Microprocessor

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 Microprocessors
 Informally, a microprocessor (µP) is the “brain” of a
computer that has been implemented on one
semiconductor chip.
 More precisely, a microprocessor is a single-chip central
processing unit (CPU) for a programmable computer.
 A CPU may be considered to be the “brain” of a computer
because it “understands” and “executes” the sequence of
binary instructions in a compiled computer program.
 Compared to the CPU, the other parts of a computer are
relatively “dumb” and require detailed attention from the
CPU in order to function properly in the computer system.

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 Applications of Microprocessors
 Microprocessors can be found just about everywhere:
 In general-purpose computers, like mainframes, personal
computers (PCs), and single-board computers (SBCs).
 In special-purpose computers, like calculators, personal data
assistants (PDAs), and game computers.
 In embedded computers that control automobiles,
appliances, instruments, communication systems, cell
phones, factories, assembly lines, refineries and etc.
 Ex. In a car: Microprocessors are used in the ignition
system, emission control system, anti-lock brakes,
dashboard display, entertainment system, navigation
system, etc. Modern cars often contain 20 or more
microprocessors.
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 Microprocessors History
 The microprocessor became possible only after integrated
circuit technology had advanced to the point where several
thousand transistor switches could be integrated onto a
single semiconductor “chip”.
 The Intel 4004 (1971) was the first microprocessor:
 originally developed for a desktop calculator product
 contained 2300 transistors
 occupied a silicon area of 12 mm2
 implemented in 10 µm PMOS semiconductor technology
 data bus was 4 bits wide
 640 bytes of data could be addressed
 system clock run at a frequency of 108 KHz
 could perform roughly 60000 operations per second 4
 Microprocessors History (cont.)

Intel 4004

Was Intel's first

microprocessor. It contained
2,300 transistors and was
built using a 10 micron
process. It had a total of 16
pins.

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 Microprocessors History (cont.)
 The Intel Itanium entered mass production in 2001:
 intended for high-end servers and workstations
 contains 25.4 million transistors
 silicon chip area exceeds 300 mm2
 180 nm CMOS semiconductor technology
 6 layers of metal interconnections
 1012 chip pad connections
 64-bit data bus; 64-bit address bus; 64-bit registers
 memory space of over 18 terabytes (264 = 18.45 x 1018).
 system clock frequency of at least 800 MHz
 peak performance of 3.2 billion instructions per second

 The pace of technological progress shows no signs of

slowing down in the immediate years ahead . . . 6
 Microprocessors History (cont.)

Pentium 4

42 million transistors and

circuit lines of 0.18 microns.
Intel's first microprocessor,
the 4004, ran at 108 kilohertz
(108,000 hertz), compared
to the Pentium 4 processor's
initial speed of 1.5 gigahertz
(1.5 billion hertz).

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 Microprocessors Revolution
 The appearance of the microprocessor revolutionized digital
system design starting in the 1970s, and continuing on until the
present day.
 The main advantages of the microprocessor:
 Programmability: Sophisticated functions can be provided
relatively easily in software.
 Performance: Advances in integrated circuit technology are
leading to faster and more “powerful” microprocessors.
 Cost-effectiveness: Microprocessors, because they are multi-
purpose, are manufactured in large quantities, which tends to
minimize their unit cost.
 Reliability: Integrated circuits are highly-reliable, solid state
devices. Microprocessors have no moving parts.
 Compactness: More and more functionality can be packed onto
a single microprocessor/microcontroller chip.
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Basic Microprocessors System
Central Processing Unit
Arithmetic-
Control
Logic
Unit
ProcessingUnit
Input Data into Output
Devices Information
Primary Storage Devices
Unit
Keyboard Monitor
Mouse Printer
Touch Screen
Voice...
Disks, Tapes, Optical Disks

Secondary Storage Devices 9

Basic Microprocessors System (cont.)
 A basic microprocessor system consists of the
microprocessor core, memory, input/output modules, and
a system bus connecting these modules.
 The memory system usually consists of Read Only
Memory (ROM) for boot information, and Random Access
Memory (RAM) organized in a hierarchy of main memory
and multilevel cache memory.
 Typically, the cache memory is implemented as level 1
cache closely coupled to the microprocessor core, and
level 2 cache accessible over the system bus.
 The main memory, typically DDR SDRAM, is accessible
over the system bus as well, but level 2 cache (embedded
SRAM) offers higher access speed.
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Basic Microprocessors System (cont.)

 The microprocessor core contains a datapath section

(ALU and registers), a control section, and cache
memory.
 Memory access rate varies according to the memory
hierarchy from 1 cycle access rate to registers and level
1 cache, to 10 cycles access rate to level 2 cache, up to
50 cycles access rate to main memory.
 These are typical values and may vary from system to
system.

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 Type Of Microprocessors

 Computers based on a CPU with a complex instruction

set known as CISC (Complex Instruction Set
Computer) microprocessor
 Intel

 A RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) has

limited set of instructions that it can perform quickly
 AMD

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 The Embedded Processor
 A programmable processor whose programming interface is
not accessible to the end-user of the product.
 The only user-interaction is through the actual application.
 Examples:
 Sharp PDA’s are encapsulated products with fixed
functionality.
 3COM Palm pilots were originally intended as embedded
systems. Opening up the programmers interface turned
them into more generic computer systems.

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 Disadvantages of Microprocessors
 Microprocessors have many complex features.
Numerous features are provided to satisfy a wide
variety of users.
 Microprocessors are completely unforgiving when
program errors are made. They will execute exactly
what is in the program, and have no “common sense”
or “intuition” about what the designer intended the
program to do.
 Debugging tools for microprocessor assembly
language programs are usually primitive compared to
the tools available for programs in high-level
languages.
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 Microprocessors Related Terms
 A “microcomputer” is a computer system that has been built
around a microprocessor chip.
 A “microcontroller” is an integrated circuit that contains a
microprocessor as well as other useful support circuits,
such at timers, memory, input/output interface circuits, etc.
 The EE380 lab microcomputer system contains the
Motorola MC68332 microcontroller chip.
 A “digital signal processor” (DSP) is a specialized
microprocessor that has features (e.g. instructions,
registers, internal signal paths, arithmetic circuits) that make
it particularly efficient at performing the kinds of numerically
intensive calculations that are required in digital signal
processing (e.g. in modems and cell phones)
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 Microprocessors Families
 Microprocessor manufacturers tend to release microprocessors
in families of increasing complexity and performance
 Intel Corp.:
 4004 (1971), 8008 (‘72), 8080 (‘74)
 x86 family: 8086 (‘78), 8088 (‘79), 80186 (‘82), 80286 (‘82), 80386
(‘85), 80486 (‘89), Pentium (‘93), Pentium II (‘97), Pentium III (‘99),
Pentium 4 (2000), Xeon (2001)
 IA-64 family: Itanium (2000),
 Motorola, Inc.:
 6800 family: 6800 (1974), 6809 (‘79), 68HC11 (‘84)
 M68000 family: 68000 (1979), 68010 (‘82), 68020 (‘84), 68030
(‘87), 68040 (‘89), 68332 (‘89), Power PC
 Microprocessor families make it easier to carry software over
from an older µP to the latest µP. “Upward compatibility” is an
important strategy for building customer loyalty. 16