Fuel 306 (2021) 121727

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Fuel
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Full Length Article

Optimization of operating conditions to achieve combustion stability and

reduce NOx emission at half-load for a 550-MW tangentially fired
pulverized coal boiler
Yu Jiang a, Byoung-Hwa Lee b, c, *, Dong-Hun Oh d, Chung-Hwan Jeon a, c, *
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
b
Corporate R&D Institute, Doosan Heavy Industries & Construction, Volvoro 22, Seongsangu, Changwon 51711, Republic of Korea
c
Pusan Clean Energy Research Institute, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
d
Korea Midland Power Company, Boryeong-si 33439, Republic of Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The off-peak period of the grid load (i.e., deep peak load) prevents a power generation boiler from operating at
Tangential-firing boiler full load. To achieve stable combustion of 550-MW tangentially fired pulverized coal boiler and ultra-low
Half-load pollutant emissions (nitrogen oxides and unburned carbon) under half-load conditions, different operating pa­
Various burner group arrangements
rameters have been analyzed and optimized. In this study, under half-load conditions, the numerical method was
CCOFA/SOFA distributions
Combustion stability
used to simulate the flow field characteristics, combustion stability, and pollutant emissions of the boiler under
NOX emissions various operating conditions. The operating conditions included various burner group arrangements, close-
coupled overfire air (CCOFA)/separated overfire air (SOFA) distributions, and excess air ratios. The simula­
tion prediction results showed that the middle burner group (BCDE) arrangement has a good flow field distri­
bution. Compared with the upper burner group (CDEF) arrangement, this reduces NOX by approximately 62 ppm
and also maintains a higher pulverized coal burnout rate than the lower burner group (ABCD) arrangement.
Considering the stability of the combustion and lowest emissions, the ratio of CCOFA of 5% and SOFA of 15%
were preferred as the operating conditions for the air-staging distribution. The high excess air caused an increase
in NOX while the combustion temperature significantly reduced in the furnace, made the furnace exit gas
temperature (FEGT) too low, and affected the steam temperature. In addition, the simulation results of the
optimized scheme were in good agreement with the field test results.

combination of multiple low-NOX combustion technology (e.g., low-

1. Introduction
Global power demand growth has slowed, and coal-based power
generation fell by 3% in 2019. However, coal remains the primary en­
ergy source for electricity generation in the world, accounting for 36%
of power generation [1]. In Asia, down-fire boilers, wall-fired boilers,
and tangentially fired boilers constitute the main types of pulverized
coal (PC) boilers. Among them, the tangentially fired boiler has the
potential advantages of coal flexibility, higher combustion efficiency,
and the use of air-staging combustion to minimize gas emissions [2,3].
However, the Korean government has attempted a comprehensive ultra-
low emission and energy-saving program for power plants. The emission
limits of nitrogen oxides (NOX) and sulfur oxides (SOX) are 50 and 50
ppm (@6% O2), respectively [4,5]. Therefore, coal-fired power plants
urgently need to transform and upgrade outdated boilers through a
NOX burner and air/fuel staging [6,7]) and combustion flue gas post-
treatment technology (e.g., selective catalytic reduction [8] and selec­
tive noncatalytic reduction [9]) to satisfy strict emission standards.
At present, the issues of rational utilization of energy, sustainable
development of the environment, and power grid load fluctuations have
become the focus of many researchers. Generally, household electricity
and commercial electricity usually enter the off-peak period of grid load
between 10p.m. and 6 a.m. At this time, the fluctuations generated by
the power grid make the power generation boiler unable to operate at
full load. To reduce the influence of oscillations, the operating load of
the boiler is generally reduced to below 50% [10]. Power station load is
affected not only by electricity consumption but also by seasonal
changes. At the same time, improving the flexibility (i.e., power plant
boilers at full load during peak hours of electricity consumption, and
operating at low loads during off-peak hours) of the boiler load [11] can

* Corresponding authors at: Pusan Clean Energy Research Institute, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea.
E-mail addresses: byounghwa.lee@doosan.com (B.-H. Lee), chjeon@pusan.ac.kr (C.-H. Jeon).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121727
Received 8 February 2021; Received in revised form 10 August 2021; Accepted 12 August 2021
Available online 23 August 2021
0016-2361/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Jiang et al. Fuel 306 (2021) 121727

Nomenclature C00S20 CCOFA ratio 0% and SOFA ratio 20%

C05S15 CCOFA ratio 5% and SOFA ratio 15%
A Pre-exponential factor [s/1] C10S10 CCOFA ratio 10% and SOFA ratio 10%
CD Resistance coefficient [-] C15S05 CCOFA ratio 15% and SOFA ratio 5%
E Activation energy [J kmol− 1] or Energy [J/kg] C20S00 CCOFA ratio 20% and SOFA ratio 0%
F External body forces [-] DPM Discrete phases modelling
hj Sensible enthalpy [-] FEGT Furnace exit gas temperature
Ji Mass diffusion of species i [kg/m2s] H Hydrogen
Jj Diffusion flux of species j [-] HCN Hydrogen cyanide
keff Effective conductivity [-] HELE High-efficiency and low-NOX emission
kf ,i Forward reaction rate of thermal NO formation (i = 1, 2, 3) N2 Nitrogen
[-] NH3 Ammonia
kr,i Reverse reaction rate of thermal NO formation (i = 1, 2, 3) NO Nitric oxide
[-] NOX Nitrogen oxides
m Post-reaction volatile fraction mass [g] NR Normal rating
m0 Initial volatile fraction mass [g] O2 Oxygen
p Fluid pressure [Pa] OFA Overfire air
R Universal gas constant [8.3144 J/ (mol K)] OH Hydroxide
Re Reynolds number [-] PA Primary air
Ri Reaction i source term [kg/m3s] PC Pulverized coal
Sh Energy source term (reaction source term and radiation) PM Pollution minimum
[J/m3s] RHs Reheaters
Si Mass source of species i [kg/m3s] SA Secondary air
Sm Species m source term [kg/m3s] SH Superheater
T Temperature [K] SHs Superheaters
Tp Particle temperature [K] SOFA Separated overfire air
t Time [s] SOX Sulfur oxides
Up Stands for the particle [-] UBC Unburned carbon
v Species/phase velocity vector [m/s] WSGGM Weighted-sum-of-gray-gas model
Yi Mass fraction of species i [-]
Greek Symbols
Abbreviations: ρ Species/phase density [kg/m3]
Aux Auxiliary ρg Gravitational body force [-]
CCOFA Close-coupled overfire air ρp Density of particle [kg/m3]
CFD Computational fluid dynamics Γ Stress tensor [-]
CO Carbon monoxide

also reduce grid load fluctuations caused by the reduction in the con­
version efficiency of new renewable energy sources (e.g., solar energy is
restricted by sunlight, and wind energy is limited by wind speed). Boiler
operation under low-load conditions still faces many problems,
including an instability of combustion caused by nonuniform air dis­
tribution or a high excess air coefficient in the furnace, and high NOX
emissions. Liu et al. [12] studied the effects of using different pro­
portions of anthracite on the combustion characteristics of a reformed
coal-fired boiler under various load conditions. The field test results
showed that as the proportion of anthracite coal increases, NOX emis­
sions decrease, while unburned carbon (UBC) and the exhaust gas
temperature increase. At the same time, the combustion instability in
the furnace is caused by air pressure fluctuations under low-load con­
ditions. Boiler operation under low-load conditions has unstable com­
bustion, high gas emissions, and low efficiency. However, it is beneficial
to reduce the temporary start or interrupt operation during low-load
operation, thereby reducing operating costs [13].
At the same time, owing to the implementation of ultralow emission
standards for coal-fired boilers in various countries, almost all tangen­
tially boilers have adopted deep-air staging technology. This technology
has the characteristics of significantly reducing the generation of NOX
and cost-effectiveness, so it is widely used in coal-fired power boilers.
The proportion of the overfire air (OFA) ratio should generally not be
higher than 25% [14] because the strong deep-air-staged combustion air
can result in a higher furnace exit flue gas temperature (FEGT), which
negatively affects the heat exchange tubes. At the same time, high-
temperature turbulence affects flame stability in the primary combus­
tion zone. These factors are essential for safe operation. Therefore, it is
considered very important to study coal-fired boilers to achieve high-
efficiency and low-NOX emission (HELE) combustion under low-load
operating conditions [15]. In the past 10 years, research on the partial
load of PC boilers has been conducted. However, most of this research
focused on the combustion and gas emission characteristics of wall-fired
boilers or down-fire boilers.
According to investigations, when the load of the wall-fired boiler is
reduced to half, the pulverized coal supply rate decreases and the igni­
tion position of the pulverized coal and air in the swirl burners is
delayed. Although NOX emissions can be decreased owing to the
decrease in load, the UBC particulate matter will also increase signifi­
cantly. Ti et al. achieved HELE combustion in a 600-MW wall-fired
boiler under half-load conditions, and different coal feeding schemes
were proposed [16]. Under low-load conditions, the ignition position of
pulverized coal is farther from the burner than at full load. At the same
time, increasing the coal feed rate of the coal mill helps to improve the
ignition characteristics and enhance carbon monoxide (CO) reduction.
Reducing the coal feed rate of the middle coal mill while increasing the
coal feed rate of the low coal mill will facilitate the reduction of NOX by
approximately 27%. Li et al. [17] conducted research on a modified 330-
MW low-volatile coal-fired boiler under different load conditions. The
deep-air-staging conditions helped to ensure the ignition of low-volatile
coal particles. Under low-load conditions, the gas temperature de­
creases, the ignition position is farther away, and the burnout degree

2
Y. Jiang et al.
varies greatly. The excess air coefficient needs to be maintained in a
relatively high range to ensure the stability of the flame, but the high
excess air causes the oxide concentration to increase [16]. At the same
time, Li et al. obtained similar results in a 200-MWe lignite combustion
boiler [18]. Similarly, to achieve ultralow-load combustion stability of
down-fired boilers, higher requirements are placed on swirl burners.
Wang et al. [19] improved the boiler to ensure timely and effective
ignition of anthracite under low-load operating conditions and increased
the volumetric heat load and heat flux density of the combustion zone.
Stable combustion inside the boiler also helps reduce the formation of
NOX. Optimizing the air-staging distribution is very important to
improve the combustion stability of down-fired boilers [20] and can also
significantly reduce NOX formation. When the boiler load decreases, the
down-fired boiler and the wall-fired boiler face the same problem in
which the ignition distance increases as the load decreases. Chen et al.
Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of 550-MW tangentially fired boiler.
3
Fuel 306 (2021) 121727
[21] reduced the flow area of the secondary air (SA) pipe inside and
outside the swirl burner and introduced the OFA system to significantly
increase the fullness of flame combustion, maintain combustion stabil­
ity, and achieve HELE combustion of the boiler. However, there are too
few research reports on the combustion and NOX emission characteris­
tics of tangentially PC boilers under low loads, and research on an
optimal operation plan is lacking. Although Drosatos et al. proposed the
use of more combustible biomass or dry lignite as co-combustion fuel
[15,22], it only improved the ignition characteristics of coal and
maintained stable combustion during low-load operation. Meanwhile,
this method is highly dependent on the fuel characteristics of biomass
and dry lignite.
This research aims to comprehensively evaluate the optimal oper­
ating conditions under different operating parameters, to realize stable
combustion and low NOX emissions of the boiler under half-load
Y. Jiang et al. Fuel 306 (2021) 121727

conditions, and provide relevant data reference for improving the actual
operational flexibility of the tangentially fired boiler. The contents are as
follows: 1) Analyze the flow field characteristics, combustion stability,
and pollutant emissions under various burner group arrangements,
close-coupled overfire air (CCOFA)/separate overfire air (SOFA) air
distributions, and excess air conditions in the boiler. 2) The optimized
operating conditions were selected and industrial-scale experiments
were conducted to verify that the boiler can maintain a low NOX and
high combustion efficiency under the optimized conditions. The results
of this study provide parameters for the optimization of the burner
group arrangement, CCOFA/SOFA air distribution, and stable operation
of the tangentially fired boiler under half-load conditions in a power
plant.
2. Methodology
2.1. Utility boiler
The investigated subject is a 550-MW ultra-low emission tangentially
fired utility boiler. The boiler was derived from a Korean standard 500-
MW PC boiler [23] through a retrofitted boiler system [24]. The main
steam design pressure and design temperature leaving the final super­
heater (SH) can reach 25.05 MPa and 869 K, respectively. Fig. 1a. shows
diagrammatic representation of 550-MW tangentially fired boiler. The
total boiler height is 86.8 m, and the furnace cross section is 16.5 × 16.5
m. The distance from the top of ash hopper to the under of the primary
superheater is approximately 40.5 m. Except for the economizer located
above the boiler exit, the other heat exchangers [including three su­
perheaters (SHs) and two reheaters (RHs)] are arranged directly above
the furnace’s main combustion zone.
Fig. 1b. shows the schematic representation of burner arrangement
at the corners of the boiler is composed of six burner sets (namely A to
F). Each burner set has two fuel injection nozzles, and the primary air
(PA) flow ratios of fuel-rich (Conc.) nozzle and fuel-lean (Weak.) nozzle
are 70% and 30%, respectively. A typical low-NOX burner (tooth-type
flame holds) is applied to Conc. Nozzle to minimize the NOX production.
The Weak. Nozzles have a pollution minimum (PM) simple burner type.
The secondary air (SA) burners consist of auxiliary (Aux.) air nozzles.
According to the boiler at a 50% normal rating (NR) load design con­
dition, approximately 20% of the SA air is supplied to the furnace
through the OFA nozzles. As shown in Fig. 1c., the coal and air streams
injected through each burner set to form a clockwise direction rotating
fireball (imaginary circles) at the center of the furnace, and the injection
angle with the left wall surface is 39◦ . The OFA system is composed of
four levels of CCOFA nozzles (namely CCOFA 1–4) and three levels of
SOFA nozzles (namely SOFA 1–3) arranged sequentially along with the
height, optimal multi-air staging air flow can minimize the generation of
NOX. The SOFA 1–3 nozzles are located above the nozzle of CCOFA 4 at
6.8 m, 7.1 m and 7. 5 m, respectively. Notably, the SOFA groups
included two levels of corner SOFA and one level of wall SOFA. The
corner SOFA1–2 air injection angle matches the burner injection angle,
and the wall SOFA 3 is located at a quarter distance from the left wall,
and the injection angle is 90◦ , taking the front wall as an example. The
SOFA air streams from the corners and wall form imaginary circles in a
clockwise direction at cross-sections as shown in Fig. 1d.
2.2. Numerical simulation
momentum, and energy. Table 1 lists the relevant solved transport
equations, which are listed in Table 2.
Among them, a realizable k-ε turbulence model was adopted to
calculate the effect of turbulent flow in a boiler and standard wall
functions were used in near wall treatment. Discrete ordinate models
[26] were applied to solve for the radiation heat transfer, which is
suitable for solving the combustion problem of surface-to-surface radi­
ation. And the weighted-sum-of-gray-gas model (WSGGM) [26] was
employed to calculate the absorption coefficient of gas phase mixture.
The particle emissivity and scattering coefficients were adopted to 0.9
and 0.6 [26,27], respectively.
The finite rate/eddy dissipation model [25–28] was selected to
describe the gas-phase combustion by using a simplified two steps global
mechanism to simulate the coal combustion of volatiles with CO as the
only intermediate product, shown in Eqs. (5) and (6).
CH3.51 O0.78 N0.1106 S0.0466 + 1.03O2 →CO + 1.75H2 O + 0.0553N2 + 0.0466SO2
(5)
CO + 0.5O2 →CO2 (6)
The movement of pulverized coal particles adopts Discrete phases
modelling (DPM) model [29]. The distribution of fuel particles is closely
related to the high-temperature combustion zone in the furnace, so the
trajectory of the solid fuel particles also plays a vital role in the simu­
lation. The stochastic particle trajectory model was selected to describe
the trajectories of coal particles, which approximately 10,900 particles
were tracked with turbulent dispersion. The particle trajectory is
affected by various forces (e.g., gravitational, buoyancy, and drag
forces). The force balance integral on the particle is the equation [29] of
motion as follows:
( )
dup 18μ CD Re ( ) g ρp − ρ
= u − u p + (7)
dt ρp dp2 24 ρp
For the devolatilization reactions of coal, the most common single
rate model was adopted [2,28,30].
( )
dm
= Aexp
− E
(m0 − m) (8)
dt RTp
The kinetic parameters were obtained from the same coal experi­
ments analysis [31]. In Eq. (8), the activation energy (E) was set to 7.4 ×
107 J kmol− 1, and the pre-exponential factor (A) was set to 312,000 s− 1.
The diffusion/kinetic model [23,28,32] was used for the combustion
reaction of char, where the pre-exponential factor and activation energy
were 0.039 s− 1 and 8.37 × 107 J kmol− 1, respectively.
The NOX emission prediction by post-processing models, which in­
cludes the fuel NO and thermal NO. And the prompt NO is negligible
since it is minimal. Among them, thermal NO formation is dependent on
the extended Zeldovich mechanism [33]. The thermal NO produced
from the atmosphere by oxidizing N2 in the relatively high-temperature
region (temperature higher than 1800 K [3]) of the coal combustion
reaction process. The main reactions of thermal NO formation are
Table 1
Transport equations for mass, momentum, energy, and species conservation
[25].
Transport equation Eq.

Mass conservation (1)

In this study, the numerical simulations are performed using com­
∂ρ
+ ∇⋅(ρ→ v ) = Sm
∂t
mercial code of ANSYS FLUENT version 19.1, which allowed for custom Momentum ∂ → → (2)
(ρ v ) + ∇⋅( ̅→
ρvv ) = − ∇p + ∇⋅(τ) + ρ→ g + F
modifications to each sub model [25]. The combustion of pulverized conservation ∂t
(
Energy (3)
coal is a complex physical and chemical process (including turbulent ∂ ∑ →
(ρE) + ∇⋅(→ v (ρE + p)) = ∇⋅ keff ∇T − j hj J J +
conservation ∂t
flow, particle-gas interactions, fuel gas heat exchange and gas emissions) ( )
)
in the boiler. Assuming that various reaction processes are in a steady v + Sh
τeff ⋅→
state, the SIMPLE algorithm is used for the available pressure–velocity Species ∂ (4)
(ρYi ) + ∇⋅(ρ→
v Yi ) = − ∇⋅Ji + Ri + Si
conservation ∂t
coupling and solves the time-average conservation equations of mass,

4
Y. Jiang et al. Fuel 306 (2021) 121727

Table 2 constructed for grid-independence research (approximately 1.37, 1.71,

Fuel properties and boiler operating conditions. and 1.92 million cells), in which the grid in the main combustion zone is
Properties of coal refined in order to improve the accuracy of the calculations. In Section
3.1, the results of the grid-independence analysis are detailed.
Proximate analysis, (wt%, as received) High heating value (MJ/kg)
Volatile Moisture Fixed carbon Ash HHV
33.34 19.29 41.60 5.77 23.8 2.3. Boiler operation conditions and simulation scenarios
Ultimate analysis, (wt%, dry ash free)
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur
In this study, for half (50% NR) load, the fuel properties and oper­
78.25 5.32 14.18 1.43 0.82
Boiler operating conditions
ating conditions of the existing boiler are given in Table 2, among which
Item 50% NR condition the SOFA ratio was set at 15%, while fixing the CCOFA ratio at 5%.
Layer of burners BCDE These values correspond to a burner zone stoichiometric ratio of 1.06.
Air-staging type CCOFA + SOFA The boiler produces main steam at 869 K and 14.02 MPa from the SH
Coal feed rate (kg/s) 28.24
and at 869 K and 2.24 MPa from the RH. The economizer outlet steam
PA mass flow rate/temperature (kg/s)/ 69.3/298
(K) temperature and pressure reached 574 K and 14.89 MPa, respectively.
SA mass flow rate/temperature (kg/s)/ 215.3/586 The high excess air coefficient (set to 1.32%) is used in existing boiler,
(K) which assisted in achieving stability combustion and minimize NOX
Burner zone stoichiometry ratio 1.06
generation. Assuming that the evaporator wall is smooth and planar
Ratio of CCOFA (%) 5
Ratio of SOFA (%) 15
surfaces with a constant wall temperature, the wall temperature is equal
Excess air coefficient (%) 1.32 to the saturation temperature under the drum pressure. Based on the
Main steam temperature (K) 869 design parameters of the boiler, the furnace wall temperature and
Boiler efficiency (%) 89.4 emissivity were set at 607 K and 0.7, respectively. The detailed prop­
erties of fuel and boiler operating conditions are listed in Table 2.
expressed as follows: Generally, when the boiler is operating at half-load, it is necessary to
optimize the combustion performance of the boiler according to the
kf ,1
O + N2 ⟷kr,1 N + NO, (9) operating parameters. Based on the operation parameters of the 550-
MW boiler, when the load is reduced to 50%, only four burners are
kf ,2 allowed to operate, and generally the BCDE burner in the furnace middle
N + O2 ⟷kr,2 O + NO, (10) zone. By systematically evaluating the influence of different operating
parameters on the combustion stability and NOX emissions of the boiler
under half-load conditions, the best operating mode of the boiler under
kf ,3
N + OH⟷kr,3 H + NO. (11)
half-load conditions is finally established. Considering the high-cost
The net rate of thermodynamic NO species is defined by the manpower and material resources required to operate the boiler for
following formula, according to the evaluation selection of Hansen et al. industrial-scale testing so far, the simulation method is used to optimize
[34]. The concentrations of O, H, and OH were estimated through the the selection. The optimization scheme is applied to a field test on an
partial equilibrium process. actual operating boiler. The test conditions were divided into three se­
d[NO] ries. 1) According to the layer of burners, formulate the upper, middle,
dt
= kf ,1 [O][N2 ] + kf ,2 [N][O2 ] + kf ,3 [N][OH] − kr,1 [NO][N] − kr,2 [NO][O] and lower burner groups, and fix the CCOFA and SOFA ratios at 5% and
− kr,3 [NO][H] (12) 15%, respectively. The lower burner group (case 1: ABCD) of the three
cases is composed of A, B, C, and D burner sets, and the remaining
The fuel NO simulation was based on the Desoete model [35]. In this burner sets (E, F) were in standby states. However, all the burner sets’
model, the fuel NO is mainly distributed in the volatile matter and char. auxiliary (Aux.) air nozzles were in an open state to maintain the sta­
The Volatile-N could produce NO (reacts with O2 and oxidizes to form bility of the combustion flame. The middle burner group (case 2: BCDE)
NO) or N2 (reacts with NO to form N2) through the intermediate prod­ consists of four burner sets B, C, D, and E, and the remaining burner sets
ucts HCN and NH3. Char-N was directly converted to NO. The detail (A, F) were in standby states. When the upper burner group (case 3:
formation mechanism is presented in Fig. 2. For coal, the conversion of CDEF) only opens burner sets C, D, E, and F, the burner sets A and B are
HCN and NH3 was assumed to be 9:1, while char was completely in standby states. 2) The second series mainly analyzed the influence of
oxidized to NO [2,26,30]. Therefore, the total NOX emission prediction the CCOFA/SOFA distributions on the combustion stability, and the
can be compared and analyzed with the field result at the boiler exit. burners in each case were composed of burner sets B, C, D, and E. The air
To ensure the reliability of the simulation results, the effect of ratio of CCOFA and SOFA varies in 5% increments or 0–20% decre­
meshing on the calculation results is also crucial, besides selecting a ments, and the total OFA ratio was fixed at 20%. Related cases are
reasonable various sub-models. Three sets of high-precision grids were named after the ratio of CCOFA and SOFA, where case 4: C20S00 implies
that CCOFA and SOFA account for 20% and 0% of the total combustion
air, respectively. The rest are case 5: C15S05, case 6: C10S10, case 2:
C05S15, case 7: C00S20, and so on. 3) The last series mainly analyzes the
effect of different excess air ratio conditions on emissions. When the
middle burner group was configured and CCOFA/SOFA ratios fixed at
5% and 15%, the total excess air coefficient changes at 1.24 (case 8),
1.32 (case 2), and 1.40 (case 9). The remaining parameter conditions are
listed in Table 3.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Grid-independence study and simulation results validation

Based on the boiler calculation area, including bottom ash collector,

Fig. 2. Fuel NO formation mechanism. main combustion area, burnout area, and heat exchanger area, three sets

5
Y. Jiang et al. Fuel 306 (2021) 121727

Table 3
Simulation scenarios of calculation conditions.
Item Half-load condition

Case name Case 1 Case 2 (Baseline case) Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6 Case 7 Case 8 Case 9

Layer of burner ABCD BCDE CDEF BCDE

CCOFA in total combustion air ratio (%) 5 20 15 10 0 5
SOFA in total combustion air ratio (%) 15 0 5 10 20 15
Excess air ratio (%) 1.32 1.24 1.40

of high-precision grids were constructed for grid-independence research

(approximately 1.37, 1.71, and 1.92 million cells). Considering the Table 4
Comparison of field test and simulation results at boiler exit.
complex heat flow phenomenon in the main combustion zone, local
mesh refinement was performed. The gas temperature and velocity Items 100% NR 50% NR Baseline
[24] case
component distribution along the X-line under the different grid systems
are compared in Fig. 3. The 1.71 and 1.92 million cells mesh have the Gas temperature (K) Measured 627 578
most similar results. Therefore, a grid system of 1.71 million cells was Calculated 635 590
Errora 1.3% 2.03%
selected for simulation calculation, which not only ensured the reli­ O2 content (vol%) Measured 1.8 4.50
ability of the calculation results but also reduced the computational cost. Calculated 1.89 4.54
The CFD-predicted results were compared against the available field Errora 5% 0.9%
test results to verify the reliability of the chosen numerical model [26]. NOX emission (ppm, 6% O2) Measured 57 61.3
Calculated 47 63.3
Our previous work [24] has shown that the selected model maintains a
Errora − 17.5% 3.2%
high degree of consistency between the predicted results and the test Unburned carbon content Measured 0.7 0.75
results under 100% NR load boiler conditions. At the same time, a (wt%) Calculated 1.2 0.77
relatively unstable state during half-load conditions operation of the Boiler efficiency (%) 89.6 89.4
boiler, thereby affecting the measurement accuracy. The simulation a
Error = (calculated result – measured result) × 100/measured result.
results and field test results are shown in Table 4. In terms of measured
values, gas temperature, O2 content, NOX emission and UBC content
NOX production characteristics. By contrast, if there is a local flow field
were 578 K, 4.5%, 61.3 ppm and 0.75%, respectively. The correspond­
deflection in the furnace, then asymmetric combustion will occur,
ing calculated values were 590 K, 4.54%, 63.3 ppm and 0.77%,
forming a higher concentration of CO. The burnout rate will be lower,
respectively, which showed good agreement with field results (i.e.,
and the combustion efficiency will be reduced. At the same time, the
maximum errors between the measured and calculated values were less
instability of combustion can also cause a large amount of NOX to be
than 5%). Therefore, the chosen CFD calculation model was shown to be
generated in the boiler.
reliable for further analysis of the combustion stability and emissions of
Figs. 4 and 5 show the flow field distribution of the vertical section
the boiler under half-load conditions. Basically, the level of UBC in fly
and horizontal cross section of the furnace under various burner group
ash depends on the complete combustion reaction degree, and the boiler
arrangement conditions. Through the burner sets arranged at the cor­
uses high excess air to lower the UBC concentration.
ners of the boiler water wall, the primary air injected the mixed fuel–air
into the furnace. After the devolatilization reaction, the high tempera­
ture caused a fireball-shaped airflow formed by the rotation of the
3.2. Effects of various burner group arrangements on combustion stability
interlayer airflow of the burner sets to flow upward of the furnace.
and pollutant emissions
However, the various burner group arrangement conditions caused a
certain degree of deflection in the flow field in the furnace, which
Generally, according to a comprehensive review of tangentially fired
mainly occurred under the condition of the lower burner groups and the
boilers [30], the tangentially rounded boiler field has a relatively sym­
upper burner groups. Under the middle burner group arrangement
metrical combustion model, which is conducive to the gas temperature
conditions, a symmetrical boiler flow field was formed relative to other
distribution in the furnace, good burnout characteristics, and reduced

Fig. 3. Grid-independence study of the gas temperature and velocity component along the burner (X line).

6
Y. Jiang et al. Fuel 306 (2021) 121727

the burner outlet in the lower-left corner, which caused the right
deflected airflow phenomenon in the furnace. Further, the instability of
the flow field and upper burner groups was closer to the burnout air and
weakened the effect of air-staging on the formation of NOX.
Combining the temperature distribution in the furnace with various
burner group arrangement conditions in Fig. 6(a), it can be determined
that the left deflection flow field generated under the lower burner
group arrangement conditions was owing to the guiding effect of the PA
airflow within the A burner. At the same time, affected by the space of
the ash collector, the PA airflow mixed with coal particle swirls in the
ash collector area. The pulverized coal burnout reaction formed a high-
temperature area, and high-temperature turbulence caused a certain
degree of left deflection of the flow field. Moreover, comparing the
horizontal cross section temperature distribution in Fig. 7 (a), owing to
the severe airflow deflection in the furnace under the condition of case 3,
the coal-burning rate and temperature were increased. As shown in
Fig. 4. Influence of various burner group arrangements on flow field in boiler.
Fig. 6(b), a high O2 concentration was mainly distributed near the
burner and OFA nozzle area. The central furnace area had a high tem­
conditions, which facilitated the stable combustion of the internal boiler
perature and high CO concentration, which had a certain degree of in­
and the control of pollutant gases [36].
hibition of NO generation. In contrast to the other two burner groups,
As shown in Fig. 4, when the burner was configured as a lower
the lower burner showed a higher concentration of CO in the bottom ash
burner group, a certain degree of airflow was deflected to the left in the
collector (Fig. 6(c)). Under the condition of the middle burner group
lower ash collector of the combustion furnace and the exit area of the AB
arrangement (case 2), the flow field and temperature in the vertical and
combustor. In Fig. 5, comparing the horizontal cross section flow field
horizontal cross sections of the furnace showed a symmetrical distri­
distribution of burner B under the configuration of the lower and middle
bution (as shown in Figs. 4–7), reflecting the stable combustion in the
burner groups, it can be observed that the horizontal flow field of the
furnace [36]. However, the O2 concentration distribution under case 2
combustor had a significant upper-left deflection. The symmetry of the
conditions in Fig. 6(b) and 7(b) shows a higher concentration distribu­
flow field distribution inside the boiler largely depends on the flow di­
tion in the central area of the boiler, which is caused by the upward
rection of the PA/coal. Because the nozzle of the A burner in the lower
rotation of the SA airflow from burner A. Meanwhile, the distribution of
burner configuration was closer to the ash collector, the airflow was
high O2 and low CO concentration inside the boiler caused a massive
affected by the volume of the space after the downward rotation. After
formation of NO. As shown in Fig. 6(d), under the middle burner group
the swirling rise, the symmetry of the flow field distribution of the
arrangement condition, the central area of the furnace showed a high
bottom layer of the burner was affected, which caused combustion
concentration of NO.
instability. At the same time, the upper burner groups could not form a
As shown in Fig. 6(b) and 7(b), the O2 concentration distribution of
fair-ball upward swirling airflow because there was no PA airflow from
case 3 shows clear asymmetric characteristics. According to the vertical
the lower AB burners. The wide area of vertical updraft seriously
cross sectional view of Fig. 6(b), it can be concluded that the lower
affected the penetration of the upper burner group arrangement, causing
combustion zone (near the A B burner zone) lacks a pulverized coal
severe right deflection of the upper burner groups (Fig. 4). In examining
combustion reaction, resulting in a high-concentration O2 distribution.
the flow field central cross section of burner D in Fig. 5, it can be
Owing to the close distance between the upper burner groups and the
observed that the overall airflow obviously squeezed the airflow from

Fig. 5. Flow field with various burner set arrangements at horizontal cross section in boiler.

7
Y. Jiang et al. Fuel 306 (2021) 121727

Fig. 6. Influence of various burner group arrangements on gas temperature, gas species, and NO concentration distributions in boiler.

Fig. 7. Influence of various burner group arrangements on gas temperature, gas species, and NO concentration distributions at D burner central cross section.

CCOFA nozzles, a large amount of air mixed to form a strong airflow, irregular high O2 concentration distribution phenomenon, which hin­
which formed an obvious hindrance to the updraft below. Therefore, ders the degree of air-staging combustion. Combining the vertical sec­
Fig. 7(b) of the horizontal cross section of burner D shows an extremely tion temperature distribution of the furnace in Fig. 6(a) and the

8
Y. Jiang et al.
horizontal cross section of burner D in Fig. 7(a), it can be observed that
the upper burner group (C, D, E, and F burner) arrangement has pro­
duced a serious unstable combustion reaction. Turbulent flow produces
a cross distribution of high- and low-temperature areas. However, under
the influence of high temperature and high O2 concentration, the coal
burnout rate has increased in this area. Meanwhile, the temperature
rises sharply in a short time owing to the instability of combustion,
which increases the generation of thermal NO. Owing to the unstable
flow of airflow, the air-staging effect of the combustion furnace is
weakened, which is not conducive to suppressing the formation of fuel
NO [20].
As shown in Fig. 8, the FEGT, CO, NOX, and UBC concentrations were
compared under three various burner group arrangements. Compared
with the lower and middle burner group arrangement conditions, the
combustion space of the upper burner group arrangement decreased.
The high-concentration airflow caused a significantly unstable com­
bustion of pulverized coal, which increased by approximately 65 K
compared with the FEGT of the middle burner groups. Except for the
configuration of the lower burner groups, the CO concentration at the
boiler exit was extremely low because of the higher excess air used under
the operating conditions of the boiler. The pulverized coal particles
injected from the bottom burner (A) had a combustion reaction in the
ash collector zone, depleting a large amount of oxygen and generating a
large amount of CO gas, and finally along the center spin up to the boiler
outlet. The high concentration of CO produced by the lower burner also
shows that the pulverized coal was not burned out and the UBC content
was higher. However, a high concentration of CO has a reducing effect
on NOX formation. In addition, the lower and middle burners produced
lower NOX concentrations. The high concentration of NOX produced by
the upper burner is owing to the mixed combustion of pulverized coal
and a large amount of O2 in a short period of time to produce higher
NOX, and the close distance between the upper burner and CCOFA
weakens the influence of air-staging on NOX control. Considering the
influence of the flow field distribution, combustion stability in the
furnace, and generation of pollutants, the middle burner group
arrangement can be recommended as the optimal burner set layout
conditions.
3.3. Effect of different CCOFA/SOFA distributions on combustion
stability and pollutant emissions
For half-load operating conditions, optimizing the air-staging com­
bustion arrangement can help reduce the production of NOX and can
also increase the degree of burnout of pulverized coal. Generally, the
total OFA (CCOFA + SOFA) ratio should be no higher than 25% [14].
Otherwise, the primary air ratio in the main combustion zone will
decrease, which will cause ignition delays and reduce the coal burnout
characteristics.
Fig. 8. Parameter of some results in boiler exit with various burner group
arrangements.
9
Fuel 306 (2021) 121727
Fig. 9 shows the distribution of the flow field in the furnace under
different CCOFA/SOFA distributions. Combined with the flow field
distribution in the central cross section of the OFA2 nozzles in Fig. 10(a),
it can be observed that, in cases 4 and 5, airflows were deflected to the
left in the OFA burnout area. However, when the proportion of OFA air
is reduced to less than 10%, the flow field distribution formed by the
OFA2 nozzle airflow is concentrated in the central area of the furnace,
which reduces the fluctuation characteristics of the airflow. The main
reasons for the fluctuation of the airflow were the high ratio of excess air
and the unoptimized CCOFA/SOFA ratio. Although the flow field in the
main combustion zone is guided by the primary air, the flow field dis­
tribution in the furnace is deflected to a certain extent owing to the drag
effect of a large amount of CCOFA (ratio is greater than 10%) upward
swirling airflow. As shown in Fig. 10(b), when the SOFA ratio was less
than 10%, the penetration of the SOFA airflow was weak, and the un­
burned carbon particles and burnout air were mixed inefficient. When
the SOFA ratio was 20%, owing to the lack of stability-maintaining
characteristics of the CCOFA airflow to the overall upward airflow in
the furnace, the upward swirling airflow from the main combustion zone
is dragged by the direct SOFA airflow. The flow field in the combustion
furnace exhibited a right-deflection phenomenon, which caused unsta­
ble combustion and reduced the burnout rate of pulverized coal.
Comparing the five different cases, the flow field of case 2 is relatively
symmetrical, which also shows better flow characteristics and provides
the possibility for the stability of combustion in the furnace.
Fig. 11 shows a profile of the average temperature, O2 concentration,
CO concentration, and NO concentration along the height of the furnace
under different CCOFA/SOFA distributions. Because the operating pa­
rameters of the main combustion zone are consistent, the temperature
distribution of the main combustion zone under all conditions is almost
the same.
In case 4, the high ratio of CCOFA caused the O2 concentration curve
to form a peak at 35 m, as seen in Fig. 11(b). The strong CCOFA jets led
to a significant decrease in temperature from above the main combus­
tion zone, and the initial temperature of the CCOFA zone was approxi­
mately 200 K lower than the ending temperature of the main
combustion zone (see Fig. 11(a)). Then, as the high concentration of O2
in the CCOFA zone was mixed with unburned char particles, the gas
temperature first increased and then gradually decreased (with the
extent of the oxidation reaction).
When the ratio of CCOFA decreased, the O2 concentration curve
shows a clear decreasing trend, and the burnout zone (at 34–38 m)
temperature decreased. When the proportion of CCOFA was less than
10%, the effect of the char oxidation reaction on the temperature rise
was higher than that of CCOFA on the combustion gas temperature in
the main combustion zone. With an increase in SOFA ratio (i.e., from
case 5 to case 7), a low-temperature peak owing to SOFA appeared.
At the same time, with an increase in the SOFA ratio, the temperature
decreased gradually at 42–44 m. Afterward, with the complete oxidation
reaction of char, the temperature increased to a certain extent and then
decreased. In addition, because case 7 did not have a CCOFA layout, the
low concentration of O2 in this area caused a slower degree of char
burnout. At the same time, the high ratio of SOFA significantly lowered
the combustion temperature, which eventually led to the appearance of
a high concentration of UBC in the fly ash at the boiler exit (see Fig. 12).
As shown in Fig. 11(c), the CO concentration curve is inversely
proportional to the O2 concentration. With an increase in the ratio of
CCOFA/SOFA, the concentration of CO decreased to a certain extent.
However, owing to the high concentration of excess air, after passing
through the SOFA area (at 44 m), the CO concentration decreased to
almost zero. Fig. 11(d) shows the distribution curve of the NO concen­
tration in the furnace. Compared with the high concentration of NO
formed at the outlet of the main combustion zone, coal particles were
affected by the strength of the CCOFA air, and the burnout degree was
reduced, resulting in a reduction in the NO concentration. As the char
oxidation reaction proceeded, the NO concentration increased.
Y. Jiang et al.
Fig. 9. Flow field in furnace with different CCOFA/SOFA distributions.
Fig. 10. Flow field at OFA 2/SOFA 2 nozzles central cross section with different CCOFA/SOFA distributions.
However, when the CCOFA ratio was less than or equal to 10% (i.e., case
2 and case 7), the NO concentration slowly decreased under the influ­
ence of a CO reducing atmosphere. At the same time, with an increase in
the SOFA ratio, the decrease in gas temperature (at 42–44 m) also
caused the formation of thermal NO to decrease.
As shown in Fig. 12, the key performance parameters of the boiler
under five different CCOFA/SOFA distribution conditions were
analyzed. As the SOFA ratio increased, the FEGT concentration gradu­
ally decreased. A high proportion of SOFA gas will also affect the
burnout rate of pulverized coal in the burnout area. In particular, when
the SOFA ratio was higher than 25%, the UBC content in fly ash of case 7
increased more significantly than in case 2. The lack of CCOFA causes
instability in the flow field (see Figs. 9 and 10), thereby reducing the
burnout rate of char. The possible factors causing this phenomenon also
include the extremely strong jets of SOFA, causing ununiform mixing
between char particles and O2 gas (i.e., inefficient mixing). The UBC
content in the fly ash is affected by the SOFA burnout air, so a SOFA ratio
of less than 15% under the half-load condition can effectively improve
10
Fuel 306 (2021) 121727
the degree of char burnout. With an increase in the SOFA ratio, the trend
of NOX at the boiler exit is consistent with the NO concentration curve in
Fig. 11 (d). The increase in the SOFA ratio has a positive effect on
reducing the NO production inside the boiler, and the NOX emission of
case 7 is reduced by approximately 16% compared to that of case 4.
Therefore, a reasonable optimization of the air ratio distribution of
CCOFA/SOFA is indispensable for improving the combustion perfor­
mance of the boiler and reducing the NOX emission. Considering the
combustion characteristics and pollutant production, the optimal con­
ditions should be CCOFA 5% and SOFA 15% (that is, case 2 is the best
case).
3.4. Effects of different excess air ratios on simulated parameters at boiler
exit
Usually, when the boiler load is reduced, the proportion of excess air
must be kept high [16]. Otherwise, the amount of air consumed in the
combustion reaction is not sufficient to maintain the airflow up-rotation,
Y. Jiang et al. Fuel 306 (2021) 121727

Fig. 11. Parameters of some results along the height of the furnace under different CCOFA/SOFA distributions.

11
Y. Jiang et al.
Fig. 12. Parameter of some results in boiler exit with different CCOFA/SOFA
distribution conditions.
resulting in a decrease in the gas rising rate.
Fig. 13 shows a comparison and analysis of the FEGT and the rele­
vant parameter data of the boiler exit under different excess air ratio
conditions. The FEGT decreased with an increase in excess air propor­
tion. However, a lower FEGT temperature can affect steam parameters.
Compared with case 8, when the excess air proportion reached 40%, the
temperature dropped by approximately 70 K. Owing to the higher ratio
of excess air, all three cases showed lower CO concentrations. Generally,
under the condition of 100% NR load, the average residence time of
pulverized coal particles is approximately 21 s [30]. However, according
to the results of the tracking characteristics of flue gas and coal particles
under the 50% load condition summarized in Table 5, the average
residence time and traveling length of the flue gas under the case 2
conditions were 32.5 s and 179.7 m, respectively. Meanwhile, the dif­
ference between the residence time of the flue gas and the residence time
of the coal particles is only 0.2 s. This indicates that the trajectory of the
pulverized coal particles is similar to the flue gas traveling length.
Owing to the weakening of the combustion reaction intensity of coal
under 50% load conditions, the temperature of the flue gas is reduced,
and the flue gas leaves the furnace at an average relatively low velocity
(5.7 m/s) and enters the primary superheater zone. The residence time
of the coal particles decreased as the ratio of excess air increased, but the
residence time was much higher than the 100% load condition. Further,
the negative effect of the burnout degree of coal particles due to the
increase in residence time is also weaker than the positive effect of the
excess air coefficient on the burnout degree of the coal particles. Finally,
the UBC concentration in the fly ash increased and then decreased in the
excess air ratio. Further, because of the increase in the excess air coef­
ficient, the pulverized coal was fully burned, and the amount of NOX
Fig. 13. Parameter of some results in boiler exit with different excess air ratios.
12
Fuel 306 (2021) 121727
Table 5
Summary of flue gas and coal particle tracking characteristic.
Item Case 8 Case 2 Case 9
Fuel gas average velocity at burner nozzle outlet (m/ 15.1 16.1 17.1
s)
Fuel gas average velocity at furnace exit (m/s) 5.4 5.7 5.9
Fuel gas average residence time (s) 34.2 32.2 31.2
Fuel gas average traveling length (m) 185.4 179.7 170.1
Total particle average residence time (s) 34.5 33.0 31.4
generated gradually increased [16]. Considering the combustion,
emission parameter results, and steam parameters of the boiler under
the condition of ensuring the stability of the internal combustion of the
boiler, an excess air ratio of 32% is the optimal operation condition.
4. Conclusions
This study investigated the combustion stability and NOx emission
characteristics for the operation conditions of a half-load in a 550-MW
tangential-firing coal boiler. Using a CFD simulation, the Base case (i.
e., BCDE burner group arrangement, CCOFA 5% and SOFA 15%, and
excess air ratio of 32%) was established in good agreement with the field
test, and some operation conditions (i.e., various burner set arrange­
ments, CCOFA/SOFA distributions, and excess air ratios) were
compared and evaluated for key performance parameters such as field,
temperature, and gas composition in the furnace and UBC, and NOX
emissions in the boiler exit. The following conclusions can be drawn:
1) Under half-load operating conditions, the burner sets the arrange­
ment in different combustion zones, causing deflection of the flow
field in the furnace, resulting in unstable combustion [13]. The dis­
tance between the upper burner and the CCOFA is relatively close,
causing a large amount of NOX to be generated in a short period of
time (low air-staging efficiency). Compared with the upper-burner-
set arrangement, the middle burner sets exhibit stable combustion,
and approximately 62 ppm NOX is reduced. At the same time, the
middle burner arrangement has a better burnout rate than the lower-
burner-set arrangement, approximately 0.12% UBC concentration
was decreased. Therefore, the best burner set arrangement was the
middle burner set.
2) Different ratios of CCOFA/SOFA have a certain degree of influence
on the combustion of boilers operating at half-load. As the SOFA
ratio increased, NOX generation decreased. However, when the
proportion of SOFA ratio was maximized (SOFA 20%), owing to the
inefficient mixing and the lower combustion temperature, the UBC
content increased. Considering the stability of the combustion and
the characteristics of emissions, the ratio of CCOFA 5% and SOFA
15% is preferred as the operating condition.
3) Based on the optimal burner set arrangement and air-staging ratio,
we compared the effects of combustion characteristics with different
excess air conditions. However, high excess air increased the NOX,
while the combustion temperature was significantly reduced in the
furnace [16], making the FEGT quite low and affecting the heat ex­
change tubes above the main combustion zone. The lower excess air
slightly increased the concentration of UBC. The comprehensive
evaluation adopted an actual operation, and a 32% excess air ratio
should be selected.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Yu Jiang: Writing – original draft, Conceptualization, Methodology,
Software, Formal analysis, Visualization, Data curation, Investigation.
Byoung-Hwa Lee: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing.
Dong-Hun Oh: Validation. Chung-Hwan Jeon: Supervision, Project
administration.
Y. Jiang et al. Fuel 306 (2021) 121727

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