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Non-intrusive Measurement Method for the Window Opening Behavior

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Accepted Manuscript

Non-intrusive Measurement Method for the Window Opening

Behavior

Hengjie Zheng , Fei Li , Hao Cai , Kai Zhang

PII: S0378-7788(19)30004-0
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.05.052
Reference: ENB 9213

To appear in: Energy & Buildings

Received date: 2 January 2019

Revised date: 16 April 2019
Accepted date: 25 May 2019

Please cite this article as: Hengjie Zheng , Fei Li , Hao Cai , Kai Zhang , Non-intrusive
Measurement Method for the Window Opening Behavior, Energy & Buildings (2019), doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.05.052

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Non-intrusive Measurement Method for the Window

Opening Behavior

Hengjie Zheng, Fei Li*, Hao Cai, Kai Zhang

College of Urban Construction, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 210009, P.R.

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China

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* Corresponding author: Fei Li
Tel: +86-25-83239533;
E-mail: faylee@njtech.edu.cn
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[Submitted to Energy and Building]
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Abstract

The occupant windows opening behavior has a great impact on indoor air quality

and building energy consumption. Therefore, measuring the window opening

behavior and factors that affect it are important for the occupant behavior modeling

and architectural design. In this study, we proposed non-intrusive measurement

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methods which can achieve large-scale sampling for the window state. An image

recognition code based on MATLAB was used to conduct projective transform of the

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building elevation maps, identify the window positions and determine their opening

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proportions. The method can recognize most of window open states with the error of

8%. Based on this method, the window opening states for a hospital building from
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August to December in 2018 (about 6,000 samples) was collected. Then the
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significance of the influencing factors and window opening distributions under

different factors were analyzed. The results showed the outdoor temperature had the
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most significant effect, and the frequency of the window opening proportion in the
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range of 0.3 to 0.5 within 20°C to 30°C is significantly higher than other temperature

ranges. This large-scale sampling method proposed in this paper provided a powerful
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tool for building modeling and energy analysis.

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Keywords: Image recognition, Window opening, Variance theory, Projective

transform, Error analysis

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1. Introduction

People spend about two-thirds of their time indoors[1]. Therefore, a good indoor

environment must be ensured in order to improve their health and life quality. Natural

ventilation is the most common ventilation mode[2] and always used to introduce

outdoor fresh air, discharge pollutants and improve indoor thermal comfort[3]. In

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addition, the natural ventilation also has a significant impact on the building energy

consumption[4]. Huang[2] reported this was an important cause for heating energy

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increase in cold area of China. Wang[5] found the HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and

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Air Conditioning) energy could be saved of 17–47% with mixed-mode ventilation

during summer. However, the natural ventilation is difficult to be modeled and

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analyzed, because it greatly depends on the variations of occupied window opening

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behavior[6]. Therefore, to better understand the occupant interaction with the window

controls and build more efficient statistic model, it needs large sampling for window
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opening behavior and factors that affect it. This is important for designing healthier
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and more energy efficient buildings.

For the window state detection, there are generally two main methods. One
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method is to monitor the open or closed state of windows through the magnetic
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switch[7, 8]. The other method is to monitor the window opening proportion based on

laser technology[9]. In this way, the target window status can be monitored in real

time. However, these methods have limited sample sizes due to the cost and intrusive

installation of the sampling devices, and the intrusive installation may also interfere

with the occupant window opening behavior. Besides，Rijal et al. [10] obtained the

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status of 15 office buildings through field surveys, and determined the status of the

window through the surveys and questionnaires. But it takes a long time, and the

window status is not very accurate by the respondent questionnaire.

Image processing and recognition technology has been applied in the facial

recognition field successfully. The facial features can be extracted by projecting,

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segmenting, filtering, and the like. Wang et al.[11] used image recognition technology

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to accurately locate facial feature points, proposed fatigue classification algorithm to

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analyze the fatigue degree of the personnel. The model accuracy was 87.82%. Sui et

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al.[12] used wavelet transform in image processing tools to establish an image

processing technology model to analyze face, vehicle and architectural landscape

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images. The final model classification accuracy was 89%. For the identification of
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building interiors, Brockmann et al.[13] proposed three different MATLAB image

processing schemes to analyze the occupancy of personnel seats in the report hall. By
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comparison, the method with the lowest number of wrong decisions is the improved
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reference imaging (IRI) with a weighted error rate of 8.68% corresponding to an

average of 10.4 wrong decisions on 120 seats. O'Brien et al.[14] analyzed the
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potential benefits of building facade drapes. The image processing tool is used to
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correct and recognize the captured image to obtain the façade utilization of the

building. The recognition error of each façade is about 5%. These studies demonstrate

the image recognition technology is reliable, but it has almost no application in

sampling of window opening behavior.

This study aims to develop a non-intrusive method to measure the window

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opening proportion. We used image recognition technology based on MATLAB

program to obtain the window states of the whole building. In addition, based on the

field-sampling data, the effects of outdoor temperature, relative humidity and PM2.5

concentration were analyzed by variance analysis theory.

2. Image recognition method for the window state

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The image recognition technology was used to calculate and record the window

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states. This method has three steps: 1) photography, 2) photograph pre-processing, 3)

image recognition.

2.1 Photography US
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The building facades were captured by photography and converted to a digital

database. We selected a student dormitory located in the campus of Nanjing Tech

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University and a hospital building in Nanjing. For the dormitory and hospital building,
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a lot of people lived in, and the occupant behavior could fully affect the window

opening states. Besides, these building facades were regular and easy to be shot. The
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sampling time was from August to December in 2018, and the sampling frequency
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was one per hour, from 8 am to 5 pm. During this measurement period, outdoor

temperature, relative humidity, PM2.5 concentration, wind speed and direction were
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also recorded.

2.2 Photograph pre-processing

Though we photographed the building facade at an angle as close as possible to

be normal to the surface, the photograph was always not taken at a perfect angle.

Therefore, a projection transformation using MATLAB was used to correct the facade
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images. Projection transformation is also called homography which is an isomorphism

of projective spaces.

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Fig. 1 Schematic of the projection transformation
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The principle of projection transformation is shown in Fig. 1. Points A’, B’, C’,

D’ and A, B, C, D are related by a perspective, which is a projective transformation.

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The projection transformation describes a transformation from a 2D scene to another

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2D image, which is a linear transformation of aligned sub-ternary vectors represented

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by a non-singular 3×3 matrix:

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𝑥1′ ℎ11 ℎ12 ℎ13 𝑥1

′
(𝑥2 ) = [ℎ21 ℎ22 ℎ23 ] (𝑥2 ) (1)
𝑥3′ ℎ31 ℎ32 ℎ33 𝑥3
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where x' is the coordinate point on the plane after the projection transformation; h is a

homogeneous matrix; x is the coordinate point on the original plane. In our method,

firstly, the image is converted to gray scale to reduce the complexity of image

recognition. Then, the pixel coordinates of the facade were determined by selecting

four corners of the image. Finally, the projection transformation based on MATLAB
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code was used to correct each photo according to the selected coordinates. After the

projection transformation, the sizes of windows in the final image were equal (Fig. 4).

2.3 Image recognition of the window state

The pixel intensity of the open window portion has obvious difference with the

closed part. Therefore, a recognition algorithm was established to identify the window

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opening state in each image based on the pixel intensity.

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As shown in Fig. 2, X axis and Y axis are the height and width of the window

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respectively, the colorful contour is the pixel intensity distribution. The left window is

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closed, and the right window is opened. A pixel threshold is needed to accurately

distinguish the pixel intensity value between the open and closed parts of the window.
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Fig. 2 Window image (left) and the window pixel intensity distribution (right)
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The pixel threshold is an important parameter for separating different window

states. Fig. 3 shows the histogram of the window pixel intensity, X axis is the pixel

intensity value，and Y axis is the number of pixel intensity. Two main pixel intensity

peaks are shown in the Fig. 3. The left peak is the pixel intensity for the open part

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with the highest probability density, and the right peak is the pixel intensity for the

close part with the highest probability density. The selected pixel threshold is the

middle pixel intensity (black point in Fig. 3). For different windows, the pixel

threshold may be different due to some effects from external factors.

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Fig. 3 Histogram of the window pixel intensity

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By calculating the number of pixel intensities for the open part and the entire

window, the opening proportion could be determined. However, due to the variation
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of the pixel intensity for similar objects, the pixel threshold cannot be universally
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implemented. It should be determined based on the pixel intensity distribution around

a window. In addition, during the identification process, the threshold selection for
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each picture should takes into account the weather factor. The pixel threshold can be

manually modified depending on the weather conditions at different times though the

method above.

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3. Analysis of variance

This study selected the data collection in the hospital building for data analysis.

Five months monitoring (from August to December in 2018) produced approximately

6,000 sample data of the window opening states. During this sampling, outdoor

temperature, relative humidity and PM2.5 concentration around the target building

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were recorded simultaneously. The theory of variance analysis was used to conduct

the significant analysis of the influencing factors on the window opening behavior.

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The variance analysis can identify whether there is a significant difference in the

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observed variables with different control variables. The analysis of variance process

mainly includes proposing hypotheses, constructing statistics and statistical decisions.

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In the process of proposing hypotheses，assuming that there are k levels of

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observed variables, the following assumptions are:

H0: μ1=μ2=…=μk (2)

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H1: μk not equal (3)

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where μk is the mean of the kth level; H0 indicates there is no significant difference

between the levels of observed variables; H1 indicates that there is significant

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difference between the levels of observed variables.

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Then, in order to test whether the H0 is satisfied, it is necessary to calculate the

sum of squares between levels (SSA) and the sum of squares within levels (SSE):

𝑆𝑆𝐴 = ∑𝑘𝑖=1 𝑛𝑖 (𝑥̅𝑖 − 𝑥̿ )2 (4)

𝑛
𝑆𝑆𝐸 = ∑𝑘𝑖=1 ∑𝑗=1
𝑖
(𝑥𝑖𝑗 − 𝑥̅𝑖 )2 (5)

Where k is the number of levels, 𝑥̅𝑖 is the sample mean of the ith level; 𝑛𝑖 is the

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sample size of the ith level; 𝑥̿ is the overall mean; 𝑥𝑖𝑗 is the jth observation of the ith

level. SSE is a measure of the variation of the data within the treatment levels, and

SSA is a measure of the variation of the treatment means between treatments.

When H0 is true, the ratio as follow is subject to the F distribution:

𝑆𝑆𝐴/(𝑘−1)
𝐹 = 𝑆𝑆𝐸/(𝑛−𝑘) ~𝐹(𝑘 − 1, 𝑛 − 𝑘) (6)

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where n is the number of all observations. The value of Eq. (9) is compared with the

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threshold Fα at a given significance level α. If F>Fα, H0 is rejected, and the control

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variable is considered to have a significant influence on the observed values; if F< Fα,

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H0 is accepted, and it is not possible to determine that the control variable has a

significant influence on the observed value.

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4. Results and Discussion

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4.1 Image identification for the window state

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Taking the dormitory for example, the results of projection transformation on the

basis of Eq. (1) are shown as follows:

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Fig. 4 Projection transformation of the building facade

As shown in Fig. 4, the original image is converted to the corrected image by

projection transformation, and the windows are marked by red boxes. The window

opening proportion of each window is identified by the method mentioned in Section

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2.3. However, due to the window reflections, some errors will occur, and we need

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handle it manually.

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Table.1 Pixel threshold selection for four windows

Window
number
Average
window pixel
Average pixel
value of the
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Average pixel
value of the
Pixel
threshold
Window picture
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intensity open part closed part
1 87.64 40.12 104.02 45

2 107.89 0 107.89 45
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3 90.64 0 90.64 60
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4 86.65 50.68 121.58 60

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We use four window states to illustrate the distribution of pixel intensity and
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threshold selection. Table.1 shows the pixel intensity distribution for different

windows, and the pixel thresholds were selected based on the histograms of pixel
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intensity shown in Fig. 3. For fully closed and open windows, such as No. 2 and No. 3,

their pixel thresholds were set as the values of their surrounding window.

Table.2 Window opening proportion distribution

X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6

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Y1 0.93 0.95 0.6* (1.00) 0.00 0.00 0.34* (1.00)

Y2 0.97 1.00 0.00 1.00 0.89 0.92

Y3 1.00 0.97 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.91

Y4 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.91 1.00 0.33* (1.00)

Y5 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.17 1.00 1.00

Y6 1.00 0.92 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

Y7 1.00 0.91 1.00 0.68 0.00 1.00

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Y8 1.00 0.89 0.96 0.77* (1.00) 1.00 1.00

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Y9 0.95 1.00 0.93 0.87 1.00 1.00

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Y10 1.00 0.78* (1.00) 0.87 0.00 1.00 1.00

*：The values needed correction (The corrected values).

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Table 2 shows the calculated results of the window opening proportion on the

façade of the building in Fig. 4. X and Y axes are their corresponding positions.
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Compared with the data handled manually, if the difference of the opening proportion
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is larger than 0.2, this calculated result is regarded as an error. In the table, the marked

values are the data with large errors, and the corrected values are shown in
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parentheses. Finally, the error rate is about 8%.

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4.2 Window opening data analysis

The non-intrusive image recognition method was used to collect the states of the
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windows on the hospital building facade. The influence of outdoor temperature,

relative humidity on the frequency of different window opening proportions was

shown in Fig. 5. The frequency is the ratio of the number of windows with assigned

opening proportion to the total number of samples within that range.

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(a)

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（b）
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Fig. 5 Distributions of the window opening proportion: (a) Window opening

proportion distribution at different temperature levels; (b) Window opening
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proportion distribution at different relative humidity levels.

Fig.5 (a) shows the window opening proportion distribution for the hospital
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building under different outdoor temperature levels. We divide the temperature from 5℃

to 35°C into five intervals. It can be seen that in 20°C to 25°C, the frequency of larger

opening proportions (0.3 to 0.5) is relatively higher. This is because the outdoor

temperature is comfortable at this range, and it is the most suitable for natural

ventilation. But in the hot summer, as outdoor temperatures gradually rise, occupants
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begin to use air conditioning to regulate the indoor environment and reduce the use of

natural ventilation. Therefore, the frequency of closed window (opening proportion is

zero) between 30°C and 34°C is the largest (about 0.73); and the frequency of larger

window opening proportions is reduced. In addition, the frequency of the window

opening proportion in the range of 0.3 to 0.5 within 20°C to 30°C is significantly

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higher than other temperature ranges. Fig.5 (b) shows window opening proportion

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distribution at different outdoor relative humidity levels. When the relative humidity

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is in the range of 30% to 45%, the frequency of the larger window opening

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proportions (0.3 to 0.5) is higher due to the comfortable outdoor air as well. However,

when the relative humidity is between 75% and 90%, the outdoor air is muggy in
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Nanjing district, and people tend to use air conditioning with windows closed which
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results in higher frequency of closed windows.

From Fig.5, it is also found that the frequency of closed windows is the highest,
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and the opening proportions is mainly in the range of 0.2 to 0.4. This is because for
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the hospital building, some high-rise rooms rarely opened windows, and in order to

prevent the patients from catching cold, the window opening proportion was always
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small. Shi[7] also found that the windows mostly had a small opening state, and most
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of the window opening periods were in the temperature range of 20℃ to 25℃ in a

hospital building. In our study, much more window states were monitored, and the

results as shown in Fig (5) can exhibit the window opening behavior throughout the

whole building. Rijal et al[10] monitored the window status of 15 buildings in UK.

The results indicated that almost every building had open windows accounting for 20%

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to 50% of the total windows, which was similar as our results. But they didn’t

measure the window opening proportion. Wang et al[15] reported that the opening

proportion of the window had a significant impact on the natural ventilation rate of

the building. And the influence of air change rates on indoor air quality was also

observable[16, 17,18].

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Table.3 Analysis of variance for influence factors

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Factor VIF SS df MS F P-value F crit

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Tout (℃) 1.32 8.54 4 2.14 99.83 0.00** 2.38
RH (%) 1.62 0.93 3 0.31 14.18 0.00** 2.61
PM2.5 (μg/m3) 0.00**
Tout and RH
Tout and PM2.5
1.88 1.32
1.14
0.10
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4
2
0.66
0.28
0.05
34.35
13.33
2.97
0.01*
0.05
3.01
2.38
3.01
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RH and PM2.5 0.06 1 0.06 2.61 0.11 3.87
(Dependent variable: Window opening proportion) *: P<0.05 **: P<0.01
Tout: Outdoor temperature; RH: Relative humidity
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The variance inflation factor was used to prove the multi-collinearity problem
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have no exists between factors (VIF<5). In Table 3, outdoor temperature, relative

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humidity, and PM2.5 have a significant effect on window opening proportion (F>F

crit, P<0.01). The outdoor temperature has the greatest impact on the window open
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proportion. Besides, the interaction of outdoor temperature and relative humidity has
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an effect on the window opening behavior (F>F crit , P<0.05). This result illustrates

that the window opening behavior is effect by a combination of different factors.

4.3 Discussion

In the method of image recognition window state proposed in this paper，the

errors of the window state recognition mainly results from the selection of pixel

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threshold value. Though we have select the pixel thresholds based on pixel intensity

analysis, the calculated window opening proportions still have some errors. This is

mainly because threshold values of different windows vary, and the gradients of pixel

values are low. Therefore, the image recognition algorithm requires some manual

operations for calibration. At present, this method only can be used to monitor and

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analyze the sliding type window, and the window distribution on the facade is

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required to be regular. In the further study, maybe we can introduce the face

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recognition technology, such as CNN (Convolutional Neural Network), to the

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building recognition field. Personal privacy is another issue when photographing the

building. Therefore, this technology is only used to investigate the window opening
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behavior for public buildings such as office buildings and hospitals at present.
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5. Conclusion
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In this study, non-invasive methods were proposed to measure the window

opening states. An image recognition code was established to identify the opening
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proportions of windows on the building facade. The accuracy of this method in this
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study reached 92%, and its error mainly resulted from low pixel intensity gradients

and window reflection. The collected data for the window opening states of a hospital
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building in Nanjing were investigated. The results showed that when the outdoor

temperature is from 20 °C to 25 °C, the frequency of larger opening proportions (0.3

to 0.5) is relatively higher. In the hot summer (30 °C ~34 °C), the frequency of closed

window is the largest (about 0.73), and the frequency of larger window opening

proportions is reduced. In general, the frequency of closed windows is the highest. In

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addition, the analysis of variance theory showed that the outdoor temperature, relative

humidity and PM2.5 concentration had a significant impact on the window open

behavior, and the outdoor temperature had the most significant effect.

The non-intrusive window state measurement method can obtain more samples

than traditional methods and get the window opening proportions of different rooms

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at the same time. This is of great significance in understanding the utilization of

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natural ventilation in the entire building. The data acquisition method proposed in this

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paper also can be used to collect the big data for developing and validating the

building simulation models.

Acknowledgements
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This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
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(Grant No. 51708286), and the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (No.
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BK20171015). This study was also supported by the National Program on Key Basic

Research Project (973 Program, Grant No. 2015CB058003), the National Natural
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Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51478468), and Jiangsu Provincial

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Department of Housing and Urban Rural Construction (No. 2018ZD067).

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