EUKARYOTIC CELL
- Any cell or organism that possesses a
clearly defined nucleus
- Exclusively found in plants, animals,
fungi, protozoa, and other complex
organisms
- Can maintain different environments in
a single cell that allows them to carry
out various metabolic reactions. This
helps them grow many times larger
than the prokaryotic cells.
Nucleus
- Contains DNA and proteins, the outer
and inner membrane – permeable to
ions, molecules, and RNA material.
Ribosome production happens.
Plasma Membrane
- Separates the cell from the outside
environment ad it comprises specific
embedded proteins which helps in the
exchange of substances in and out of
the cell
Cytoskeleton
- Present inside cytoplasm, which
consists of microfilaments,
microtubules, and fibres to provide
perfect shape to the cell, anchor the
organelles, and stimulate the cell
movement.
Cilia & Flagella
- External appendages of the plasma
membrane that aid in locomotor of the
cell, adhesion and movement of
materials on the outside of the cell.
- Cilia are tiny hairs and much more
shorter than flagella, while flagella are
whip-like tail
Ribosomes
- Main site for protein synthesis and are
composed of proteins ad ribonucleic
acids
Mitochondria
- Produce energy and helps in regulation
of cell metabolism
Endoplasmic Reticulum
- A network of small, tubular structures
that divides cell surface into two parts:
luminal and extra luminal
- 2 Types:
Rough ER – contains ribosome
Smooth ER – lacks ribosome
Golgi Apparatus/Bodies
- Made up of flat disc-shaped structures
called cisternae, absent in red blood
cells of humans but serves as the filter
cells of plants and is an important site
for the formation of glycoproteins and
glycolipids.
EUKARYOTIC CELL: FOUND IN ANIMAL CELL
Centrioles
- Cylindrically shaped which plays a role
in cell division
Lysosomes
- “suicidal bags” as it possess hydrolytic
enzymes to digest protein, lipids, carbs,
and nucleic acids
Peroxisomes
- Contain enzymes which are involved in
the breakdown of fatty acid molecules
EUKARYOTIC CELL: FOUND IN ANIMAL CELL that may directly or indirectly affect its
behavior.
Plastids - Multiple cell types can then join
- Double-membrane structure and are together to form tissues.
only found in plant cell - Single-celled organisms coordinates
with one another to accomplish tasks.
Chloroplast

- Contains chlorophyll and is involved in

photosynthesis CELL METABOLISM

Chromoplast - The totality of an organism’s chemical

reactions is called metabolism
- Contains carotene that provides the
plants yellow, red, or orange colors 2 Types of Metabolism:

Laucoplasts Catabolism

- Colorless and stores oil, fats, carbs, and - Digestion of large complex molecules
proteins - Energy-yielding

Anabolism

STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL - Synthesis of large molecules by joining

smaller molecules together
- Energy-requiring

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)

- An energy rich molecules because its

triphosphate unit contains 2 phospo-
anhybride bonds.

3 Components of ATP:

Sugar molecule (ribose)

Nitrogen base (adenine)

Eukaryotic cell divides by the process of Phosphate Molecule
mitosis. It undergoes the following stages
during cell division: - Hydrolysis ATP can release a large
amount of energy.
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase,
Cytokinesis (PMATC)

WHY IS CELL METABOLISM IMPORTANT?

CELL ENVIRONMENT These processes allow organisms to grow and

reproduce, maintain their structures, and
- A cell’s immediate environment respond to environmental changes.
includes physical and chemical cues
CELL GROWTH AND CELL DIVISION - Cells that do not divide, exits the G1
phase and enter an inactive stage called
Cell Cycle quiescent stage
- Can be thought as the life cycle of a
cell.
- A series of growth and development MITOSIS
steps a cell undergoes between its
“birth” formation by the division of a
mother cell and reproduction-division
to make two (2) new daughter cells.

Interphase

- The resting phase

- Includes cell growth and DNA synthesis
- It lasts for more than 95% of the
duration of the cell cycle

G1 Phase (Gap 1)

- The cell grows physically larger and

copies organelles
- Prepares machinery for DNA replication
- Synthesizes RNA and proteins

S (Synthesis) Phase

- DNA Replication takes place - A process where a single cell divides

- It also duplicates a microtubule-
organizing structure called the
centrosome – it helps to separate DNA
during M Phase.
- Amount of DNA is doubled, but
chromosome does not increase
G2 Phase (Gap 2)
into two identical daughter cells
- Occurs in somatic cells
- Also called equational division as the
number of chromosomes in parents and
progeny are the same
- Karyokinesis of Mitosis has four
stages: Pro. Meta, Ana, and Telo

- Cell growth continues

- Synthesis of RNA and protein continues Prophase
- Cell is prepared for mitosis, Gap 2 ends
when mitosis begins - Where a single cell divides into 2
identical daughter cells
M (Mitotic) Phase - Occurs in somatic cells
- Equational division
- Actual cell division
- Cell divides its copied DNA and
cytoplasm to make two new cells.
- M phase involves two distinct division-
related processes: mitosis and
cytokinesis
Metaphase
 - Nuclear envelope is gone, causing the - Nuclear envelope assembles around the
chromosome to spread throughout chromatin fibres, thus 2 daughter
cytoplasm nuclei are formed
- Chromosome condensation is - Nucleolus, Golgi complex, and ER re-
completed – will have 2 sister appear
chromatids - Spindle fibers disappear
- Chromosome lies in the equator, this
plane of alignment is called the
metaphase plate
- Spindle fibers from both poles are
connected to chromatids by
kinetochore in the centromere

Cytokinesis

- Division of the cytoplasm resulting in

the formation of 2 regular cells
- Cleavage furrow will appear in the
Anaphase plasma membrane – it gradually
deepens and joins in the centre dividing
- Shortest phase in mitosis
cytoplasm into two (2)
- Centromere of each chromosome
- Occurs differently in plant cells because
divides longitudinally result in
of the presence of cell wall
formation of 2 daughter chromatids
- In plant cells, the vesicles formed from
- As spindle fibres contract, chromatids
Golgi bodies accumulated at the
move from the equator to opposite poles
equator, it grows outwards and meets
the lateral walls. They fuse together to
form the cell plate which separates 2
daughter cells

Telophase

- Chromosomes cluster at opposite poles MEIOSIS

and uncoil into chromatin fibres
 - Division of diploid germ cells that
reduces the chromosome number by
half forming haploid daughter cells
(gametes)
- Conserves the chromosome number of
each species
- Causes genetic variation dues to
crossing over in the population of
organism. It is important for evolution

Prophase 1

- Longer and more complex

- Includes 5 phases on chromosomal
behavior
- Leptotene – chromatin fibers become
long and slender chromosomes
- Zygotene – chromosome condense and
similar pair up together (synapsis)
through the help of a structure called
synaptonemal comple. They are called
homologous chromosomes once
combined
- Pachytene – appearance of
recombination nodules where crossing
over occurs. This leads to
recombination of genetic material on
the homologous chromosomes
- Diplotene – dissolution of synaptonical
complex. The X–shaped structures are
called chiasmata
- Diakinesis – termination of chiasmata,
chromosomes are fully condensed.
Nucleolus and nuclear envelope
disappear

EVOLUTION
 - Changes in the proportions of biological
types in a population over time
Cultural Evolution – how and whether to
extend the definition of evolution to the
cultural realm.
Evolutionary Models – what tends to happen,
what could happen, what is likely to happen
DARWIN’S EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
“Descent with Modifications” – the idea that
species change over time, give rise to new
species, and share a common ancestor.
Natural Selection
- Mechanism of evolution
- For evolution is natural selection,
because resources are limited in
nature, organisms with heritable traits
that favor survival and reproduction
will tend to leave more offspring than
their peers – causing the traits to
increase in frequency over generations.
MODERN SYNTHESIS
- Zoologist Julian S. Huxley’s Book
- Early to Mid-Century formulation of
evolutionary theory that reconciled
classical Darwinian Selection Theory
with a newer population – oriented view
of mendelian genetics that attempted to
explain the origin of biological diversity
- Evolutionary Synthesis
- Neo-Darwinian Theory/Neo-Darwinism
POPULATION GENETICS
- Studies the gentic composition of
biological populations and the changes
in genetic composition that result from
the operation of various factors,
including natural selection.
- Often regarded as the theoretical
cornerstone of evolutionary biology.
- Ronald Fisher, John Burdon Sanderson
Holdane & Sewall Wright
HISTORY OF LIFE/CELL THEORY
Cells
- Building blocks of life
- Each human is composed of more than
30,000,000,000,000 cells
- An individual unit and a contributing
part of a larger organism
- Organisms may be single-celled
(unicellular), or has multiple cells
(multi-cellular)
Functions:
Respiration, Regulation, Reproduction,
Excretion, Growth, Nutrition, and Transport
CELL THEORY
- Scientific theory of biology
- Cells: are the basic units of all living
tissues
- The invention of microscope (16th
century) ignites the interest of the world
to the invisible world.
CLASSICAL CELL THEORY
Robert Hooke
- Micrographia
- Used thin slices of plant tissue (cork)
- Coined the term “cell”
Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek
- Blood cells, spermatozoa, and
animalcules
- Discovered microscopic creatures like
protozoa and bacteria
 - First person to observe nucleus and
other cells in greater detail
Robert Brown
- observed the constant component of
plant cells
- termed the “nucleus” of the cell
Matthias Jakob Schleiden
- studies plants
- stated that different parts of the plant
organism are composed of cells
- recognized the importance of cell
nucleus and its connection with cell
division
Theodor Schwann
- proposed the first cell theory
- discovered similarities between plant
and animal tissues and that cells are
the essential components of both plants
and animals.
MAIN TENETS:
1. All organisms are made of cells
2. Cells are the basic unit of life
3. Cells come from preexisting cells that
have multiplied (principle of biogenesis).
MODERN CELL THEORY
Rober Remak
- Published convincing evidence that
cells are derived from other cells as a
result of cell division
Rudolf Virchow (Father of Pathology)
- Published the Cellular Pathology
editorial essay
- Omnis cellula e cellula = all cells come
from cells)
ADDITIONAL TENETS:
1. DNA is passed between cells during cell
division
2. Cells of all organisms within a similar
species are mostly the same, both
structurally and chemically.
3. Energy flow occurs within cells
PROKARYOTIC CELL
- No nucleus
- Single-celled microorganism
- Reproduce by binary fission (asexual
reproduction)
EUKARYOTIC CELL
- True nucleus
- Multicellular organisms
- Both reproduce sexually & asexually
CELL MEMBRANE
- Supports and protects the cell
- Outer covering of a cell within which all
other organelles, such as the cytoplasm
and nucleus are enclosed.
CELL WALL
- Present n plant cells
- Protects the plasma membrane and
other cellular components
CYTOPLASM
- Thick, clear, jelly – like substance
present inside the cell membrane
- Where most chemical reactions within a
cell takes place
NUCLEUS
- Contains the hereditary material of the
cell, the DNA.
- Sends signals to the cells to grow,
mature, divide and die
 CELL ORGANELLES
- Nucleolus – site of the ribosome
synthesis. It also involved in controlling
cellular activities and reproduction
- Nuclear Membrane – protects the
nucleus by forming a boundary
between nucleus and other cell
organelles.
- Chromosomes – determines the sex of
individual. Each human cells contain
23 pairs.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum – transports
the substances throughout cell. Plays a
role in metabolism of carbs, synthesis
of lipids, steroids, and proteins.
- Golgi Bodies – transportation of
materials within the cell
- Ribosome – protein synthesizer of cell
- Mitochondria – powerhouse of the cell
- Lysosomes – protect the cell by
engulfing the foreign bodies entering
the cell and help in cell renewal.
- Chloroplast – primary organelle for
photosynthesis, contains the pigment
called chlorophyll.
- Vacuoles – stores food, water, and
other waste materials.
THE GEOLOGIC TIMETABLES
CAUSES OF EVOLUTION
Mutation – engine of evolution that generates
the genetic variation on which the
evolutionary process depends. To understand
the evolutionary process, we must
characterize the rates and patterns of
mutation.
Gene Flow – transfer of genetic material from
one population to another. It can take place
between two populations at the same species
through migration, and is mediated by
reproduction gene transfer from parent to
offspring.
Genetic Drift – change in frequency of an
existing gene variant in the population due to
random chance, may cause gene variants to
disappear completely and thereby reduce
genetic variation. It could also cause rare
alleles to become much more frequent and
even fixed
Natural Selection – a mechanism of
evolution. Organisms that are more adapted to
their environment are more likely to survive
and pass on the genes that aided their
success. This process causes species to
change and diverge over time.
EVIDENCES OF
EVOLUTION
Direct Evidence
- Can be directly observed or seen, such
as fossils.
Indirect Evidence
- Does not involve actual observation of
evolution
DIRECT EVIDENCE: FOSSILS
- Preserved remains or traces of animals,
plants, and other organisms from the
past. Fossils range in age from billion
years. Like extent organisms, fossils
vary in size from microscopic, like
single-celled bacteria, to gigantic, like
dinosaurs and trees.
Perminarization
- Process of fossilization that occurs
when an organism is buried. It can
occur in very small spaces, such as
within the cell wall of a plant cell.
Trace Fossils
- May consists of the marks behind by
the organism while it was alive, such as
footprints or feces.
Fossil Records
- Provide solid evidence that organisms
from the past are not the same as those
found today. By comparing the
anatomies of both modern and extinct
species, paleontologists can infer the
lineages of those species.
INDIRECT EVIDENCE: HOMOLOGOUS AND
ANALOGOUS STRUCTURE, EMBRYONIC
DEVELOPMENT
Homologous Structure
- Perform different functions in the
species living in the different
environment, or it may have the same
origin but different function.
Analogous Structure
- Unrelated species that may evolve to
look alike. They also has a similar
function but different origin.
- Similar structures in organism without
shared ancestry. These structures
evolved independently to serve the same
purpose
Embryonic Development
- “Ontogeny summarizes phylogeny” –
proposes that if a certain organism
undergo its embryonic development
(ontogeny), it duplicates (recapitulates)
the stages in its evolutionary history
(phylogeny)
DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION
Human Evolution
- The physical and behavioral traits are
originated from ancestors and evolved
over a period of 6 million years.
- A lengthy process of change by which
people originated from ape-like
ancestors.
- Humans are primates.
TYPES OF ANCIENT HUMAN SPECIES

Homo Habilis

- Evolved and went extinct in Africa

- Had a brain substantially larger and
more like that of later human species.

Homo Erectus

- Looked and behaved in a human-like

way
- Earliest human species to have
migrated long distances.

Homo Neanderthalensis

- Appeared in Eurasia
- Used knowledge of the chemical
properties of minerals
- More cognitively advanced than
popularly believed.

Homo Floresiensis

- Lived in Indonesian Island

- Strange variant of Homo Erectus that
became stranded on the Island of Flores
- Aside from the Hobbit bones, there is
no fossil evidence to support the idea.

Homo Nadeli

- Lived in South Africa

- Lived on isolated island without
competition from other human species

Homo Sapiens

- First appeared in Africa

- The specie to which all modern human
beings belong
- Evolved in Africa before migrating
across the world.