7CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS
AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES
Topic 1: Human Development: Meaning
Concepts, and Approaches
What is Human Development?
- It is the pattern of movement or
change that begins at conception and
continues through the life span. Development
includes growth and decline. This means that
development can be positive or negative.
(Santrock, 2002).
Why do we need to study human
development?
 To understand the mechanism that
produces human behavior
 To understand our nature
 To understand ourselves
Two Approaches to Human Development
1. Life-Span
 Development is lifelong- It does not
end in adulthood.
 Development is plastic- Plasticity
refers to the potential change.
Development is possible throughout
the lifespan.
 Development is multidimensional-
Development is consists of biological,
cognitive, and socio-emotional
dimensions.
 Development is relatively orderly-
A child will learn to sit and crawl before
they can walk and run.
 Proximodistal Pattern- The
muscular control of the trunk and
the arms comes earlier as
compared to the fingers.
 Cephalo-caudal Pattern- Top to
bottom.
 Development takes place
gradually- A child won’t develop into
pimply teenagers overnight.
 Development is Contextual-
Individuals are changing beings in a
changing world.
 Development involves growth,
maintenance, and regulation- The
three goals of human development
2. Traditional
 Extensive changes from birth to
adolescents
 Little or no change in adulthood
 Decline in late old age
Topic 2: Stages of Human Development and
Developmental Tasks
Concept of Developmental Tasks
- Robert Havighurst defines developmental
tasks as one that “arises at a certain period in our
life, the successful achievement of which leads to
happiness and success with later tasks while
failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval,
and difficulty with later tasks.” (Havighurst,
1972).
The Developmental Tasks(Havighurst,
1972)
1. Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5)
 Learning to walk
 Learning to take sold foods
 Learning to talk
 Learning to control the body elimination
wastes
 Learning sex differences and sexual
modesty
 Acquiring concepts and language to
describe social and physical reality
 Learning to distinguish right from wrong
and developing an conscience
2. Middle Childhood (6-12)
 Learning physical skills necessary for
ordinary games
 Building a wholesome attitude toward
oneself
 Learning to get along with agemates
 Learning an appropriate sex role
 Developing fundamental skills in reading,
writing, and calculating
 Developing concepts necessary for
everyday living
 Developing conscience, morality, and a
scale of values
 Achieving personal independence
  Developing acceptable attitudes toward
society
3. Adolescence (13-18)
 Achieving mature relations with both
sexes
 Achieving a musculine or feminine
social role
 Accepting one’s physic
 Achieving emotional independence of
adults
 Preparing for marriage and family life
 Preparing for an economic career
 Acquiring values and an ethical system
to guide behavior
 Desiring and achieving socially
responsible behavior
4. Early Childhood (19-29)
 Selecting a mate
 Learning to live with a partner
 Starting a family
 Rearing children
 Managing a home
 Starting an occupation
 Assuming civic responsibility
5. Middle Adulthood (30-60)
 Helping teenage children to become
happy and responsible adults
 Achieving adult social and civic
responsibility
 Satisfactory career achievement
 Developing adult leisure time activities
 Relating to one’s spouse as a person
 Accepting the physiological changes of
middle age
 Adjusting to aging parent
6. Later Maturity (61 and over)
 Adjusting to decreasing strength and
health
 Adjusting to retirement and reduced
income
 Adjusting to death of spouse
 Establishing relations with one’s own
age group
 Meeting social and civic obligations
 Establishing satisfactory living quarters
The Developmental Tasks (Santrock,
2002)
1. Prenatal Period ( conception to birth)-
It involves tremendous growth- from a single
cell to an organism compete with brain and
behavioral capabilities.
Three Phases
 Germinal- first two weeks
 Embryonic- 3 to 8 weeks
 Fetal- 2 months to birth
2. Infancy (birth to 2)- A time of extreme
dependence on adults.
3. Early Childhood (3-5)- Young children learn
to become self-sufficient and care for themselves.
4. Middle and Late Childhood (6-12)- The
fundamental skills of reading, writing, and
arithmetic are mastered.
5. Adolescence (13-18)- Adolescents intensely
pursue independence and seek their own identity.
6. Early Adulthood (19-29)- Time of
extablishing personal and economic
independence.
7. Middle Adulthood (30-60)- Time of
expanding personal and social development.
8. Late Adulthood (61 above)- Time for
adjustment to decreasing health and strength.
 Nature vs. Nurture- Nature refers to an
individual biological inheritance. Nurture
refers to environmental experiences.
 Continuity vs. Discontinuity- Continuity’s
development involves gradual and cumulative
change, while discontinuity changes
distinctively.
 Stability vs. Change- Stability is oour first
experiences that made us, while change is the
development of someone different from who
he is at an earlier point of development.
Topic 3: Sigmund Frued’s Psychoanalytic
Theory
Stages of Psychosexual Development
Erogenous Zone- A specific area that becomes
the focus of pleasure needs.
Fixation- Occurs when needs are not met or
oversatisfied.
1. Oral Stage (birth to 18 months)- The child
is focused on oral pleasures.
EZ- Mouth
FX- Oral Fixation or Oral Personality
2 Types of Personality
  Oral Receptive- Smoke, drink
alcohol, overeat
 Oral Aggressive- Bite nails,
curse words, gossip
2. Anal Stage (18 to 30 years)- The child
finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining
feces.
EZ- Anus
FX- Anal Retentive or Anal Expulsive
 Anal Retentive- Cleanliness,
perfection, and control
 Anal Expulsive- Messy and
disorganized
3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)- Children
become interested in what makes boys and
girls different.
EZ- Genitals
FX- Oedipus Complex or Electra
Complex
 Oedipus Complex- Boys
develop unconscious sexual
desire for their mother.
 Electra Complex- Girls
develop unconscious sexual
desire for their father.
4. Latency Stage (6 to puberty)- Sexual
urges remian reppressed. Boys relate more
with boys and girls with girls during this stage.
5. Genital Stage ( puberty onwards)-
Sexual urges are once awakened. Adolescents
focus their sexual urges towards the opposite
sex peers.
Freud’s Personality Component
1. Id (Pleasure principle)- Focuses on
immediate gratification or satisfaction of its
needs.
2. Ego (Reality principle)- It is aware that
others also have needs to be met.
3. Superego (Moral principle)- It is likened
to conscience because it exerts influence on
what one considers right and wrong.
Topographical Model
1. The Unconscious- Most of what influence
us is our subconscious.
2. The Conscious- We are only aware of a
very small part of what makes up our
personality.
3. The Subconscious- This is the part that we
can reach if prompted, but is not in our active
conscious.
Topic 4: Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Cognition- Came from the Latin word
“Cognosere” which means to know or to
recognize or to conceptualize.
Cognitive Development- Emergence of the
ability to think and understand.
Basic Cognitive Concepts
1. Schema- Refers to the cognitive structures by
which individuals intellectually adapt and organize
their environment. It is an individual’s way to
undestand or create meaning about a thing or
experience. (Eg.Dog)
2. Assimilation- The process of fitting a new
experience into an existing or previously created
cognitive structure or schema. (Eg.Different dog)
3. Accomodation- The process of creating a
new schema. (Eg.Dog to Goat)
4. Equilibration- Achieving proper balance
between assimilation and accomodation.
 Cognitive Disequilibrium- Whyen our
ecperiences do not match with our
schemata or cognitive structures.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage 1: Sensori-Motor Stage (birth to 2)-
This is the stage when a child who is initially
reflexive in grasping, sucking, and reaching.
 Object Permanence- The ability of the
child to know that an object still exists
even when out of sight.
Stage 2: Pre-Operational Stage (2 to 7)- The
child can now make mental representations and is
able to pretend.
 Symbolic Function- The ability to
represent objects and events. A symbol is
a thing that represents something else.
(Drinking, Princess)
 Egocentrism- The tendency of the child
to only see his point of view and to
assume that everyone also has his same
point of view. (Toy truck, Uncle)
 Centration- The tendency of the child to
only focus on one aspect of a thing or
 event and exclude other aspects.
(Water, New glass)
 Irreversibility- Pre-operational
children still have the inability to
reverse their thinking. (2+3=5, 5-3=2)
 Animism- The tendency of children to
attribute human like traits or
characteristics to inanimate objects.
(Mr. Sun)
 Transductive Reasoning- The child’s
type of reasoning that is neither
inductive or deductive. (Evening, Mom)
Stage 3: Concrete-Operational Stage (8
to 11)- The ability of the child to think
logically but only in terms of concrete objects.
 Decentering- The ability of the child
to perceive the different features of
objects and situations. (Not limited)
 Reversibility- The child can now
follow the certain operations can be
done in reverse. (Ball of clay, Dinosaur)
 Conservation- The ability to know
that certain properties of object like
number, mass, volume, or area do not
change do not change even if there is a
change in appearance. (Water, New
Glass)
 Seriation- The ability to order or
arrange things in a series based on one
dimension such as weight, volume or
size.
Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage (12 to
15)- They can now solve abstract problems
and can hypothesize.
 Hypothetical Reasoning- The ability
to come up with different hypothesis
about a problem in order to make a
final judgment or final decision. (What
if?” questions)
 Analogical Reasoning- The ability to
perceive the relationship in one
instance an d the use that relationship
to narrow down possible answers in
another similar situation or problem.
(UK-Europe, PH-Asia)
 Deductive Reasoning- The ability to
think logically by appliying a general
rule to a particular instance or stituation.
(North pole, Cold, Greenland)
Topic 5: Erik Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory
of Development
Malignancy- Too little of the positive and too
much of the negative.
Maladaptation- Not quite as bad, too much of
the positive and too little of the negative.
Virtue- A certain virtue is carried away if a stage
is well-managed.
Psycho-Social Stages of Development
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)- The
goal is to develop trust without completely
eliminating the capacity for mistrust.
 Maladaptation-Sensory Maladjustment -
Overly trusting, even gullible, no one can
harm him
 Malignancy- Withdrawal - Characterized
by depression, paranoia, and possibly
psychosis.
 Virtue- Hope - Even when things are not
going well, thet will work out well in the
end.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
(Early Childhood 18months- 4 years)- The
task is to achieve a degree of autonomy while
minimizing shame and doubt.
 Maladaptation-Impulsiveness - A sort of
shameless willfulness that leads you to
jump into things withour proper
consideration of your abilities.
 Malignancy- Compulsiveness - A
compulsive person feels as if their entire
being rides on everything they do.
 Virtue- Willpower or Determination -
“Can do” motto.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood
3-6 years)- The task is to learn initiative without
too much guilt.
 Maladaptation-Ruthless -- Sociopathy -
To be ruthless is to be heartless or
unfeeling or be “without mercy”.
 Malignancy- Inhibition - Afraid to start
and take lead.
 Virtue- Purpose -- Courage - The
capacity for action despite a clear
 understanding of your limitations and
past feelings.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (School
Age 6 to 12 years)- The task is to develop a
capacity for industry while avoiding an
excessive sense of inferiority.
 Maladaptation-Narrow Virtuosity -
We see this in children who are not
allowed to be children. Eg. Child
actors/ athletes
 Malignancy- Inertia - Never trying out
after failing.
 Virtue- Competency - Industry with
just a just of inferiority to keep us
sensibly humble.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion
(Adolescence 18- 20 years)- The task
during adolescence is to achieve ego identity
abd avoid the role confusion.
 Maladaptation-Fanaticism - A fanatic
believes that his way is the only way.
 Malignancy- Repudiation - To
repudiate is to reject. They reject their
need for an identity.
 Virtue- Fidelity - It means loyalty. The
ability to live by societies standards
despite their imperfections and
imcompleteness and inconsistencies.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young
Adulthood 18 to 30 years)- The task is to
achieve some degree of intimacy as opposed to
remaining isolation.
 Maladaptation-Promiscuity- The
tendency to become intimate too
freely, too easily, and without any
depth of your intimacy.
 Malignancy- Exclusion - The tendency
to isolate oneself from love, friendship,
and community.
 Virtue- Love - Being able to put aside
differences and antagonisms through
“mutuality of devotion”.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
(Middle Adulthood 25 to 59 years)-
Generativity- An extension of love into the
future.
Stagnation- Self-absorption, caring for no
one.
 Maladaptation- Overextension - A
person no longer contributes well. No
time for himself.
 Malignancy- Rejectivity - A person no
longer participate or contributes.
 Virtue- Caring - This will serve you
through the rest of your life.
Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late
Adulthood 60 above)- The task is to develop
ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair.
Ego Integrity- Coming to terms with your life,
and thereby6 coming to terms with the end of
life.
 Maladaptation- Presumption - A person
presumes ego integrity without actually
facing the difficulties of old age.
 Malignancy- Disdain - The person
becomes very negative and appears to
hate life.
 Virtue- Wisdom - Someone who
approaches death without fear.
Topic 6: Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of
Moral Development
Stages of Moral Development
1. Pre-Conventional Level (birth to
adolescents)- Moral reasoning is based on the
consequence/result of the act, not on the whether
the act itself is good or bad. Moral reasoning is
self-centered.
Stages 1&2
 1- Punishmet/ Obedience- One is
motivated by fear of punishment.
 2- Mutual Benefit- One is motivated to
act by the benefit that one may obtain
later.
2. Conventional Level (adolescence and
young adult)- Moral reasoning is based on the
conventions or “norms” of society. This may
inlcude approval of others, law and order. Moral
reasoning is others-centered.
Stages 3&4
 3- Social Approval- One is motivated by
what others expect in behavior. He gives
importance on what people will think or
say.
 4- Law and Order- One is motivated to
act in order to uphold law and order.
3. Post-Conventional (adulthood)- Moral
reasoning is based on enduring or consistent
principles. It is not just recognizing the law, but
the principles behind the law. Moral judgments
are based on personal standards for right and
wrong.
Stages 5&6
 5- Social Contract- One will act
based on social justice and the
common good.
 6- Universal Principles- This is
associated with the development of
one’s conscience.
Topic 7: Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural
Theory
Social Interaction- Effective learning
happens through participation in social
activities.
Cultural Factors- One culture’s view about
education, how children are trained early in life
all can contribute to the cognitive development
of the child.
Language- It serves as a social function but it
also has an important individual function.
Learning by doing is even made more fruitful
when children interact with knowledgeable
adults and peers.
 Private Speech- A form of self-talk
that guides the child’s thinking and
action.
Zone of Proximal Development
 Zone of Actual Development (ZAD)-
When a child attempts to perform a skill
alone. She may perform at a certain level
of competency.
 More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)- A
competent adult or a more advanced peer.
The child can perform at a higher level of
competency.
 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)-
The difference between what the child can
accomplish alone and what she can
accomplish with the guidance of another.
 Scaffolding- The support or assistance
that leds the child accomplish a task he
cannot accomplish independently. It
involves judicious assitance given by the
MKO to that the child can move to ZAD to
ZPD. (eg. Tetra pack, container lid)
 Scaffold and Fade-away Technique-
When learners complet their tasks on their
own withput assitance, the guidance can be
withdrawn.
Topic 8: Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
Theory
Bioecological Systems- Presents the child
development within the context of relationship
systems that compromise the child’s
development. It describes multipart layers of
environment that has an effect on the
development of the child.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model:
Structure of Environment
1. The Microsystem- It comprises structures
which the child directly interacts with including his
family, school, and neighborhood. It covers the
most basic relationship and interaction that a
child has in his immediate environment.
 Bi-directional Influences- When the
child is affected by the behavior and
beliefs of the parents, however, the child
also affects the behavior and beliefs of
the parents.
2. The Mesosystem- Seves as the connection
between the structures of the child’s microsystem.
It includes the interaction between the parents
and the teachers , health services, community,
and church.
3. The Exosystem- Refers to the bigger social
system in which the child does not function
directly. This includes the city government, the
workplace, and the mass media. The child may
not interact with the exosystem directly, but he is
likely to feel positive or negative impact this
system creates.
4. The Macrosystem- It includes the cultural
values, customs, and laws. Because of the
differences in beliefs and customs, children
experience different child-rearing practices and
therefore differences in development as well.
5. The Chronosystem- This involves pattern of
stability and change in the child’s life. This
involves whether the child’s day is characterized
by an orderly predictable pattern, or whether
the child is subjected to sudden changes in
routine.

The Role of Schools and Teachers

 If there is a lack of support, care, and
affection from the home, what can the
school and teachers do? This theory
helps the teachers to look into every
child’s environmental system in order
to understand more about the
characteristics and needs of each child,
each learner. The schools and teachers
are only their to support, not to replace
relationships at home.

Healthy Ecology of a Child (+)

 Family- bonded to caregivers and positive
discipline.
 School- Supportive teachers and academic
success.
 Peers- Peer acceptance and pro-social
values.

High Risk Ecology of a Child (-)

 Family- Insure bond or inconsistent
discipline.
 School- Conflict with teachers and
academic failure.
 Peers- Peer conflict and anti-social values.