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BII Algebra Lecture 1
BII Algebra Lecture 1
1. x ∼ x for all x ∈ A.
2. For x, y ∈ A, if x ∼ y, then y ∼ x.
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One of the most important results in this con-
text:
Clearly,
[
A= [a]
a∈A
Conversely, let
[
A= Aα ,
α∈I
2
be a partition of A into disjoint subsets.
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Starting point: ∅.
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Let us give those sets from the last page some
names (rather symbols).
Write:
0 for ∅.
4 for {∅, {∅}, {∅, {∅}}, {∅, {∅}, {∅, {∅}}}} (= {0, 1, 2, 3}).
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The system of symbols {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, · · · } thus
obtained is the set of natural numbers, denoted
by N.
• 0 is a natural number.
n + S(m) = S(n + m)
Illustration:
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The set N, together with addition + satisfies:
1. n + (m + p) = (n + m) + p for all m, n, p ∈ N.
2. n + m = m + n for all m, n ∈ N.
3. n + 0 = n for all n ∈ N.
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In an algebraic system as above we would like
to solve equations.
X +2=1
does not (why?).
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Construction of Integers
Let us check.
[(a, b)] = [(c, d)] ⇒ (a, b) ∼ (c, d)
(a, b) ∼ (c, d) ⇒ a + d = c + b
[(m, n)] = [(p, q)] ⇒ (m, n) ∼ (p, q)
(m, n) ∼ (p, q) ⇒ m + q = p + n
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What is the “zero” in Z?
n 7→ [(n, 0)]
Then
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On N. we can also define multiplication.
Then,
n × S(m) = n × m + n
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Now that we have addition and multiplication
on Z, consider the equation:
2x = 3
It has no solution in Z.
15
Almost a similar construction as before.
Take
X = {(a, b) ∈ Z × Z |b 6= 0}
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Notation: write [(a, b)] for the equivalence class
of (a, b).
Define:
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Take any [(a, b)] ∈ Q, with a 6= 0. Then
φ : Z −→ Q
n
n 7→
1
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Let n(6= 0) ∈ Z. Note that, in Q we have
n 1 1
× =
1 n 1
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Now consider the equation:
x2 = 2
That’s analysis.
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Again, another equation! Consider
x2 + 1 = 0
This has no solution in R.
We shall take
R[X]
2
,
hX + 1i
where
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We shall see later that:
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