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3 - Modeling in The Time Domain
3 - Modeling in The Time Domain
ATILIM University
2022-2023 Spring Semester
1
Introduction to State Space Analysis
• For analysis and design of feedback control systems, two approaches are available.
• Linear, time invariant and SISO systems can be designed and analysis, or the systems
that can be approximated like this. The primary disadvantage of this technique is its
limited applicability.
• The major advantage of this technique is that they rapidly provide stability and
transient response information. So we can immediately see the effects of varying
system parameters until acceptable design is met.
• While the requirements for control systems increasingly in scope, modeling systems
by using Linear, time invariant differential equations and its transfer functions
became not enough.
2
Introduction to State Space Analysis
• It is unified method for modeling, analyzing and designing a wide range of systems
• It can be used for non-linear systems that have backlash, saturation and dead-zone.
• Time varying systems (missile with varying fuel levels, aircraft flying wide range of
altitude) can be represented in state-space.
• MIMO systems (such as autonomous vehicle’s speed and direction) can be compactly
represented in state space.
• Time domain approach can be used to represent systems with digital computer in the loop
or to model systems for digital simulation.
• It is attractive because a lot of state space software packages are available in the market.
3
Introduction to State Space Analysis
• Designer has to engage in several calculations before the physical representation of the
model is apparent.
• In classical method, after a few quick calculations and graphic representation of data,
rapidly gives the physical interpretation.
• Complex technique
• It is important to note that the state space model of any given transfer function is not
unique. There are a lot of state space model of the same transfer function.
4
Introduction to State Space Analysis
BASICS
State : It is a group of variables which summarizes the history of the system, in order to predict
the future values.
State Variable : The smallest set of variables that determines the state of the system are known as
state variable.
State Equations : For nth order system, n simultaneous first order differential equations in terms of
state variables are called as state equations.
5
Introduction to State Space Analysis
6
Introduction to State Space Analysis
• If we know the initial condition of all the state variables at t0, we can solve the simultaneous
differential equations for state variables for t ≥ t0.
• At any initial time t= t0, the state variables 𝑥1 𝑡0 , 𝑥2 𝑡0 … 𝑥𝑛 𝑡0 define initial states of the system.
• Once the input of the system for t ≥ t0 ,initial states just defined are specified.
• STATE VARIABLES SHOULD COMPLETELY DEFINE THE FUTURE BEHAVIOR OF THE SYSTEM
Multi Input, Multi Output System
STATE EQUATIONS + OUTPUT EQUATIONS = SPACE STATE REPRESENTATION (MODEL) MIMO
𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 ← State Equation
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢 ← Output Equation 𝑢1 (𝑡) 𝑦1 (𝑡)
𝑥 : State Vector 𝑢2 (𝑡) 𝑦2 (𝑡)
𝑥ሶ : Derivative of state vector with respect to time 𝑨𝑩𝑪𝑫
𝑦 : Output Vector
𝑢 : Input or Control Vector
𝐴 : System Matrix 𝑢𝑚 (𝑡) 𝑦𝑝 (𝑡)
𝐵 : Input Matrix
𝐶 : Output Matrix
𝐷 : Feed Forward Matrix
EXAMPLE : Find the state space model, if the output is resistor current. STEP-4 : Substitute the results of STEP-2 and STEP-3 and find state equations.
L
𝑑𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 𝑑𝑣𝑐 1 1
𝐶 =− + 𝑖𝐿 𝑡 → =− 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 + 𝑖𝐿 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝐶 They are
+ iL(t)
iR(t)
iC(t) state
𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿 1 1 equations
Vi(t) e(t) 𝐿 = 𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 → = − 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 + 𝑒(𝑡)
R C Vo(t)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
-
STEP-2 : Select state variables by writing derivative equations for all energy STEP-6 : Write the State Space Model of the Electrical Circuit from State and Output
storage elements. Equations.
They are state variables
𝑑𝑣𝑐 −1 1
𝐶 = 𝑖𝐶 They are not state variables 0 state
𝑑𝑡 𝑣ሶ 𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝐶 𝑣𝐶
𝑑𝑖𝐿 = 1 𝑒(𝑡) equations
𝐿 = 𝑣𝐿 𝚤ሶ𝐿 −1 𝑖𝐿 +
𝑑𝑡 0 𝐿
𝐿
The derivated values are selected as state variables. 1 𝑣𝐶
𝑖𝑅 = 0 𝑖𝐿
𝑅 Output Equation
STEP-3 : Obtain non-state variables (𝑖𝐶 , 𝑣𝐿 ) expressions from the combination of
state variables and input.
𝑣𝐶 𝑡
𝑖𝐶 = −𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖𝐿 = − + 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑅
STATE SPACE MODEL (REPRESENTATION)
𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
9
State Space Model of a Mechanical System
Procedure for Writing State Equations of a Mechanical System STEP-1 : At node X1,
𝑀1 . 𝑥ሷ 1 + 𝐵. 𝑥ሶ 1 + 𝐾. 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 0
STEP-1: Obtain mathematical model of the system by using nodal method. At node X2,
STEP-2: Define state variables 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 ,…. 𝑀2 . 𝑥ሷ 2 + 𝐾. 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = −𝑓(𝑡)
STEP-3: Arrange these state variables in proper state model equations. STEP-2 : Define the state variables with z notation
STEP-4: Using these equations, write state space equations. 𝑥1 = 𝑧1 𝑥2 = 𝑧3
EXAMPLE : Obtain State Space Model of the system by using nodal method. 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑧1ሶ = 𝑧2 𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑧3ሶ = 𝑧4
𝑥ሷ 1 = 𝑧ሶ2 𝑥ሷ 2 = 𝑧ሶ4
common element STEP-3 : Arrange the differential equations with these z values
x1 x2 𝐾 𝐵 𝐾
𝑀1 . 𝑧ሶ2 + 𝐵. 𝑧2 + 𝐾. 𝑧1 − 𝐾𝑧3 = 0 → 𝑧ሶ2 = − . 𝑧1 − . 𝑧2 + 𝑧
𝑀1 𝑀1 𝑀1 3
B
K 𝐾 𝐾 1
M1 f(t) 𝑀2 . 𝑧ሶ4 + 𝐾. 𝑧3 − 𝐾𝑧1 − 𝑓 𝑡 = 0 → 𝑧ሶ4 = . 𝑧1 + 𝑧3 + 𝑓(𝑡)
M2 𝑀2 𝑀2 𝑀2
STEP-4: Using these equations, write state space equations.
0 1 0 0
has no friction has no friction −𝐾 −𝐵 𝐾 0
𝑧1ሶ 𝑡 𝑧1
0 0
𝑧ሶ2 𝑡 𝑀1 𝑀1 𝑀1 𝑧2
= + 0 𝑓(𝑡)
Solution : Let’s draw Nodal Analysis diagram of the mechanical structure. 𝑧ሶ3 𝑡 0 0 1 0 𝑧3 1
𝑧4ሶ (𝑡) 𝐾 −𝐾 𝑧4
0 0 𝑀2
X1 K X2 𝑀2 𝑀2
Output equation
𝑦1 = 𝑥1 = 𝑧1 𝑦1 (𝑡) 𝑦1 (𝑡) 1 0 𝑧1 (𝑡)
B
M1 M2 f(t) 𝑦 𝑡 = =
𝑦2 = 𝑥2 = 𝑧3 𝑦2 (𝑡) 𝑦2 (𝑡) 0 1 𝑧3 (𝑡)
10
Phase Variable Form
1. Phase variables are chosen as the state variables. EXAMPLE : Find the state space model of the following differential equation.
2. System model is given in the form of differential equation or transfer
function. ഻
𝑦 + 5ഺ
𝑦 + 7𝑦ሶ + 9𝑦 = 8𝑢
State Space Model of nth Order Differential Equation SOLUTION :
The nth order differential equation is
𝑦 = 𝑥1
𝑦ሶ = 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑥2
𝑑𝑛 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑛−2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦 𝑡 𝑦ሷ = 𝑥ሷ 1 = 𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑥3
+ 𝑎1 + 𝑎 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑏. 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑡 𝑦ഺ = 𝑥ഺ1 = 𝑥ሷ 2 = 𝑥ሶ 3 = 𝑥4
The state variables are ഻
𝑦 = 𝑥ሶ 4
𝑦 = 𝑥1
𝑑𝑦 ഻
𝑦 = 8𝑢 − 5ഺ
𝑦 − 7𝑦ሶ − 9𝑦 → 𝑥ሶ 4 = 8𝑢 − 5𝑥4 − 7𝑥2 − 9𝑥1
= 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑥2
𝑑𝑡 State equation is
𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑥3
𝑥ሶ 3 = 𝑥4
. 𝑥ሶ 1 𝑡 0 1 0 0 𝑥1 0
. 𝑥ሶ 2 𝑡 0 0 1 0 𝑥2 0
. = 𝑥3 + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑥ሶ 3 𝑡 0 0 0 1
𝑥ሶ 𝑛−1 = 𝑥𝑛 −9 −7 0 −5 𝑥4 8
𝑥ሶ 4 (𝑡)
𝑥ሶ 𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 − 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥2 − ⋯ − 𝑎2 . 𝑥𝑛−1 − 𝑎1 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑏. 𝑢
𝑥ሶ 1 𝑡 0 1 0 … 0 𝑥1 𝑡 0
𝑥ሶ 2 𝑡 0 0 1 … 0 𝑥2 𝑡 0 Output equation is
. = 0 0 0 … 0 . + . 𝑢(𝑡)
. . . . . . . .
𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−2 … 𝑎1 𝑥𝑛 𝑡 𝑥1
𝑥ሶ 𝑛 𝑡 𝑏
𝑥2
𝑦(𝑡) = 1 0 0 0 𝑥
𝑥1 3
𝑥2 𝑥4
𝑦(𝑡) = 1 0 … 0 .
.
𝑥𝑛 11
State Space Model for a Given Transfer Function
Solution Methods: STEP-2: The output of each integrator is designated by a state variable.
1. Direct Decomposition 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑥2
2. Cascade Decomposition 𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑥3
3. Canonical or Diagonal Form (Parallel Decomposition) 𝑥ሶ 3 = −6𝑥1 − 11𝑥2 − 6𝑥3 + 𝑢
4. Jordan’s Canonical Form (State Model using Parallel Decomposition) 𝑦 = 𝑥1 (𝑡)
5. State Model Phase Variable Formulation for Transfer Function by
Signal Flow Graph 𝑥ሶ 1 𝑡 0 1 0 𝑥1 (𝑡) 0
𝑥ሶ 2 𝑡 = 0 0 1 𝑥2 (𝑡) + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
I-Direct Decomposition Method
𝑥ሶ 3 𝑡 −6 −11 −6 𝑥3 (𝑡) 1
If transfer function of a given system is in the following form,
Direct decomposition method can be applied for solution. 𝑥1 (𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = 1 0 0 𝑥2 (𝑡)
𝑌 𝑠 1
= 3 𝑥3 (𝑡)
𝑈 𝑠 (𝑠 + 6𝑠 2 + 11𝑠 + 6)
The differential equation is of 3rd order. So, there are 3 summing points in
series and 3 integrators in series in block diagram.
−6𝑥1 + 𝑢
𝑢(𝑡) + + + 𝑥ሶ 3 𝑥3 = 𝑥ሶ 2 𝑥2 = 𝑥ሶ 1 𝑥1 𝑦(𝑡)
න න න
+ + +
−6𝑥3
−6
−11𝑥2
−11
−6𝑥1
−6
12
State Space Model for a Given Transfer Function
If transfer function of a given system is in the following form, STEP-2: The output of each integrator is designated by a state variable.
Cascade decomposition method can be applied for solution.
𝑥ሶ 1 = −3𝑥3 + 𝑥2 𝑥ሶ 1 𝑡 −3 1 0 𝑥1 (𝑡) 0
𝑌 𝑠
𝑈 𝑠
=
1
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 3)
𝑥ሶ 2 = −2𝑥2 + 𝑥3
𝑥ሶ 3 = −𝑥3 + 𝑢(t)
𝑦 = 𝑥1 (𝑡)
} 𝑥ሶ 2 𝑡
𝑥ሶ 3 𝑡
= 0 −2 1 𝑥2 (𝑡) + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
0 0 −1 𝑥3 (𝑡) 1
𝑥1 (𝑡)
STEP-1: Represent the transfer function in the form of a block diagram. 𝑦(𝑡) = 1 0 0 𝑥2 (𝑡)
𝑥3 (𝑡)
The differential equation is of 3rd order. So, there are 3 consequtive
summing points and integrators in series in block diagram.
+ + +
13
State Space Model for a Given Transfer Function
III-Canonical or Diagonal Form (Parallel Decomposition) STEP-2: Let’s take the inverse Laplace transform
14
Derivation of Transfer Function From State Space Model
𝑥ሶ = Ax + Bu
𝑦 = Cx + Du
Identity Matrix
Taking Laplace Transform of both the equations assuming zero initial conditions. We get,
1 0
𝐼=
0 1
𝑠𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑆) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑠)
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐶𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐷𝑈(𝑠)
𝑠 0
𝑠𝐼 =
𝑠𝑋 𝑠 − 𝐴𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐵𝑈(𝑠) 0 𝑠
𝑋 𝑠 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑈 𝑠 𝐼: 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
−1
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
𝑋 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 . 𝐵. 𝑈
𝑠 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 . 𝐵. 𝑈 𝑠 + 𝐷𝑈(𝑠)
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑌 𝑠 = [𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 . 𝐵 + 𝐷]𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑌 𝑠 −1 . 𝐵
= 𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 +𝐷 Transfer function of the system
𝑈(𝑠)
15
Derivation of Transfer Function From State Space Model Example-1
EXAMPLE : Obtain the transfer function if state model is given by the followings. 𝑠+3 1
−1 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2
𝑥ሶ 1
=
0 1 𝑥1
+
0
𝑢(𝑡)
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = −2 𝑠
𝑥ሶ 2 𝑥
−2 −3 2 1
𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2
𝑥1
𝑦= 1 0 𝑥 −1
2 𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 .𝐵
Solution : Let’s use the Transfer Function Formula. Since D=0
𝑠+3 1
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
.𝐵 + 𝐷 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 0
𝑇(𝑠) = 1 0 −2 𝑠 1
𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2
1 0 0 1 𝑠 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠. − =
0 1 −2 −3 2 𝑠+3 1
𝑇(𝑠) =
𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2
𝑠+3 1
−1
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −2 𝑠
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑠. 𝑠 + 3 − (−1.2)
16
Derivation of Transfer Function From State Space Model Example-2
EXAMPLE : Obtain the transfer function if state model is given by the followings. 𝑠+8 1
−1 𝑠 2 +8𝑠+12 𝑠 2 +8𝑠+12
𝑥ሶ 1
=
0 1 𝑥1
+
0
𝑢(𝑡)
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = −12 𝑠
𝑥ሶ 2 𝑥
−12 −8 2 1
𝑠 2 +8𝑠+12 𝑠 2 +8𝑠+12
𝑥1
𝑦= 8 1 𝑥 −1
2 𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 .𝐵
Solution : Let’s use the Transfer Function Formula. Since D=0
𝑠+3 1
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐶. 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
.𝐵 + 𝐷 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 0
𝑇(𝑠) = 8 1 −2 𝑠 1
𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2
1 0 0 1 𝑠 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠. − =
0 1 −12 −8 12 𝑠+8 𝑠+8
𝑇(𝑠) =
𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 + 12
𝑠+8 1
−1
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −12 𝑠
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑠. 𝑠 + 8 − (−1.12)
17
Solution of the Time Invariant State Space Equation
𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 𝜑 𝑡 = ℒ −1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
→ 𝜑 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝐴𝑡
𝑋 𝑠 = 𝜑 𝑠 .𝑥 0
−1
𝜑 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 State Transition Matrix
or Resolvent Matrix
18
Solution of the Time Invariant State Space Equation
ሶ = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑢(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡)
𝜑 𝑠
19
Solution of the Time Invariant State Space Equation Example-1
20
Solution of the Time Invariant State Space Equation Example-2
1 𝑡
0 𝑥 𝑡 = −1 + 2.𝑡𝑒
(𝑠 − 1) 2. 𝑡. 𝑒
−1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
1 1
(𝑠 − 1)2 (𝑠 − 1)
21
Solution of the Time Invariant State Space Equation Example-3 Let’s solve the homogeneous part (A) of the system.
(𝑠 + 4) 1 (𝑠 + 4)
EXAMPLE : Determine the output time response of the following system. Input
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) 1 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
𝑢 𝑡 = 5 at 𝑡 = 0. 𝑥𝐴 𝑡 = ℒ −1 . = ℒ −1
−3 𝑠 0 −3
𝑥ሶ 1 (𝑡) 0 1 𝑥1 (𝑡) 0 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
= + 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑥ሶ 2 (𝑡) −3 −4 𝑥2 (𝑡) 1
3 1
2 − 2 3 −𝑡 1 −3𝑡
1 0 𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑒 − 𝑒
𝑦 𝑡 = (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 3) 2 2
1 1 𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝑥𝐴 𝑡 = ℒ −1 =
3 3 3 −𝑡 3 −3𝑡
−2 − 𝑒 + 𝑒
1 − 2 2 2
Initial conditions of the system → 𝑥 0 = (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 3)
0
Solution : Formula of the state equation for non-homogeneous system. Let’s solve the non-homogeneous part (B) of the system.
𝑥 𝑡 = ℒ −1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
. 𝑥0 + ℒ −1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
. 𝐵𝑈 𝑠 (𝑠 + 4) 1 5
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) 0 5 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
𝑥𝐵 𝑡 = ℒ −1 . . = ℒ −1
1 0 0 1 𝑠 −1 −3 𝑠 1 𝑠 5
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠. − =
0 1 −3 −4 3 𝑠+4 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
𝑠+4 1 5 5 5
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 3− 2 − 6 5 5 −𝑡 5 −3𝑡
𝜑 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
= = 1 𝑠 − 𝑒 − 𝑒
𝑠 𝑠+1 (𝑠 + 3)
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) 𝑥𝐵 𝑡 = ℒ −1 = 3 2 6
5 5 5 −𝑡 5 −3𝑡
2 − 2 𝑒 − 𝑒
2 2
(𝑠 + 4) 1 𝑠+1 (𝑠 + 3)
−1 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
−3 𝑠 3 −𝑡 1 −3𝑡 5 5 −𝑡 5 −3𝑡
𝑒 − 𝑒 − 𝑒 − 𝑒 5 −𝑡
4 −3𝑡
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝐴 𝑡 + 𝑥𝐵 𝑡 = 2 2 + 3 2 6 = 3 −𝑒 − 3 𝑒
3 3 5 −𝑡 5 −3𝑡
− 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡
2 2 2 2
22
Solution of the Time Invariant State Space Equation Example-3 (cont.)
5 −𝑡
4 −3𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 3 −𝑒 − 𝑒
3
𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡
5 4 −3𝑡
1 0 𝑥1 (𝑡) 1 0 −𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = = . 3 −𝑒 − 3 𝑒
1 1 𝑥2 (𝑡) 1 1
𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡
5 4
−𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = 3 3
5 7 −3𝑡
− 𝑒
3 3
23