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Amazon Assessment
Report 2021

Executive Summary

Part I | The Amazon as a Regional Entity of the Earth System

Chapter 1: Geology and geodiversity of the Amazon: Three billion years of history

This chapter explores how geodiversity evolved over three billion years of history. It shows
that periods of continental breakup followed by mountain building ultimately led to the
fundamental physiographic subdivisions of the Amazon, and a wealth of landscapes, soils, ore
deposits, oil and gas reserves, and freshwater aquifers. Data on the Amazon’s geodiversity
support a central theme of the environmental sciences, that the formation of most natural
resources (like rare-earth ores, hydrocarbons, freshwater aquifers, and fertile soils) requires
natural processes to operate undisturbed over immense periods of geological time and across
broad spatial domains.

Chapter 2: Evolution of Amazonian biodiversity

This chapter reviews the evolutionary history of the Amazon’s terrestrial and riverine
ecosystems, involving geological and climatic events operating over millions of years and
across the whole of continental South America. The chapter discusses the important roles of
geographic barriers, habitat heterogeneity, climate change, and species interactions in
generating and maintaining the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth. This unique history
produced heterogeneous environments and diverse habitats at multiple geographic scales,
which altered the connections between populations and allowed for the accumulation of the
most diverse biota on Earth.

Chapter 3: Biological diversity and ecological networks in the Amazon

This chapter provides an overview of biodiversity in the Amazon, discusses the reasons why
this region is so rich in species and ecosystems, and outlines some outstanding ecological
processes that make the Amazon an icon of the natural world. Featured terrestrial and aquatic
taxonomic groups illustrate how much we know about diversity in the Amazon, and more
importantly, how much we still do not know. A clear understanding of biodiversity levels and
their spatial and temporal variations is crucial to understanding future stability under different
climate change, land use change, forest fragmentation, and deforestation scenarios and
informing conservation and restoration efforts.

Chapter 4: Amazonian ecosystems and their ecological functions

This chapter describes the diversity of plants and ecosystems in the lowland Amazon and
discusses how complex regional gradients in climate and soil conditions drive regional
variability in species composition, vegetation dynamics, carbon stocks, and productivity. The

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Chapter 5: The Physical hydroclimate system of the Amazon

This chapter reviews the main features and large- to mesoscale mechanisms that contribute to
the Amazon’s climate, its inter-annual and inter-decadal variability, and extreme drought and
flood events. It examines the effects of extreme events on vegetation and the partitioning of
precipitation into evapotranspiration (ET), runoff, flow seasonality, and floodplain dynamics;
and describes the floodplain´s role in the biogeochemical cycle.

Chapter 6: Biogeochemical Cycles in the Amazon

This chapter summarizes the cycles of three key biogeochemical elements, carbon, nitrogen
and phosphorus, with a focus on carbon, spanning both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in
Amazon. The chapter also examines the emissions of two key trace gases which make
substantial contributions to radiative warming, methane and dinitrogen oxide, and summarizes
trace gas and aerosol emissions from the Amazon and their impact on atmospheric pollution,
cloud properties, and water cycling.

Cross Chapter 1: The Amazon Carbon Budget

The main objective of this cross-chapter is to summarize the status of the Amazon as a source
or sink of carbon (C). The processes and studies involved are detailed in other SPA chapters.
The major challenge of determining the Amazon’s status as a net C source or sink at a
continental scale is that many com-plex processes contribute to C fluxes.

Chapter 7: Biogeophysical Cycles: Water Recycling, Climate Regulation

This chapter assesses biogeophysical interactions between the Amazon rainforest and the
climate. A historical perspective is presented, highlighting breakthroughs which improved our
understanding of the mechanisms by which the rainforest interacts with the atmosphere.

Chapter 8: Peoples of the Amazon before European Colonization

Archaeology tells us how Indigenous peoples transformed nature in the Amazon over the
millennia to the point that it is difficult to separate natural from cultural patrimony there
today. It also shows that any kind of sustainable future for the region has to consider the rich
Indigenous heritage manifested in archaeological sites and contemporary landscapes, and the
contemporary knowledge of traditional societies.

Chapter 9: Peoples of the Amazon and European colonization (16th-18th centuries)

This chapter covers the history of the Amazon between the 16th and 18th centuries, including
myths that originated at that time and persist into the present, influencing political and social
relations. It also highlights the main actors involved in this process and their narratives.
Finally, it shows how the extraction of natural resources has been accompanied by the
subjugation and exploitation of the workforce and the development of multiple forms of
domination and extermination, especially of Indigenous peoples, since the era of European
conquest.

Chapter 10: Critical interconnections between the cultural and biological diversity of
Amazonian peoples and ecosystems

This chapter explores the Amazon’s biocultural diversity, focusing on IPLCs’ worldviews,
knowledge systems, livelihood strategies, and governance regimes. It synthesizes the main
social and political processes that have led to the formal recognition of IPLCs’ lands and/or
territories across the Amazon. The chapter highlights IPLCs’ critical role in using, shaping,
conserving, and restoring Amazonian ecosystems and biodiversity, despite historic ongoing
processes including violence, displacement, and conflicts between conservation and
development agendas.

Chapter 11: Economic drivers in the Amazon from the 19th century to the 1970s

This chapter identifies the main economic processes that occurred in the Brazilian, Andean,
and Guyanese Amazon from the 19th century until the 1970s. Specifically, the chapter
describes the history of extractivism and the effects of geopolitical reconfiguration on the
Amazon after the process of emancipation or decolonization. It analyzes the extraction
of quina barks (species of the genus Chinchona, Rubiaceae) and rubber (Hevea brasiliensis,
Euphorbiacae), as well as the resulting characteristics and practices developed by social actors
related to the local and regional economy. It also describes the history and emergence of

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exploitation of oil and minerals (mainly gold), including the beginning of wildlife trafficking
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Chapter 12: Languages the Amazon:
This chapter covers the extraordinary Indigenous linguistic diversity of the Amazon region,
including its different dimensions: the existence of a relatively large number of languages in
the region; how these languages are related to each other, representing an impressive
genealogical diversity; geographical distribution over different Amazonian subregions; the
effects of language contact that have resulted in several linguistic areas; different levels of
endangerment and the social circumstances that contribute to it; and, finally, what is lost when
languages disappear.

Chapter 13: African Presence in the Amazon: A Glance

This chapter provides evidence on the importance of African descendants in the construction
of the Amazon and other tropical areas in the Americas, and highlights their importance for
long-lasting sustainable development strategies in the region. It looks at both the cultural
exchange and socio-historic perspectives, emphasizing land settlement patterns, natural
resource use, and management practices. It focuses mostly on Brazil, Suriname, and
Colombia, and emphasizes the importance of eliminating the invisibility of African
descendant peoples in academic research and policy.

Part II | Social-Ecological Transformations: Changes in the

Amazon

Chapter 14: Amazon in Motion: Changing politics, development strategies, peoples,

landscapes, and livelihoods

This chapter presents the major ideas, actors, and practices that have shaped the Amazon’s
current development and deforestation dynamics. Outlining general periods of macro policy, it
traces the evolution of today’s complex interactions among diverse livelihoods, conservation,
and production systems, both legal and clandestine. It highlights how Amazonians have
continuously adapted to changing circumstances while fighting to advance their own
proposals for conservation and equity in development.

Chapter 15: Complex, diverse, and changing agribusiness and livelihood systems in the
Amazon

This chapter focuses on recent changes in the structure of systems of production in the
Amazon, exploring their implications for the region’s environment and society. It also
highlights local responses to these challenges, and opportunities for more sustainable
production systems. An in-depth quantitative case study on the Brazilian Amazon is
presented.

Chapter 16: The state of conservation policies, protected areas, and Indigenous territories,
from the past to the present

Two management classifications are the cornerstone of Amazonian conservation: protected

areas and Indigenous territories. This chapter focuses on the historical processes, starting in
the 1960s, that led to their creation, as well as the contemporary challenges they face and their
importance for conservation.

Chapter 17: Globalization, extractivism and social exclusion: Threats and opportunities to
Amazon governance in Brazil

From the 1970s on, the Amazon experienced its deepest transformation, becoming a
commodity and energy provider for both domestic and international markets, through
extraction of natural resources. Living conditions barely improved, and social conflict and
violence became widespread, particularly affecting Indigenous peoples and local
communities. Conservation efforts also became globalized and achieved significant results.
Brazil’s 84% reduction in deforestation from 2005-2012, based on an integrated strategy with
high political priority, provides an important case study that can support future policies across
the basin. These gains were reversed in recent years, and unsustainable extractivist policies
generally prevailed over conservation and the sustainable use of biodiversity in the whole
Amazon basin (Chapter 18).

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Chapter 18: Globalization, extractivism, and social exclusion: Country-specific manifestations

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public policies (Peru, Bolivia and Venezuela). The Brazilian experience reducing
deforestation is presented in Chapter 17.

Chapter 19: Drivers and ecological impacts of deforestation and forest degradation

This chapter discusses the main drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in the Amazon,
particularly agricultural expansion, road construction, mining, oil and gas development, forest
fires, edge effects, logging, and hunting. It also examines these activities’ impacts and
synergies between them.

Chapter 20: Drivers and impacts of changes in aquatic ecosystems

Amazonian aquatic ecosystems are being destroyed and threats to their integrity are projected
to grow in number and intensity. Here we present some of the main impacts on aquatic
ecosystems triggered by infrastructure projects and predatory and illegal practices.

Chapter 21: Human well-being and health impacts of the degradation of terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems

Amazonian forests and aquatic ecosystems are the basis for several ecosystem services, all of
which play a crucial role in people’s livelihoods, human well-being, and health. Some of the
most relevant and challenging health problems in the Amazon are associated with
deforestation and degradation of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, including the risk of
contracting infectious diseases, respiratory problems caused by exposure to smoke from
deforestation and forest fires, and mercury contamination caused by gold mining. Here we
demonstrate that environmental degradation affects the health of millions of Amazonians.

Chapter 22: Long-term variability, extremes, and changes in temperature and hydro
meteorology

This chapter describes the observed and projected changes in temperature, river discharge,
and precipitation patterns and extremes in the Amazon region, as well as their impacts and
possible thresholds. The emphasis is on the effect of climactic extremes on biodiversity and
ecological processes.

Chapter 23: Impacts of deforestation and climate change on biodiversity, ecological processes,
and environmental adaptation
This chapter presents observed and predicted impacts of climate change on Amazonian
ecosystems, focusing on biodiversity, ecosystem services, carbon cycling, fisheries, and
emissions from biomass burning. It also considers climate and land-use change feedbacks and
highlights knowledge gaps to better understand these complex interactions.

Chapter 24: Resilience of the Amazon forest to global changes: Assessing the risk of tipping
points

This chapter reviews and discusses existing evidence of ongoing changes in the Amazon
forest system that may lead to resilience loss and the potential to cross tipping points in which
the ecosystem may shift either gradually or abruptly to a persistent, environmentally degraded
configuration.

Part III | The Solution Space: Finding Sustainable Pathways for

the Amazon

Chapter 25: A Pan-Amazonian sustainable development vision

Developing a clear vision is the central starting point for any action plan. This chapter reviews
the main visions regarding the Amazon and proposes a Living Amazon Vision based on a set
of values, principles, and knowledge systems described throughout the chapter.

Chapter 26: Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Amazon

This chapter discusses the importance and limitations of the five SDG dimensions (People,
Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership) in the Amazonian context. It also discusses the
performance and trends of Amazonian countries in achieving the SDGs.

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Chapter 27: Conservation measures to counter the main threats to Amazonian biodiversity

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ecosystems at different levels. This chapter provides sustainable approaches to address some
of the biggest threats to the Amazon’s biodiversity and ecosystems, i.e., deforestation,
damming of rivers, mining, hunting, illegal trade, drug, production and trafficking, illegal
logging, overfishing, and infrastructure expansion. The role of restoration is addressed in
chapters 28 and 29.

Chapter 28: Restoration options for the Amazon

This chapter examines site-specific opportunities and approaches to restore terrestrial and
aquatic systems, focusing on the local actions and benefits. Landscape and biome-wide
considerations are addressed in Chapter 29.

Chapter 29: Restoration priorities and benefits within landscapes and catchments and across
the Amazon Basin

Restoration can be applied in many different Amazonian contexts, but will be most effective
at leveraging environmental and social benefits when it is prioritized across the Amazon
basin, landscapes, and catchments. Here we outline the considerations that are most relevant
for planning and scaling restoration across the Amazon.

Chapter 30: Opportunities and challenges for a healthy standing forest and flowing rivers
bioeconomy in the Amazon

This chapter highlights the paradox between the Amazon’s extraordinary socio-biodiversity
and its distance from the scientific, technological, and market frontier of the contemporary
bioeconomy. It discusses the current socioeconomic structures available in the region, as well
as challenges and pathways for a transition to a socially-fair and sustainable bioeconomy.

Chapter 31: Strengthening land and natural resource governance and management: Protected
areas, Indigenous lands, and local communities’ territories

Protected areas, Indigenous lands, and local communities’ territories play a critical role in
holding back deforestation, maintaining regional and global climate stability, and – above all
– protecting land rights. Nevertheless, these lands are currently threatened by political and
economic interests that drive land speculation, agribusiness expansion, and illegal logging and
mining, resulting in increasing deforestation rates. Governments are also reassessing and
walking back territorial rights legislation.

Cross Chapter 2: Legacy from the Ancestors: Amazonian Biocultural Landscapes and Global
Sustainability in a Post-COVID-19 World

Here, we provide three examples of Indigenous-led projects promoting sustainable

development of Amazonian biocultural landscapes: the Amazon Sacred Headwaters initiative
in Ecuador-Peru; the Ally Guayusa Cooperative in Ecuador; and the Amazon Hopes
Collective in the Upper Xingu in Brazil.

Chapter 32: Milestones and challenges in the construction and expansion of participatory
intercultural education in the Amazon

This chapter aims to give visibility to participatory intercultural education experiences across
the Amazon region. It starts with an examination of the issues with the general educational
system, and then presents case studies which offer different paths forward. These case studies
reflect not only the importance of participatory education for IPLCs, but also how knowledge
is itself a form of communication and political influence that helps IPLCs guarantee their
rights.

Chapter 33: Connecting and sharing diverse knowledges to support sustainable pathways in
the Amazon

This chapter highlights the under-recognized importance of ILK to conservation and

sustainable development efforts across the Amazon, utilizing the conceptual framework of
public participation in scientific research. It reviews a range of illustrative examples which
articulate ILK and mainstream scientific and technical knowledges in conservation and
development initiatives. We also consider recent policy recommendations and guidelines by
professional associations and civil society organizations.

Chapter 34: Boosting relations between the Amazon forest and its globalizing cities

By providing a brief and non-authoritative analysis of the physical and cultural relations
between rural (forest) and urban areas in the Amazon, we identify several points for

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urban and forest inhabitants.

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