s

This chapter provides the literature and studies connected to Larvicidal

Activity of Madre de Cacao (Gliricidia Sepium) Mosquito Repellent Against Culicidae
Larvae Of Anopheles, Aedes Aegypti which served as a foundation for interpreting
the findings acquired in the study.
Mosquitoes (Aedes Aegypti) have significant impact In terms of public health
significance, Malaria and Dengue is considered endemic in 104 countries and
territories around the world. One of the viral infections carried by mosquitoes that
spreads the fastest in the world is dengue. Aedes Aegypti is a domestic mosquito
vector of various viruses, including yellow fever virus, dengue virus, chikungunya
virus, and Zika virus. One of the most common insects that harm human health by
spreading diseases through bites is the mosquito. In the Philippines alone, Millions of
deaths are caused by mosquitoes each year all across the world. Authorities have
reported roughly 78,208 cases of dengue fever in the Philippines in 2021, roughly
90,135 cases in 2020, and roughly 420,453 cases in 2019, Dengue is a major public
health problem that is affecting all peoples in the Philippines and is endemic in all
regions of the country.
Malaria and Dengue fever are deemed endemic in 104 nations and territories
around the world in terms of public health importance. Dengue fever is one of the
world's fastest spreading viral illnesses carried by mosquitos. The preceding fifty
years have experienced a 30-fold growth due to rapid expansion into new countries
and, in the last five years, from urban to rural settings. Dengue endemic areas are
home to around 2.5 billion people, and an estimated 50 million dengue infections
occur each year. According to the 2005 World Health Assembly decision (WHA58.3)
on the revision of the International Health Regulations (IHR). , dengue is a
disease that could erupt into a worldwide public-health disaster with consequences
for health security due to disruption and rapid epidemic spread beyond national and
international borders.
Outbreaks of dengue have repeatedly occurred over last 10 years. Yellow
fever, dengue fever, malaria, flirariasis, and other diseases are caused by
mosquitoes (kamaraj et al., 2011). mosquitoes present a serious hazard to human
health as the transmitters of many viral pathogens (arthi and murugan, 2012). due to
their exceptional capacity to adapt to varied habitats, near proximity to humans, and
reproductive biology, these mosquitoes are exceedingly challenging to control.
rubber plantations' abundant organic content, sluggish water, dim lighting, and small
aperture of the coconut shells encourage vigorous breeding (honorio et al., 2006).
dengue fever is still a significant public health problem in Asia, and the growth of
dengue outbreaks is a problem (fulmali et al., 2008). each year, 3 million people die
from malaria alone, one child dies every 30 seconds (Shell, 1997).
Mosquitoes are the single most important group of insects in terms of public
health significance and causing diseases. They are the vectors for the transmission
of many viral pathogens and pose serious threat to human health.
Although Chemical insecticides are widely used but they are non-selective
and harmful to beneficial organisms. In related studies Gliricidia Sepium leaves
extracts were used to analyze its effect against Aedes aegypti, to compare the
mortality rate while using different solvent extracts of the leaf, to identify the solvent
extract which give high rate of larval mortality and to characterize the compounds
present in the corresponding leaf extract using phytochemical analysis.
In addition, employment of a mosquito repellant can be used to control
mosquitos that transmit diseases like malaria and others, as Yellow fever,
Chikungunya, and Dengue. On your skin, you can apply an insect repellent. and
attire to deter (repel) insects A drug may also be recommended by your doctor. to
ward off malaria (antimalarial drug). Antimalarial medications are quite efficient, yet
they are not completely successful in preventing malaria. This it calls for the usage of
an insect repellent as well. You take further actions to prevent mosquitoes from
choking you (mosquito avoidance). Based on the results of this study, there is a good
chance that the number of mosquito vector cases will decline, which could result in
significant advancements in the larvicides industry. the DOH's objectives, urban
areas, and the field of medicine.

However, increasing numbers of mosquito breeding places in urban

agglomeration and emerging resistance of mosquitos to current commercial
insecticides such as organo-phosphates, biological insecticides, organo-chloride,
pyrethroids and carbamates have led to proliferation of vector-borne diseases
(Wanjala & Kweka, 2018; Wanjala et al., 2015, Ondeto et al., 2017).
Several people use either synthetic or plant-based repellents to protect them
from mosquito transmitting diseases. Bed nets treated with insecticide and indoor
residual spraying may also be used for preventing mosquito-borne diseases (Melhorn
et al., 2012) frequent use of synthetic insecticides in farming and health programs
may leads to various harmful results such as ecosystem destabilization,
environmental pollution, hazardous effects to human beings and non-target
organisms (Jirankanjanakit et al., 2007).

2
 The most common way of keeping mosquitoes away from their human hosts
is to use synthetic insecticides in mosquito nets, fabrics, and indoor sprays. The
usage of chemical strategies has brought hope in controlling disease transmission in
endemic regions, but emergence of insecticide resistance has been a major problem
in reducing the disease burden. The uncontrolled usage of insecticides has led to
reemergence and increase in mosquito populations over the years (Şengül Demirak
& Canpolat, 2022)
Between the years 2010–2019, about 28 malaria endemic countries (out of
82) have detected resistance to all four classes of the most commonly used
insecticides, and 73 have detected resistance to at least one insecticide class, an
issue that continues to increase globally (WHO.WorldMalaria Report 2020: 20 Years
of Global Progress and Challenges;World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland,
2020).
Mosquitoes are important vectors of devastating diseases, and their
hazardous effects are far beyond eradication. The occurrence/reoccurrence of
mosquitoes in endemic, nonendemic, and new regions of the world has led to
extensive use of synthetic chemicals to control transmission of mosquito-borne
diseases. With the increase of resistant mosquitoes and toxicity issues to target and
non-target organisms, safer, biodegradable, target-specific alternatives have been
considered to replace conventional mosquito control strategies (Şengül Demirak &
Canpolat, 2022).
Thus, insecticide resistance is now considered a serious threat to control
mosquito invasion and disease transmission. It is essential that the methods for
insecticide monitoring in mosquito populations and interpretation of results are
performed adequately, effectively and in a timely manner for improving mosquito
control (Richards et al., 2020)
The recent negative impact of chemical insecticides has shifted the research
efforts towards development of a new environmentally compatible vector control
methods by using naturalistic agents (SK et al., 2011). Biological control of larval
mosquitoes is in great demand due to the development of resistance against
synthetic insecticides, environmental toxicity and the inability to protect habitats from
further oviposition (Laxmi et al., 2022).
Mosquitoes in the larval stage are attractive targets for pesticides because
mosquitoes breed in water, and thus, it is easy to deal with them in this habitat. The
use of conventional pesticides in the water sources, however, introduces many risks
to people and/or the environment (Matura et al., 2022).

3
 Current research on mosquito control is now focused on understanding the
mosquito resistance to synthetic insecticides and developing novel strategies to
overcome the resistance issues. Natural compounds that are more effective and less
toxic than the synthetic ones continue to get more attention in the research
community (Şengül Demirak & Canpolat, 2022) The use of bioinsecticides,
composed of botanical or plant-based compounds, has been a perfect alternative
due to their minimal hazardous effects on human health and environment. In this
review, we provide current knowledge on synthetic insecticides that are actively used
in mosquito control and how they impact prevalence of insecticide resistance in
mosquitoes. Major plant-based insecticides, their mode of action and the research
about their potential mosquitocidal activity are discussed (Şengül Demirak &
Canpolat, 2022)
A comprehensive understanding of how biochemical compounds can be
advantageous to synthetic ones and how we can circumvent insecticide resistance
issues in the fight with mosquito-borne disease transmission is provided.
This has triggered the research and development of environmentally
indigenous, safe and biodegradable methods for vector control. Products derived
from plants have received increased attention from the scientific world. Botanicals
have phytochemicals that possess insecticidal activity contributing to the interruption
of disease transmission at both the individual and community level (Demirak &
Canpolat, 2022). Currently, more than 2000 plant species are known to contain
insecticidal properties (Shaalan et al., 2005; George et al., 2014).
In the last decades, major research efforts have been done to investigate the
insecticidal activity of plant-based products against mosquitoes. Natural pesticides,

especially those derived from plants, are more promising in this aspect (Matura et al.,
2022). This is a modern and timely challenge in parasitology, aimed to reduce the
frequent overuse of synthetic pesticides boosting resistance development in
mosquitoes and causing serious threats to human health and environment (Pavela et
al.,2019).
The chemicals obtained from plants have exploded as weapon in future
mosquito control program (Panneerselvam et al., 2012). Different chemical group of
phytochemicals such as steroids, alkaloids, terpenes and phenolic compound were
found for insect control. The management ability of insects whereas with age of the
plant, species, parts extracted, collection site and solvent used for extraction (Hari &
Mathew, 2018). Natural products are generally preferred in vector control measure

4
due to their less deleterious effect thus identifying active compounds from natural
products against mosquitoes is worthwhile (Kamaraj et al., 2010).
Use of plant-based insecticides against mosquitoes becoming a significant
approach for the prevention of various mosquito transmitted diseases because of a
number of advantages rather than artificial repellents (Maia et al., 2011) Plant
derived products with insecticidal activity have been used in the recent years to
control different types of vectors. Various methods have been implicated to control
mosquito population. One of the methods to prevent mosquito transmitting disease is
by killing its larvae at larval stage. The modern mosquito control method is based on
artificial insecticides (Liu et al., 2005).
World Health Organization in 2008 reported that 80 percentage of population
of some countries in Asia and Africa may use traditional medicines to cure various
diseases due to monetary and environmental constrain. Traditional medicines are
used to maintain health by preventing various severe diseases based on knowledge,
experience and practice.
Extracts of plants constitute various bio active phyto compounds; hence they
can be used as alternative approach to mosquito larval control. Many scientific
studies have proven that the plant extracts or plant derived products can be used as
an alternate approach to control mosquito population (Sharma et al., 2006).

The use of plant-derived products or plants to control pests is well known in

developing countries. Before introducing synthetic pesticides, plants were the primary
method of controlling pests (Isman, 2008). The plant world consists of a luxurious,
unused pool of secondary plant substances, which are widely used instead of
synthetic insecticides. The plant kingdom is considered the most active producer of
chemicals that synthesize many products to protect against various pests (Isman &
Akhtar, 2007). The World Health Organization (WHO) appraises those 200,000
individuals died worldwide every year as an immediate consequence of pesticide
harming.

Various vector borne diseases can be prevented by means of traditionally

used medicinal plants. Hence, the demand for traditional medicines is enhancing as
they are usually recognized to be bio degradable, natural, safer than synthetic drugs
(Abd Kadir et al., 2013).

5
Antidesma bunius (Linn) Spreng

The plant kingdom comprises many species of plants containing substances

of medicinal value, which are yet to be explored. Nowadays, various types of plants
are constantly being screened for their possible medicinal value (Bulbul & Nahar,
2011) In research from de Pasquale (1984) For thousands of years, plant, mineral
and animal products were the main sources of drugs, the use of medicinal products
with therapeutic properties is as ancient as human civilization (Zaman et al., 2018)
Nowadays people are being nursed with thousands of unhealthy products.
The level of sensibility in front of diseases is very high. To cure these diseases, the
use of medicinal plants can represent the best solution. Medicinal plants have a
recognized medicinal use. They range from those used in the production of
mainstream pharmaceutical products to plants used in natural medicine preparations.
Natural medicine is one of the oldest forms of medical treatment in human history
and could be considered one of the forerunners of the modern pharmaceutical trade.
Plants that have medicinal uses can be found growing in many settings all over the
world (Zaman et al., 2018)
Antidesma bunius (Linn) Spreng is more popularly known in the Philippines
as “bignay”. The plant is a small, smooth, dioecious tree, 4 to 10 m high. Leaves are
shiny, oblong, 8 to 20 cm long. The fruit is fleshy, ovoid in shape transforming its
color from green to pale yellow then red to blackish color as it ripens. The edible fruit
is about 8 mm long with only one seed and grow in clusters like grapes (Banerjee,
2021) A. bunius is widespread in the Philippines but is also claimed to be common in
the wild (from the lower Himalayas in India, Ceylon and southeast Asia and northern
Australia), grown in Indonesia, and cultivated in Malaya (Krikorian, 1989). The entire
plant is of medicinal value acting as anti-dysenteric, anti-oxidative, anticancer and
anti-diabetic and gives sudorific effects. The fruit is highly edible and nutrient –rich
and is prepared either as a healthy juice drink or cooked with fish and other foods.
Antidesma bunius is a genus of about 150 species distributed in Asia, Africa,
Australia and Islands of pacific.1 Antidesma bunius (Family- Euphorbiaceae), also
known as bignai in the Philippines; buni or berunai in Malaya (India); wooni or hooni,
in Indonesia; ma mao luang in Thailand; kho lien tu in Laos; choi moi in Vietnam;
moi-kin and chunka by the aborigines in Queensland. The English names are
Chinese laurel, currant tree, nigger’s cord, and salamander tree which is a native of
India and other countries like Nepal, Myanmar, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and
Bangladesh (Shariful Islam et al., 2018).

6
 Antidesma bunius has various synonyms like Stilago bunius L., Antidesma
rumphii Tulasne, Antidesma dallachyanum Baillon. Antidesma bunius has various
common names bignay, Chinese laurel, blackcurrant tree, salamander tree,
antidesme, antidesma da China, cardoeira, buni, wuni, huni, bunch, paginga, isip,
kho liên tu, baa mao ruesee, mamao dong, mao chaang, chiòi mòi. The Antidesma
bunius is common medicinal plants in many dipterocarp forests in Thailand and
widespread in the Philippines. There claims that the plant is common in the wild from
the lower Himalayas in India, Ceylon and Southeast Asia and northern Australia. The
plant is also grown in Indonesia, and cultivated in Malaya. The fresh fruit wine has
considerably antioxidant properties. Antidesma bunius (Family- Euphorbiaceae), also
popularly known in the Philippines as bignay and is a found in several Asian
countries (Shariful Islam et al., 2018).
This plant is well-known in South Asia. Various plant parts such as root, bark,
leaves, and fruits have long been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of
various diseases due to their cytotoxic, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, antiradical,
thrombolytic activity, antiplatelet, anticoagulant, anti-dysenteric, antimicrobial,
antihypertensive, anticancer, and sudorific activity. This plant can also be used to
make pesticides. This herb also helps to increase blood circulation. It can be used to
treat snakebites, coughing, flatulence, and intestinal colic. The roots and leaves have
anthelminthic properties and are used to treat indigestion, cough, and stomachache.
The seeds are used to treat round worms and threadworms, coughs, flatulence,
intestinal colic, and as a pesticide. This plant also has a wide range of
pharmacological properties such as cytotoxicity, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, antiradical,
and pesticide action.
Phytochemical analysis of the different species of Antidesma has confirmed
presence of varying amounts of phenolic acids, flavonoids of catechin, procyanidins
B1 and B2 and anthocyanins (“Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants: V.1:
Fruits,” 2012). In the study conducted by Butkhup and Samappito, an analysis of 15
cultivars of A. bunius grown in northeast Thailand have shown that all cultivars
contain three major flavonoids namely catechin, procyanidin B1 and procyanidin B2.
Phytochemical analysis of the Antidesma bunius has confirmed presence of
different kinds of flavonoids, terpene, sugar, saponin, tannin, toxic alkaloids, phenolic
acids, procyanidin B1, procyanidin B2 and anthocyanins. (Shariful Islam et al., 2018)
Bignay (Antidesma bunius) is a wild fruit plant that belongs to the Family
Plantanaceae. The probability of Antidesma Bunius as a foundation of natural
preservative is examined (Belmi et al., 2014). It can be used as a natural ingredient
with a biological function due to its antioxidant and antimicrobial properties (Zaman et

7
al., 2018). The different parts of this bignay plant can be used in many different ways:
a pesticide agent, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, antiradical, and thrombolytic (Islam et al.,
2018). Its leaves are known to contain Alkaloids and Saponins, which are huge
contributions to Pesticides (Belina-Aldemita et al., 2013).
Many phytochemical studies conducted on Antidesma species reported the
presence of triterpenoids, steroids, phenolic compounds/acids, megastigmanes,
lignans, flavonoids, cyclopeptides, in addition to bicyclic and quinolide-type alkaloids
(Buske et al., 2002; Rizvi et al., 1980; Buske et al., 1997; Bringmann et al.,
2000)Furthermore, studies investigated different biological activities of Antidesma
species including antimicrobial (Rangasamy et al., 2007), antioxidant (Butkhup and
Samappito, 2011; Nuengchamnong and Ingkaninan, 2010), antifungal (Goun et al.,
2003; Buske et al., 2002), diuretic (Rizvi et al., 1980), cytotoxic (Jose Rene et al.,
2005), and antimalarial effects (Chhabra et al., 1993), in addition to its use in
treatment of epilepsy (Moshi et al., 2005).
Besides the most common plant-based bioinsecticides mentioned above,
there are other natural plant metabolites that show insecticidal properties. Among
them, flavonoids elicit larvicidal activity by inhibiting AChE in mosquito larvae [182].
They could also act as respiratory inhibitors and result in the disturbance of the larval
respiratory system. Alkaloids have multiple effects including inhibition of the AChE
enzyme, degradation of cell membranes, and they may act as stomach poisons
In research from Perumalsamy et al. (2015) Flavonoids from A. bunius extract
also exhibited larvicidal activity against Ae. aegypti, It has been used as a
biopesticide due to less harmful effects to the environment. A. bunius has the
potential to be used as a larvicide to control mosquitoes and interferes with the
cellular respiration system of insects and prevents energy production
Previous research focused on the chemical constituents of A. bunius was
very limited. The ripe fruits of A. bunius were reported to contain two groups of
organic acids. The major group of organic acids includes tartaric, ascorbic, citric, and
benzoic acids; while malic, lactic, oxalic and acetic acids were found in minor groups
(Samappito and Butkhup, 2008). In addition, three flavan-3-ols i.e. catechin,
procyanidin B1 and procyanidin B2 were isolated from the ripe fruits of A. Bunius
(Butkhup and Samappito, 2008).
Phytochemicals have gained importance to overcome mosquito control
problems as being considered natural, environmentally safe, less toxic, inexpensive,
and, more importantly, less prone to mosquito resistance. Variety of plant extracts
have been reported to have mosquitocidal or repellent activity against mosquito
vectors, mostly depending on laboratory assays, but there are limitations for their

8
efficacy and applicability in the field. Problems associated with their formulation and
commercialization, non-standardization in evaluation of their bioactivities, and their
persistence for longer durations should be resolved for development of effective and
sustainable methods for their usage. There is no doubt that there are more bioactive
compounds that require exploring, and future research should focus on searching for
plant-based products with the ultimate goal of deploying them as a reliable remedy to
control mosquito populations and mosquito-borne diseases (Şengül Demirak &
Canpolat, 2022)
Hence, the very presence of these phytochemicals as plants‟ natural defense
motivated the researchers to look into the possibility of finding a strong pesticide
property in A. bunius fruit. Bignay has been known for its medicinal value and as a
proven healthy food / drink supplement. Scientific studies have been done to
substantiate such claims (Latiza et al., 2021)