mediation and other
lower levels of intervention. By definition, arbitration is the use and assistance
of a neutral third party in conflict, who hears the evidence from both parties, and
 ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION

thereafter renders a decision, usually called an award, which is expected to be

binding on the parties.

Arbitration is similar to mediation, and close to adjudication, but different from

both. It is different from mediation in the sense that, the decisions of the arbitrator
are binding, while the mediator refrains from reaching or providing any decisions,
whatever the weight of the evidence that might have been gathered in the mediation
process. It is different from litigation in the sense that it is done outside the courts,
and its enforcement mechanisms differ from those of court judgments.

Those who favour arbitration above litigation argue that, it permits the parties to a
dispute to select the arbiter they would wish to sit over their case, something not
enjoyed by litigation. However, its critics point to the cost involved, arguing that in
the end analysis, it may not be cheaper than going to court.

As stated earlier, much of third party intervention in traditional African societies is

done through arbitration. Arbitrators fulfill this role by virtue of the positions of
authority they occupy in the society. They could be traditional leaders in the family,
clan, village, community ethnic group, etc. Arbitration may be done in the context
Of the wider community, or with just the parties involved in a situation. The parties
and witnesses may be listened to, and then a decision is made about who is right
and who is wrong, followed by what is to be done. There is a desire to ensure that
the outcome in any arbitration process is a fair one. There is no exclusivity in these
methods of conflict management. Most of them have properties of mediation and
adjudication. These differences are for analytical purposes.

(ix) Adjudication
Adjudication is another non-violent method of conflict management. This involves
the use of the courts and litigation processes. Parties to a dispute may choose instead
to take their case to a court of law, before a judge of competent jurisdiction. Legal
counsels may represent them. At the end of the process, the court gives a judgment.
The judgment is legally binding on both parties. The judgment will be
further
 ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION

enforced, where necessary, by the law enforcement agencies of the state.Like

arbitration, adjudication is, or at least, is expected to be a peaceful means of
resolving conflict and disputes. However, its peace is only relative. This is
because litigation tends to destroy trust, love, respect and other forms of confidence
between parties. It increases suspicion and the bitterness of litigation lingers on for
a long time after the judgment must have been given. Litigations end in win-lose
outcomes, where the winner appears to take all, and the loser ends up with nothing.
That way, the bitterness stays. In addition, litigations take quite a long time to
dispose of, and they are expensive. They are also totally outside the control of the
conflicting parties in every respect. Parties cannot decide how long they take, and
cannot choose the nature of the outcome.

(x) Crisis Management

A crisis is an extreme situation of conflict, which has reached a turning point,
where critical decisions have to be taken or else the conflict escalates to a point
of extreme violence. Sometimes, a crisis is a degenerated state of conflict, where
threats to human security, intense violence characterised by fighting, death, injury
large-scale displacement of populations, etc. occur. Once a crisis occurs, it is the
responsibility of the government of a state to de-escalate the situation and bring a
cessation to violence. This may be done through various means, including the use
of the coercive state apparatus, where necessary. More often than not, a significant
part of crisis management is left to government. This is because communication is
threatened, and often disrupted. It is only until communication is restored through
normalcy, that parties may resume their usual activities.

In the maintenance of crisis situations, many ugly situations have happened in

Africa. Sometimes, crisis have consumed the state and led to state collapse, as
evident in the cases of Somalia, Rwanda, Liberia and Sierra Leone. There have been
no governments capable of ending the crisis situations. The result is the escalation
of violence marked by atrocities and crimes committed against humanity in many
of the instances.
 ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION

In some other cases, crisis management is a statement to the effect that there has
been a breakdown of law and order. The necessary agencies of law and order are,
therefore, used to contain such situations. These include the police and the armed
forces. When this happens the parties lose control of the situation. They can no
longer resolve the conflict through non-violent means until normalcy has been
restored. The introduction of the police and other law enforcement authorities may
call for the use of extraordinary measures, including force to restore law and order.
This could further lead to human rights violations of various descriptions. African
military and police services sometimes display highhandedness, excesses and
unprofessional conduct in these exercises. The summary of the crisis state is that its
resolution is sometimes unpleasant, and could be quite violent. At other times, it
could consume the parties to the conflict themselves.

Other Methods of Conflict Resolution

Other methods of conflict resolution include the following:
(i) Peace Keeping
The use of peace keeping as a method of conflict resolution is to keep warring
factions apart in order to prevent violent confrontations. Peace keeping may
include the provision of public education, in churches, mosques, markets and
other public places on the need for the people to avoid acts that will aggravate
the conflicts and the need for them to live in peace. In West Africa and Africa
in general, peace keepers have been mobilised to undertake peace keeping
missions in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cote dTvoire, etc. In addition, peace
keepers are found in other parts of the world such as Lebanon, Cambodia,
Somalia and the Dafur Region in Sudan.

(ii) Peace Enforcement

Peace enforcement is a mandate given to peace keepers to enforce peace by
arresting people who breach the peace process to restore law and order. It is
important to note that, in peace keeping missions, the combatants or the
conflicting parties are obliged to observe certain rules and regulations to ease
 ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION

tension. In situations where any of the conflicting parties or certain individuals

become lawless and refuse to conduct themselves according to the rules and
regulations which guide the peace process, they may be arrested to restore peace
and order. This action is taken to enforce peace. Peace enforcement strategies
may include the imposition of curfew in conflict areas or zones, especially, when
the conflicting parties or combatants refuse to co-operate with peace keepers and
break the rules and regulations governing the peace process with impunity.
 CHAPTER
ELEVEN

PEACE
EDUCATION

The Meaning of Peace

Peace is generally defined as the absence of war, fear, conflict, anxiety, suffering and
violence, and about peaceful coexistence. It is primarily concerned with creating and
maintaining a just order in society and the resolution of conflict by non-violent means. In
general, six meanings of peace are agreed on by many peace researchers including; peace
as the absence of war (absence of direct violence), peace as justice and development
(absence of structural violence), peace as respect and tolerance between people, peace as
Gaia ( balance in and with the ecospherc), inner peace (spiritual peace) and peace as
"wholeness" and 'making whole'.

The Norwegian peace theorist, Johan Galtung, distinguishes three types of violence
relevant to the understanding of peace and conditions that create unpeaceful situations or
'peacefulness'. Direct violence, i.e., physical, emotional and psychological violence;
structural violence, i.e., deliberate policies and structures that cause human sufferings,
death and harm, and cultural violence, i.e., cultural norms and practices that create
discrimination, injustice and human suffering. Galtung, in broadening the definition for
peace, also outlines two dimensions of peace: 'negative peace', i.e., the absence of direct
violence, war, fear and conflicts at individual, national, regional and international levels;
and 'positive peace', i.e., the absence of unjust structures, unequal relationships, justice
and inner peace at individual level.

It is important to point out that, different cultures and civilisations have different
interpretations and conceptions of peace. For example, Islam talks about 'Salaam'meaning
peace, the Jewish 'Shalom', in the Gandhian tradition - 'Ahimsa' and in the African
tradition - 'Ubuntu'. Also, the particular historical and political context of a country and
community determines their perceptions of peace. For example, a society fragmented and
polarised by perpetual war. Similarly, a political community driven by unjust structures
and policies will equate peace with justice and freedom. People suffering material
deprivation and poverty will inevitably perceive peace in terms of equity, development
and access to existencial necessities of life.
Peace Education
According to the UNESCO, since wars originate from the minds of human beings, it is
the same minds that the defences of peace must be constructed. This means that deliberate
effort must be made to ensure that everyone is educated and enlightened about peace and
young persons made vanguards of peace. In some African countries such as Angola,
Mozambique, Liberia, Rwanda and Sierra Leone and young persons have been repeatedly
used as instrument to fight wars for reasons which they have very little knowledge about.
In such countries, the phenomenon of child soldiering became a menace that needed to
be tackled. There is, therefore, the need for peace education which sets out to redress this
culture of violence and aggression and to inculcate values of non-violent change among
young persons and adults alike. It opens up people's eyes and minds to see and understand
actions taken and their consequences. Children and young persons have to know what
peace is and guard themselves against embracing or being used to create violence. Early
peace education is vital in making it life- long for all citizens of all ages in all countries
of the world. Experience is not always the best teacher; consequently, children and young
persons must not be exposed to war and violence before they learn to live in peace.

The Meaning of Peace Education

Peace education is a deliberate attempt to educate children and adults in the dynamics of
conflicts and the promotion of peacemaking skills in homes, schools and communities
throughout the world, using all the channels and instruments of socialisation. It provides
education for global and focuses on direct, organised violence, particularly the institutions
of war and armed conflicts. Peace education concerns itself with human dignity and human
rights with specific reference to such values as economic equity, political participation,
ecological balance and particularly, the principles fundamental to international human
rights standards. Peace education concerns itself with global ethics, gender issues
and various aspects of cultural balance. Overall, peace education is an investment in
the younger generations, and attests to the fact that by educating younger minds in the
virtues of peace, the skills of conflict analysis and management, identification of conflicts
and sources of conflicts, etc, a more peaceable future could be secured for humanity.
Holistically, peace education openly acknowledges its purpose as education to facilitate
the achievement of peace and related sets of social values, largely through learning to
recognise, confront and practise alternative multiple forms of violence.

Peace education is an integral part of the work of the United Nations. Through teaching
and learning, peace education enlightens students and adults on the ills which confront
humans on daily basis. These dehumanising ills which are caused by the inhumanity of
some people include discrimination on the basis of sex, race, religion, poverty, prejudices,
violence and war, etc. but peace education will create a culture of peace based upon
fundamental scientific and ethical principles.

Jane Adam, 1931 Nobel peace prize-winner, while receiving her award, said "one
generation after another has depended on its young". This statement indicates that peace
education is really needed as a necessary tool that should be used and encouraged among
generations of the young. Students need to be taught the right path to love, harmony and
peace for peace begins in our heart and begins from every person.

Using School Subjects for Teaching Peace Education

The use of school subjects for teaching peace education is now the subject of UN policy,
and other international bodies. The objectives of peace education include developing
students' capacity for critical thinking, inquiry and reflective SKILLS which would
enable them not only to understand obstacles to peace but more importantly to develop
skills and abilities to confront these issues, develop alternatives and device and implement
strategies for the realisation of the alternatives. The subjects which can promote the
teaching of peace include the following:
(i) Religion: Since most world religions have peace entrenched in their holy books,
religion can easily be used as instrument for peace education among young
persons as well as other followers and adherents. Members of different faiths
should be taught to respect one another's opinions and religious beliefs. There
should be unity and respect in the diversity of religions. Religions should teach
and promote the virtues of peace, forgiveness, reconciliation, love, respect for life
and other values that promote violent change. Failing to do this, religions have
also been known to have the capacity to socialise and indoctrinate young persons
into vicious cycles of hate and violence. This can and should be reversed.
(iii) Geography: All human beings share basic fundamental things which have been
endowed by nature. This is clearly seen in the ability of humans to live on earth,
share the beauty and resources of the earth and protect it for its suitability and the
good of generations yet unborn. This is regardless of which part of the earth on
which one lives. Variety, they say is in the spice of life, meaning that people differ
but should be able to learn each other's cultures, backgrounds, exposures or the
lack of it without prejudice.

(iv) History: Historically, we should respond to the various historical events in the
past which have tended to divide rather than unite us. In this case, our experience
should not be the best teacher but rather we should learn from the mistakes of
others. History has too many lessons of the inhumanity of some people propelled
by violent conflicts. West Africa is a rich case study where the violence unleashed
on innocent civilians in the Nigerian civil war, the conflicts in Liberia, Sierra
Leone, parts of Northern Ghana, Cote d'lvoire, Guinea and Mali, among others,
can constitute rich case studies for the teaching of peace education. The lessons
of history as part of peace education should be to expose the ills of the past and
draw attention to the potential good in non-violent alternatives.

(v) Science: Science is a subject avails us with the needs and aspirations of human
beings. This knowledge exposes all to the requirements of all beings which
should make us have respect for others. It can become an important aspect of
peace education at the primary and secondary school levels.

(vi) Music: Music can also be used to teach peace education. Young people can
differentiate between good music and bad music, between the musical notes and
instruments that are in harmony and those that are riotous. As good music that is
sweet to the ear and soothing to the soul is likened to peace, so is bad music
likened to conflict.

(vii) Fine Art: Fine art coming in the form of drawings, paintings, designs cartoons,
etc. also helps to graphically portray the message of peace and conflict. The
 creativity in art students can help to depict the ills of war, the beauty of peace and
how young persons may be channelled to love and pursue non-violence.

Types of Peace Education

Education for peace sets out to let people see that we do have choices to every action.
It is possible for us all to live in harmony with one another, and with the planet. People
cannot remain passive to achieve peace, but active participants in the quest for peace.
Participation can be in the form of any of the following:
(i) As a long-term broad-based programme focusing on important problems
and trends of a society and promoting mostly through school and colleges as
possible peace

(ii) As a more focused activity aimed at addressing or preventing a specific conflict

Education for peace could be formal or informal and which are explained below:

Formal Peace Education

Formal peace education can be incorporated into the school curriculum and taught within
many school subject areas including religion, geography, history, science, social studies,
literature, drama, music, art and mathematics. In formal peace education, the following
programmes are emphasised:
(i) Knowledge: Since the saying goes that, "knowledge is power" students should
know the following about: themselves and others; the poor and the rich; of peace
and conflict; our environment and the world tomorrow.

(a) Ourselves and others: We should learn about our own society and culture and our
place within it. It is not enough to know our own society and be ignorant of other
societies and their cultures around us. It does not matter whether other cultures are
minorities. That knowledge helps us gain an insight into the life style of others and
thereby help us appreciate diversity and learn to live with others form such diverse
societies.

(b) Rich and poor: All fingers are not the same; so also is the distribution of
 wealth to different strata of our society. Power is another area where there
is disparity of distribution. Such inequalities have been the major causes
of conflicts in many areas within and between countries. Governments of
countries have the responsibility of ensuring that power and wealth are shared
equitably as much as possible.

(c) Our environment; Knowledge of our basic history, geography and ecology of
the earth is very important as a source of world peace. Geographically, all humans
share basic fundamental things which have been endowed to us by nature. This is
clearly seen in the ability of all human beings to live on earth. This is regardless of
which part of the world we occupy.

(d) The world tomorrow; The youths as the leaders of tomorrow have the
responsibility of investigating and reflecting on a variety of possible futures not only
personally, locally, nationally but also for the world as a whole.

(ii) Attitudes; Positive attitudes are very necessary for the attainment of peace. Such
attitudes affect our responses to conflict and the ways we look at and do things.

(a) Human dignity: All religions value human life. Students should have the sense
of worth for their own lives and that of others. Do unto others as you would want
them to do to you, is the golden rule. This also includes respect for other cultures,
people's social and family backgrounds.

(b) Curiosity and appreciation of other's culture: Students are expected to be

educated in reading, writing arid in arithmetic, as well as in finding out more about
issues related to living in a multi-cultural society and interdependent world.
Valuing and respecting the culture of others should be a virtue taught to young
persons.

(c) Empathy: Knowing and feeling what others feel, particularly the cultural
feelings, is important for students. Students should be willing to imagine the
feelings and viewpoint of others.

(d) Justice and fairness: Genuine democratic principles and processes at local,
national and international levels should be promoted for a more just world.
 The relationship between injustice and conflict, the fact that we all love justice,
and should allow others to also enjoy justice is an invaluable lesson.

(iii)Skills: Peace is built over time, through process of encounter and reflection that
address not only practical issues of conflict but also deeper issues of relationships,
human development and structural realities. Peace education requires that the
students acquire skills which will equip them to be peace builders. Such skills
include the following:

(a) Enquiry; Students should be able to find out and record information about world
issues from a variety of sources including printed and audio-visual and through
interviews with people.

(b) Communication skills and tools; Students should have good communication
skills such as listening and being able to paraphrase and summarise what they have
heard without distorting the main facts. They should be able to describe and explain
their ideas about the world in a variety of ways. In writing, in discussions, within
various art forms and with members of other groups and cultures.

(c) Grasping concepts; Students should be able to understand certain basic concepts
relating to world society, to use these concepts to make generalisation, support and test
them.

(d) Critical thinking; Students should be able to approach issues with an open and
critical mind and change their ideas when superior ideas come up so they can learn
more. This way, dogmas and dangerous ways of doing things which may be embedded
in culture can be questioned.

(e) Political skills: Students should be developing the ability to influence

decision-making at local, national and international levels.
Informal Peace Education
Schools and colleges are not the only places where one can acquire knowledge. Much
peace education takes place in informal setting where people gather for work or leisure,
through socialisation and initiation processes within the community. In family settings,
etc. just as in schools, informal peace education primarily addresses attitudes and aims to
have a direct impact on personal behaviour. Peace education, in both formal and informal
settings, require more relaxed atmosphere than standard lecturer/pupils relationship. The
setting needs a more open and inviting arrangement where people can be encouraged
to embark on the difficult task of looking at issues that are important to them, reflecting
on their own behaviour or attitude and generating alternatives for the future. Peace
education can help people to become aware of bias and prejudice in themselves and their
society.

Informal peace education can tackle important issues in almost an infinite number of
ways. It can take the form of a workshop. Items to discuss could include publishing story
books for children, designing posters, distributing peace badges and printing of T-shirts
and posters with peace messages.

One important way of informal peace education is using folk language and identifying all
proverbs, old poems and anecdotes that promote peace. This raises people's awareness
of how language can shape attitudes and behaviours and even come up with proposals to
make the language more peace sensitive.

The Culture of Peace Education

A culture of peace is built form values, attitudes, behaviours and ways of life based on
non-violence, respect for life, liberty, justices, solidarity, tolerance, human rights, equality
between men and women, appreciation of cultural diversity, and respect for others. In a
culture of peace, power grows not from the barrel of a gun but from participation, dialogue,
and cooperation. A culture of peace rejects violence in all its forms, including war and the
culture of war. It replaces domination and exploitation by the strong over the weak with
fairness through respect for the rights of everyone both economically and politically. It
protects the rights of the handicapped, the elderly and the socially disadvantaged.
The movement for a culture of peace brings together the rich diversity of lives, together
in an atmosphere marked by inter-cultural understanding, tolerance and solidarity. Where
there are contradictions such as xenophobia, racism or designating others as enemies,
they are resolved through non-violent means.
A culture of peace cannot be imposed from outside. It is a process that grows out of the
beliefs and actions of the people themselves and develops differently in each country
and region, depending upon its history, culture and traditions (Fish, Abdi, Ludin, Smith,
Williams & Williams 2000).

A culture of peace will be achieved when citizens of the world understand global problems,
have skills to resolve conflicts, struggle for justice and non-violence, live by international
standards of human rights, equally appreciate cultural diversity and respect others, respect
life, liberty, justice, solidarity, human rights and culture, equity between men and women,
and the rights of the child. The culture of peace is thus going to be discussed under the
following headings:

(i) The respect for life: Since most human beings like themselves, such should be
accorded other fellow beings that have the same feelings. All holy books teach
about the sanctity of life.

(ii) Liberty: Nobody wants to live in bondage. People need to have their liberty in as
much as others' rights and freedoms are not impeded by their liberty. When liberty
is tampered with, a crisis ensues.

(iii) Justice: There is no talking about peace without talking about justice and for
peace to abound there must be individual and social justice. Justice that focuses
on healing of social relationships and attempts to build the types of society that
reflects the value of those who suffer and so brings about peace. But if justice is
seen as retribution or revenge for what has been done, it then becomes difficult
to see how the pursuit of justice is not contradicted by the concept of mercy, and
amnesty in particular.

(iv) Human Rights: Douzinas, (1996:119) in Jeong (2000), sees human rights
as "Universal reason and assertion of common humanity". Their
application
undoubtedly reflects the uniqueness of each separate situation. The rights of all actual
and potential parties to a conflict, and indeed every person, must not be infringed upon.
When rights are denied or deprived, conflict becomes likely.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations in 1948 is a
statement affirming the dignity and rights of all human beings. It is based on principles
expressed in the UN charter. The declaration is the first section of a proposed three-part
international covenant, or agreement, on human rights. When adopted, the covenant will
bind the participating nations in the same way as any international treaty. The two other
sections are, on political and civil rights and the other on economic, social and cultural
rights.

The rights described in 30 articles, some of which are the rights to life, liberty, and
security of a person to freedom of conscience, religion, opinion, expression, association,
and assembly to freedom from arbitrary arrest, to fair and impartial trial, to freedom from
interference in privacy, home or correspondence, to nationality, to secure society and
adequate standard of living, to education, to rest and leisure. The declaration also affirms
the right of everyone to own property, to be presumed innocent until proven guilty, to
travel from a home country at will and return at will, to work under favourable conditions.
receive equal pay for equal work and join labour unions at will; to marry and raise a
family; and to participate in government and social life of the community. In 1956, the
United Nations requested for progress reports on human rights every three years from
member nations. In 1950, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed December
10, the anniversary of the 1948 adoption of the declaration, as Human Rights Day.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights attempts to provide a basis for establishing
a common set of values and a common measure for social justice, regardless of culture or
context. But these are often contested. Some argue that the concept of human rights is
intrinsically Western and, therefore, not of any great significance with respect to their own
cultural situation. They say rights are not universal and absolute, but must be considered
in relation to culturally accepted ways of relating and acting. Human rights are concerned
with the dignity of the individual - level of self esteem that secures personal identity and
promotes human community.
The development of the international framework of human rights has been influenced by
the political context of the time. The two international covenants (addressing civil and
political rights on the one hand and economic social and cultural rights on the other)
become representative of the different priorities of West and East respectively in the years
of the Cold War. There are three generations of rights and discussed below:
(i) First generation rights: This reflects a western tradition liberal view of rights
to their individuals in society of life, liberty and freedom of opinions and
expression.

(ii) Second generation rights: Economic, social and cultural rights include rights
to basic necessities such as food and shelter, and to social services such as
health and education. The collapse of the Eastern block countries has led to an
erosion of these rights which were previously guaranteed by the state.

(iii)Third generation or collective rights: Those affected are the marginalised

group. There is still a debate whether these rights apply to everyone and, if
they are genuine rights, who arc those responsible for enforcing them?
Internationally, individual states who accept them are responsible for its
implementation.

Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)

"Rights", according to the Encarta Dictionary (1999), is the entitlements to certain kinds
of treatments based on one's status. Also, a child (according to Encarta) is a young
human being between birth and puberty, or somebody under a legally specified age who
is considered not to be legally responsible for his or her actions. Some children are
vulnerable to being abused by or exploited by adults. Thus, many institutions have laid
down some rules and regulations to protect the child's rights.

In 1959, the United Nations adopted the declaration of the rights of the child, which
affirmed the rights of children everywhere to receive adequate care from their parents
and the community. The United Nations convention on the rights of the child, adopted in
1989, attempts to consolidate international law on the basic rights of children to survival,
education, and protection from abuse and exploitation. Ghana has adopted the Convention
on the Rights of the Child, and this has also been domesticated. It is a major way forward
in promoting the rights of the child.
From the analysis so far, the promotion of peace education has become a global challenge,
and different groups and organisations all over the world are involved in its promotion.
Some of the institutions are highlighted below:

The United Nations (UN)

The United Nations is an international organisation of countries created to promote world
peace and cooperation. The UN was founded after World War II ended in 1945. Its
mission is to maintain world peace, develop good relations between countries, promote
cooperation in solving the world's problems and encourage respect for human rights.

Peace education was started as a method of dealing with the conflicts facing humanity
during the inter-war years. The United Nations established "Save succeeding generation
from the scourge of war" to "reaffirm faith in the dignity and worth of the human person
and in the equal rights of men and women", to "establish conditions under which justice
and reform, the obligation arising from treaties and other sources of international law
can be maintained" to "promote social progress and better standards of life in larger
freedom". The United Nations declared the year 2000 as international decade for the
culture of peace and non-violence for the children of the world (2000-2010).

Peace Education Foundation (PEF)

In accordance with article 26 of the declaration of human rights, PEF is education that is
directed to the full development of human personality and to strengthen respect for human
rights and fundamental freedom. It promotes understanding, tolerance and friendship
among all nations; racial or religious groups and furthers the activities of the United
Nations for the maintenance of peace.

United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)

United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) was founded by the UN in 1946 to provide
food, clothing and rehabilitative programme to European children brutalised by World
War II (1939 -1945). In 1950 the UN made the UNICEF responsible for improving the
welfare of all children worldwide. The organisation pursues the following goals:

(i) To ensure that basic nutrition, health and education needs of children are met

(ii) To give children the opportunity to explore their potential

(iii) To create an inter-ethnical standard of behaviour towards children

A summary of some of the activities and accomplishments of UNICEF would include:

(a) Provision of a relief network for children and their parents due to disaster such as flood,
earthquakes, droughts work for children in war torn countries to help alleviate their suffering

(b) Immunisation of millions of children against the six childhood killer diseases

(c) Describing peace education as schooling and other educational initiatives that involve
the following:

(i) Function as 'zone of peace', where children are safe from violent
conflict.

(ii) Uphold children's basic rights as outlined in the CRC

. (iii) Develop a climate that models peaceful and respectful behaviour

among all members of the learning community

(iv) Demonstrate the principles of equality and non-discrimination in

administrative policies and practices

(v) Draw on the knowledge of peace-building that exists in the

community, including means of dealing with conflict that are
effective, non-violent and rooted in the local culture

(vi) Handle conflicts in ways that respect the rights and dignity of all
involved

(vii) Integrate an understanding of peace, human rights, social justice and

global issues throughout the curriculum whenever possible
 (viii) Provide a forum for the explicit discussion of values of peace and
social justice

(ix) Use teaching and learning methods that stress participation,

problem-solving and respect for differences

(x) Enable children to put peace-making into practice in the educational

setting as well as in the wider community.

(xi) Generate opportunities for continuous reflection and professional

development of all educators in relation to issues of peace, justice
and rights, (Peace Education in UNICEF Working Paper Series, July
1999)

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)

United Nations established UNESCO in 1946 to encourage collaboration among nations
in areas of education, science, culture and communication. More than 180 nations belong
to UNESCO. It has its headquarters at Paris, France. It operates its educational, scientific
and cultural exchange programmes from 60 field offices worldwide. Projects sponsored
by UNESCO include international science programmes, literacy, technical and
teacher-training programmes, regional and cultural history projects, and international
cooperation agreements to secure the world's cultural and natural heritage and to
preserve human rights.

Much of the work of UNESCO is centred on the promotion of education for peace,
human rights, and democracy. The notion of a "culture of peace" was first elaborated for
UNESCO at the International Congress on Peace in the Minds of Men, (and Women), held
at Yamoussoukro, Cote dTvoire, in 1989. The Yamoussoukro Declaration called on
UNESCO to 'construct a new vision of peace by developing a peace culture based on the
universal values of respect for life, liberty, justice, solidarity, tolerance, human rights and
equity between women and men' and to promote education and research for this vision.
Underlying all of this work in the field of peace education are the efforts of committed
educators, researchers, activists, and members of global civil society. Acting in partnership
with the United Nations and its specialised agencies, non-governmental organisations
(NGOs), educational institutions and citizen networks have advanced education for peace
by linking ideals with extensive research and practice. The Hague Agenda for Peace
and Justice for the 21st Century is a significant example of such work. One of the first
principles of this document is the necessity of instituting systematic education for peace.
According to the Agenda, their Global Campaign for Peace Education aims to "support
the United Nations Decade for a Culture of Peace and Non-violence for the Children
of the World and to introduce peace and human rights education into all educational
institutions, including medical and law schools".

International Peace Research Association (IPRA)

It was founded with the support from UNESCO; it has a peace education commission that
brings together educators working to promote a culture of peace.
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