IB CHEMISTRY HL INTERNAL ASSESSMENT

TOPIC: Effect of citric acid concentration on the caramelisation reaction

Research Question: How does changing the concentration of citric acid in sucrose
solution (0.00moldm-3, 0.05moldm-3, 0.10moldm-3, 0.15moldm-3, 0.20moldm-3,
0.25moldm-3) affect the colour of caramel formed from the solution, as measured by
absorbance of the solution at 620 nm after heating over Bunsen burner for 2 minutes?

1: Introduction
Caramel is a commonly used ingredient in baked goods, desserts and as a colouring agent. It
is prepared by heating a mixture of sugar, water and lemon juice to high temperatures
(>160˚C). The heat dehydrates the sugar and results in the formation of a brown, viscous,
sticky liquid that solidifies when cooled.

As a person who enjoys making and eating desserts, caramel is something that I routinely
prepare at home. I noticed that even while following the same recipe, my caramel often has
subtle differences in colour. Curious to find out what causes the difference in colour, I did
some research online. I found that the citric acid in the lemon juice altered the reaction, and
that different amounts of citric acid could affect the colour and quality of the caramel formed.
This fascinated me, so when I had the opportunity to investigate this in my Chemistry
Internal Assessment, I decided on the research question: How does changing the
concentration of citric acid in sucrose solution (0.00moldm-3, 0.05moldm-3 0.10moldm-3,
0.15moldm-3, 0.20moldm-3, 0.25moldm-3) affect the colour of caramel formed from the
solution, as measured by absorbance of the solution at 620 nm after heating over
Bunsen burner for 2 minutes?

2: Background Information
2.1: Caramelisation Mechanism
Caramel colour is produced by a process called caramelisation. Caramelisation is a type of
non-enzymatic browning reaction1. During the caramelisation of sucrose, sucrose is first
hydrolysed into fructose and glucose by a process called inversion of sucrose.

Fig 1. Inversion of sucrose2

After the inversion of sucrose, the two monomers, fructose and glucose, polymerise by
condensation reactions to form a wide range of high molecular weight components
responsible for the brown colour. The three main groups of compounds are: caramelans
(C12H18O9), which are dehydration products, and two polymers, caramelens (C36H50O25) and

1 Brown, C., & Ford, M. (2014). Higher level chemistry. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education.
2 Roemer, Ewald, et al. “Scientific Assessment of the Use of Sugars as Cigarette Tobacco

Ingredients: A Review of Published and Other Publicly Available Studies.” Critical Reviews
in Toxicology, vol. 42, no. 3, 2012, pp. 244–278., doi:10.3109/10408444.2011.650789.

1
caramelins (C125H188O80)3. These are the end products of the chain of reactions in the
caramelisation process. As the reaction progresses, the amount of caramelans, caramelins and
caramelens increase, making the solution become a darker shade of brown.

Some of the fructose and glucose also decomposes to form aromatic compounds, which
contribute to the characteristic “nutty” taste of caramel. These include furans, diacetyl, maltol
and ethyl acetate.

2.2: Role of Citric Acid

Citric acid is a weak acid, so when it is dissolved in water, it partially dissociates and forms
H+ ions4. It is a triprotic acid that dissociates in three steps:

Fig 2. Dissociation of a citric acid5

The H+ ions catalyse the inversion of sucrose. The citric acid also prevents crystallisation of
the sucrose since the solution becomes more saturated while heating.

2.3: Method
To measure the effect of citric acid on the caramelisation process, two methods could be
used. The first method is to take a fixed amount of sucrose solution and measure the time
taken for caramelisation to occur (for the solution to change from colourless to brown), using
a stopwatch. Then, this is repeated with the same volume and concentration of sucrose
solution but using varying concentrations of citric acid. Finally, the time taken for the colour
of the solution to change is compared. The second method is to heat the solutions for a fixed
amount of time and measure the absorbance of the solution after the given time using a
colorimeter.

The first method with heating time as the independent variable was not used since it is
difficult to judge the exact end-point of the reaction. There is also a high chance that the time
may not be accurate due to human error, as the reaction time to seeing the colour change and
stopping the stopwatch is not taken into account. The second method, with absorbance as the
independent variable was chosen since this method is more accurate and gives more reliable
data. By using a colorimeter to measure the absorbance of light at 620 nm of the different
sugar solutions, the concentration of the brown compounds formed can be compared fairly.
620 nm is chosen since it is the wavelength of orange light, one of the main components of
brown light.

3
Miller, D. D. (2014). Food chemistry: A laboratory manual. New Delhi: Wiley.
4 Brown, C., & Ford, M. (2014). Higher level chemistry. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education.
5 What is the equilibrium constant of citric acid?: Socratic. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-the-equilibrium-constant-of-citric-acid

2
2.4: Colorimetry
The colorimeter is a digital instrument used to measure the absorbance and transmittance of
different wavelengths of light by a solution. It consists of three parts: a light source, a cuvette
with the solution to be measured and a photocell for detecting the light passed through the
medium6.

Fig 3. Schematic diagram of colorimeter7

Colorimetry is based on the principle of Beer-Lambert’s Law, which states that there is a
linear relationship between absorbance and concentration of an absorbing species8.

Beer-Lambert Equation:
𝐴 = 𝜀×𝑐×𝑙 (1)

where A is absorbance (no unit), 𝜀 is the molar extinction coefficient (M-1cm-1), c is

concentration (M) and l is path length (cm) 9.

3: Hypotheses
H0: As the concentration of citric acid in solution increases, there is no effect on the
absorbance of the caramel at 620nm.

H1: As the concentration of citric acid in solution increases, the absorbance of the caramel at
620nm increases.

An alternate hypothesis with a positive correlation between the concentration of citric acid in
solution and the absorbance of the caramel at 620nm was chosen since as the concentration of
citric acid increases, the amount of glucose and fructose in the solution increases, making the
rate of reaction increase due to more concentration of reactants. This makes the caramelans,
caramelens and caramelins form faster. Since caramelans, caramelens and caramelins are
brown in colour, as more form, the colour of the solution becomes darker, increasing the
absorbance at 620nm.

6 ArnoldJun, B. (2019, July 10). The Working Principle of Colorimeters. Retrieved from

https://www.azosensors.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=324
7 Colorimeter. paimaihui.info/colorimeter-labelled-diagram/colorimeter-labelled-diagram-

elegant-colorimeter/.
8 (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://life.nthu.edu.tw/~labcjw/BioPhyChem/Spectroscopy/beerslaw.htm
9 What is spectrophotometry and application of it? (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.quora.com/What-is-spectrophotometry-and-application-of-it

3
4: Methodology
4.1: Apparatus
Table 1. List of apparatus with quantity and uncertainty
Apparatus Quantity Uncertainty
Boiling tubes 30 -
Colorimeter and cuvette 1 ±0.01 units
3
100 cm measuring cylinder 1 ±1 cm3
50 cm3 measuring cylinder 1 ±0.5 cm3
3
10 cm measuring cylinder ±0.2 cm3
5 cm3 pipette 1 ±0.05 cm3
Tongs 1 -
Bunsen burner 1 -
3
100 cm beaker 6 -
3
400 cm beaker 1 -
Digital balance 1 ±0.001 g
Glass stirring rod 1 -

4.2: Preparation of Chemical Solutions

1. Saturated sucrose solution (300cm3):
White granulated sugar was dissolved in 300cm3 of distilled water till the
solution was saturated. The solution was considered saturated when sugar
crystals formed on a glass rod introduced into the solution.
2. Citric acid and sucrose solutions (50cm3 each of 0.05moldm-3, 0.10moldm-3,
0.15moldm-3, 0.20moldm-3 and 0.25moldm-3):
Sample preparation (0.1 moldm-3)
𝑀! = 210.14𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 !!
𝑐 = 0.10 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚!!
𝑣 = 50 𝑐𝑚! = 0.05 𝑑𝑚!
𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣 = 0.005 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚 = 𝑛𝑀 ≈ 1.05𝑔
1.05g of citric acid crystals, measured using a digital balance, were dissolved
in 50cm3 of saturated sucrose solution (Prepared above as solution 1). The
calculations and process was repeated for each 0.05moldm-3, 0.15moldm-3,
0.20moldm-3 and 0.25 moldm-3.

4.3: Variables
1. Independent variable – Concentration of citric acid in sucrose solution.
On average, lemon juice contains 0.3moldm-3 citric acid10. While making caramel, the
lemon juice is further diluted. This is why a range of 0.00moldm-3 to 0.25moldm-3
citric acid was used. The independent variable was varied by measuring a fixed mass
of citric acid using a digital balance and then dissolving it into the required amount of
saturated sucrose solution to make the dilution needed.
2. Dependent variable – Absorbance of caramel formed at 620nm.
3. Control variables –

10 Penniston, K. L., Nakada, S. Y., Holmes, R. P., & Assimos, D. G. (2008). Quantitative

Assessment of Citric Acid in Lemon Juice, Lime Juice, and Commercially-Available Fruit
Juice Products. Journal of Endourology,22(3), 567-570. doi:10.1089/end.2007.0304

4
Table 2. Control variables, their effect on the experiment and how they were controlled
Variable Effect on experiment How it was controlled
1 Heating time If the solutions are not heated A stopwatch was used to make
for the same amount of time, sure all the solutions were heated
the amount of brown pigments for 2 minutes. After 2 minutes, the
produced cannot be compared tube was removed from the heat
fairly. As time is increased, and 5cm3 of distilled water was
absorbance increases. added to cool the solution and
stop the reaction.

2 Concentration of Higher sucrose concentration The same stock solution of

sucrose causes more brown pigments sucrose was used for all trials.
to be formed, resulting in a
higher absorbance.

3 Temperature Higher temperature increases While the temperature could not

the rate of reaction, causing a be exactly monitored, all the
higher absorbance value. boiling tubes were heated over a
Bunsen burner in the centre of the
flame.

4 Volume of Larger volumes of solution 5cm3 of each solution was

solution used take longer to heat to the same measured using a graduated
temperature. This means that a pipette for every trial.
higher volume will result in a
lower absorbance value.

5 Container used Different materials and All trials were done in glass
for heating thicknesses of containers will boiling tubes covered with foil.
result in different amounts of
heat energy being transferred
to the solution.

6 Volume of cool Adding more water reduces the 5cm3 of distilled water was added
water added to absorbance. to each solution so that the
solution after dilution was always 1:1.
heating

4.4: Procedure
1. The solutions were prepared as instructed in section 4.2 so as to have 50cm3 each of
saturated sucrose (sugar) solution having concentrations of citric acid – 0.00moldm-3,
0.05moldm-3, 0.10moldm-3, 0.15moldm-3, 0.20moldm-3 and 0.25moldm-3.
2. 5cm3 of the 0.00moldm-3 citric acid sucrose solution was measured using a 5cm3
graduated pipette and added to a boiling tube.
3. The tube was covered with foil and heated over a Bunsen burner, using tongs, for 2
minutes, measured by a stopwatch.

5
 4. After 2 minutes, the tube was removed from the flame and 5cm3 of cool distilled
water was added to the tube. This was then mixed gently and left to cool. The water
cools the solution and prevents it from solidifying.
5. Steps 2 – 4 were repeated 4 times for a total of 5 trials.
6. Steps 2 – 5 were repeated for each concentration. Now, a total of 30 solutions, 5 for
each of the 6 concentrations, were prepared.
7. The colorimeter was calibrated by placing a clean cuvette filled with distilled water
into the machine and setting the absorbance at 620nm to 0.00.
8. The absorbance of each of the 30 solutions from step 6 was now recorded using the
colorimeter.

4.5: Risk Assessment

1. Safety issues:
a. The boiling tube was held using a test tube holder while heating since it was
hot and would cause burns.
b. The reaction was extremely vigorous, and the solution spit out of the boiling
tube while heating. The tubes were pointed away from the face (and others in
the lab) and were covered with foil. The tubes were moved slowly in and out
of the flame to ensure even, gradual heating.
2. Ethical issues:
a. Sugar was used in the experiment. The wastage was kept to a minimum since
it is a food item and could be used for consumption by people.
3. Environmental issues: There were no significant environmental issues.

5: Data Collection
5.1: Raw Data
Primary Data
Table 3. Variation of absorbance of the solution at 620nm with change in the concentration of
citric acid in the solution
Citric acid concentration / Absorbance at 620 nm (± 0.01 units)
moldm-3 (±0.003moldm-3) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01
0.05 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.04
0.10 0.07 0.09 0.05 0.02 0.06
0.15 0.18 0.18 0.13 0.17 0.19
0.20 0.26 0.24 0.14 0.28 0.22
0.25 0.65 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.82
Justification of uncertainties:
1. An uncertainty of ±0.003moldm-3 was taken for the concentration of citric acid.
Although the uncertainty decreases as the concentration of citric acid decreases, the
maximum uncertainty (at 0.25moldm-3) was taken so that the resulting graph is more
precise.
Calculations:
∆𝑚 = 0.001𝑔 𝑚 = 2.630𝑔
!
∆𝑣 = 0.5𝑐𝑚 𝑣 = 50𝑐𝑚!
! !
𝑐 = ! = !"
∆! ∆! !.!!" !.!
∆𝑐 = 𝑐 ! + ! = 0.25 !.!"# + !" = 2.595×10!! ≈ 0.003𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚!!
2. An uncertainty of ±0.01 was taken for the absorbance at 620nm since the least count
of the colorimeter is 0.01 and it is a digital device.

6
Table 4. Qualitative data
Citric acid concentration /
Observation
moldm-3 (±0.003moldm-3)
0.00 No visible reaction occurred.
Solution boiled gently.
0.05 Solution boiled gently.
Gradual colour-change from colourless to pale yellow in last
30 seconds of reaction.
0.10 Solution boiled fast.
Bubbles rose moderately.
More noticeable colour-change than 0.05 moldm-3.
0.15 Small bubbles rose fast.
The solution spit up to the top of the test tube and fizzing
sounds were heard.
The colour changed rapidly in the last minute of the reaction.
A nutty smell was observed at the end of the reaction.
0.20 Larger bubbles rose very quickly.
Spitting and fizzing occurred.
Colour-change to deep amber colour.
Nutty, burnt smell.
0.25 Very vigorous reaction with lots of bubbling and spitting.
Burnt smell.
Black particles spit from the solution and coat the sides of the
boiling tube.
Fig 4. Image showing solutions after heating over Bunsen burner for 2 minutes

(Left to right: control (0.00moldm-3), 0.05moldm-3, 0.10moldm-3, 0.15moldm-3, 0.20moldm-3,

0.25moldm-3)

Secondary Data
Table 5. Table showing citric acid concentration and initial pH of solution.
Citric acid concentration / moldm-3 pH*
0.00 7.00
0.05 2.24
0.10 2.08
0.15 1.99
0.20 1.93
0.25 1.88
*
pH of the solution was calculated from citric acid concentration using an online calculator11.

11 “PH Calculator: Calculate PH of a Solution.” Sensorex, 27 Jan. 2020, sensorex.com/ph-

calculator/.

7
5.2: Processed Data
Table 6. Variation of average absorbance at 620nm with change in the concentration of citric
acid in the solution
Citric acid concentration / moldm-3 Absorbance at 620 nm
(±0.003moldm-3) Uncertainty
Maximum Minimum Average
(±)
0.00 0.02 0.01 0.012 0.005
0.05 0.06 0.02 0.036 0.020
0.10 0.09 0.02 0.058 0.035
0.15 0.19 0.13 0.170 0.030
0.20 0.28 0.14 0.228 0.070
0.25 1.00 0.65 0.892 0.175
-3
Sample calculations (from row 0.20moldm ):
!.!"!!.!"!!.!"!!.!"!!.!!
• Average absorbance at 620 nm = !
= 0.228
!"#!!"# !.!"!!.!"
• Uncertainty = !
= !
= ±0.070

6: Analysis
Graph 1. Variation of average absorbance at 620nm with a change in the concentration of
citric acid in solution
1.2
Average absorbance at 620nm

0.8 y = 0.0131e16.089x
R² = 0.97779
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Citric acid concentration/moldm-3

Graph 1 displays an exponential relationship in the form 𝑦 = 0.0131𝑒 !".!"#! between the
two variables. To understand this further, a graph of ln y (average absorbance at 620 nm)
against x (citric acid concentration) has been plotted.

Table 7. Table showing variation of logarithmic values of y with a change in x, along with
uncertainties
x/moldm-3 ln y Uncertainty (∆ln y)
0.00 -4.423 0.700
0.05 -3.324 1.000
0.10 -2.847 1.000
0.15 -1.772 0.400
0.20 -1.478 0.700
0.25 -0.114 0.400

8
Sample calculations (taken from row 0.00):
• ln y = ln 0.012 ≈ -4.423
• ∆ln y = ln (max ÷ min) = ln 2 ≈ 0.7

Graph 2. Logarithmic graph of average absorbance at 620 nm (y) and concentration of citric
acid (x)
1

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
-1

-2
ln y

y = 16.09x - 4.3376
R² = 0.97781
-3

-4

-5

-6
x/moldm-3

Graph 2 displays a positive correlation between concentration of citric acid in sugar solution
and the natural logarithm of average absorbance at 620 nm. The linear trend line passes
through all the error bars, indicating that the data collected is reliable. The high R-squared
value of approximately 0.978 shows that a linear equation is suitable to analyse this data. It
also implies an extremely strong correlation between the two variables since the value is
almost equal to one.

Although the trend line passes through all the error bars, some of the error bars show
significant overlap. Notably, there is overlap between the error bars at 0.05 moldm-3 and 0.10
moldm-3, and those at 0.15 moldm-3 and 0.20 moldm-3. To verify whether the positive
correlation between the two variables is statistically significant, a one-way ANOVA
(Analysis of Variance) test was conducted on the raw data.

Fig 5. Results of one-way ANOVA test12 on raw data from table 3

Since the p-value is less than 0.05, the results of this experiment can be considered
significant, and the alternate hypothesis can be accepted with 95% confidence.

12 “ANOVA Calculator: One-Way Analysis of Variance Calculator.” Good Calculators: Free

Online Calculators, goodcalculators.com/one-way-anova-calculator/.

9
Graph 3. Variation of initial pH with increasing concentrations of citric acid
2.5

y = -1.74x + 2.285
1.5 R² = 0.94001
Initial pH

0.5

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Citric acid concentration/moldm-3

Graph 3 shows the change in pH with a change in citric acid concentration, plotted from the
secondary data in table 5. The graph shows that as citric acid concentration increases, pH
decreases, i.e., hydrogen ion concentration increases.

7: Explanation
Graphs 1 and 2 show that there is an exponential positive correlation between citric acid
concentration and absorbance of the sucrose solution at 620nm after two minutes of heating.
This implies that as citric acid concentration increases, the rate of reaction increases, and the
amount of caramelans, caramelens and caramelins present in the solution after 2 minutes
increases.

Since citric acid is a weak acid, the dissociation of citric acid in aqueous solution is given by
a reversible equation. Thus, as the concentration of citric acid increases, due to Le Chatelier’s
principle, the concentration of H+ ions in solution also increases. As a result, the amount of
dissociated H+ ions available to catalyse the inversion of sucrose reaction also increases.

When the H+ ion concentration is high, the first reaction in the caramelisation process, the
inversion of sucrose, reaches equilibrium faster. Therefore, as the concentration of citric acid
increases, the rate of caramelisation becomes faster. When the rate of reaction is faster, more
products are formed in the same two-minute time interval. As the products formed
(caramelens, caramelans and caramelins) are brown pigments, the absorbance of the solution
increases.

As seen in graph 3, the pH of the solution is linearly proportional to citric acid concentration,
and the two have a negative correlation. Since pH is a logarithmic scale, the linear reduction
in pH with increasing citric acid concentration implies that as citric acid concentration
increases, the concentration of H+ ions increases exponentially. This could explain why the
relation between the rate of caramelisation, measured by the absorbance at 620 nm after two
minutes of heating, and citric acid concentration is exponential.

10
8: Conclusion
Research Question: How does changing the concentration of citric acid in sucrose
solution (0.00moldm-3, 0.05moldm-3, 0.10moldm-3, 0.15moldm-3, 0.20moldm-3,
0.25moldm-3) affect the colour of caramel formed from the solution, as measured by
absorbance of the solution at 620 nm after heating over Bunsen burner for 2 minutes?

This investigation shows that as the concentration of citric acid increases from 0.00 moldm-3
to 0.25 moldm-3, the rate of caramelisation increases exponentially. The colour of the reaction
solution, measured by the absorbance of the solution at 620 nm, becomes exponentially
darker. The variation in colour was significant and even noted in the qualitative data.

The alternate hypothesis (H1) is accepted: as the concentration of citric acid increases, the
absorbance of sucrose solution at 620 nm after two minutes of heating increases. The
ANOVA test proved that the results of the investigation are statistically significant, and the
alternate hypothesis can be reliably accepted.

Studies by Tsai et al.13 indicate that disaccharide solutions with high sugar concentration
(about 40%) can exhibit antioxidant capacity at low pH and therefore form darker caramels at
low pH while monosaccharide solutions with high sugar concentration exhibit antioxidant
capacity at high pH. This supports the results of this experiment, as here a saturated solution
of sucrose was used, which is a highly concentrated disaccharide sugar solution.

9: Evaluation
9.1: Strengths
1. A large number of trials (5 trials) were taken for each concentration of citric acid,
ensuring that the resultant data was reliable.
2. The linear graph has a high R-squared value of 0.978, indicating a strong correlation
between the two variables.
3. The best-fit line in graph 2 passes through all the points or error bars, indicating that
the data is accurate and that there was minimal random error.

9.2: Weaknesses
Table 8. Weaknesses in the experiment along with improvements
Weakness Effect on experiment Improvement
1 Although the test tubes were The volume of the solution in A larger heating vessel,
covered with foil, some the boiling tube decreased by for example a conical
solution still spit out during the spitting, thus causing an flask, could be used.
heating. increase in the rate of reaction.
2 For the higher This means that the solution The solutions could be
concentrations, the was too optically dense to take diluted again to further
absorbance values were an accurate reading. disperse the brown
equal to 1. pigments.

13 Tsai, Pi-Jen, et al. “Interactive Role of Color and Antioxidant Capacity in Caramels.” Food

Research International, vol. 42, no. 3, 2009, pp. 380–386.,

doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2009.01.006.

11
 3 In graph 1, the trend line does not This means that the value at 0.20 More readings
pass through all the error bars. moldm-3 was not accurate. could be taken
and only
concurrent
values be used
to plot the
graph.
4 In graph 2, the error bars for 0.05 This indicates the two points may More trials
moldm-3 and 0.10 moldm-3 not be significantly statistically could reduce
overlap more than 50%. different. The values are not random error
precise. and increase
precision.
5 Although a correlation could be The investigation is limited to a
drawn between citric acid correlation between caramel
concentration and caramel colour and citric acid
colour, the concentration of concentration, rather than a
product formed could not be correlation between the actual
calculated using Beer-Lambert’s concentrations of the products
law since the molar extinction formed which would be a more
coefficient of caramelan, reliable method of gaging the
caramelen and caramelin is not effect of citric acid on the
known. reaction.

10: Extension
This experiment could be repeated using different types of sugar, for example caster sugar,
white sugar, brown sugar, demerara sugar and cane sugar to see whether the amount of
processing of the sugar and molasses concentration in the sugar contributes to the rate of
caramelisation of sugar. Alternately, caramelisation of sucrose at different temperatures or
pH could be investigated since these are two important factors contributing to the rate of
reactions.

In addition to further investigation into caramelisation, other browning reactions in cooking

such as the maillard reaction between sugars and amino acids could be explored.

11: Bibliography

“ANOVA Calculator: One-Way Analysis of Variance Calculator.” Good Calculators: Free

Online Calculators, goodcalculators.com/one-way-anova-calculator/.

ArnoldJun, B. (2019, July 10). The Working Principle of Colorimeters. Retrieved from
https://www.azosensors.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=324

Brown, C., & Ford, M. (2014). Higher level chemistry. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education.

Colorimeter. paimaihui.info/colorimeter-labelled-diagram/colorimeter-labelled-diagram-
elegant-colorimeter/.

Miller, D. D. (2014). Food chemistry: A laboratory manual. New Delhi: Wiley.

12
(n.d.). Retrieved from
http://life.nthu.edu.tw/~labcjw/BioPhyChem/Spectroscopy/beerslaw.htm

Penniston, K. L., Nakada, S. Y., Holmes, R. P., & Assimos, D. G. (2008). Quantitative
Assessment of Citric Acid in Lemon Juice, Lime Juice, and Commercially-Available Fruit
Juice Products. Journal of Endourology,22(3), 567-570. doi:10.1089/end.2007.0304

“PH Calculator: Calculate PH of a Solution.” Sensorex, 27 Jan. 2020, sensorex.com/ph-

calculator/.

Roemer, Ewald, et al. “Scientific Assessment of the Use of Sugars as Cigarette Tobacco
Ingredients: A Review of Published and Other Publicly Available Studies.” Critical
Reviews in Toxicology, vol. 42, no. 3, 2012, pp. 244–278.,
doi:10.3109/10408444.2011.650789.

Tsai, Pi-Jen, et al. “Interactive Role of Color and Antioxidant Capacity in Caramels.” Food
Research International, vol. 42, no. 3, 2009, pp. 380–386.,
doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2009.01.006.

What is spectrophotometry and application of it? (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.quora.com/What-is-spectrophotometry-and-application-of-it

What is the equilibrium constant of citric acid?: Socratic. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-the-equilibrium-constant-of-citric-acid

13